The Structure of Scientific

Revolutions

A book of Thomas S. Kuhn

Reviewed by
Belachew Alemayehu
 Part-1
Introduction

It was believed that the history of science

was linear.

It is an American physicist and historian of

science who turns that understanding on its
head.

In 1962 he published a book called the

structure of scientific revolutions that claim
that the development of scientific discovery
was not linear but cyclical.
 Chapter I - A Role for History

Kuhn begins by formulating the following

assumptions:

1) Activities- based on set of received beliefs.

2) Beliefs- form educational initiation.

3) The "rigorous and rigidness" of normal science

create a "deep hold" on the student's mind.

4) ) Normal science often defeats novelties

because they are revolutionary threat to it.
continued

5) Research is energetic and make devoted

attempt to force novelties to emerge.

6) A shift in professional commitments to

shared assumptions takes place when an
anomaly subverts existing scientific practice.

7) Finally, a scientist's world transformed to

Obey innovations of either fact or theory.
 Chapter II - The Route to
Normal Science

In this chapter, Kuhn describes how paradigms

are created and what they contribute to scientific
inquiry (discipline).

Normal science a research firmly based upon

past scientific achievements. These
achievements can be called paradigms and the
road to a firm research consensus is
extraordinarily arduous (extremely difficult).
Paradigms created and scientific revolutions take
place as follows:

1.Random collection of mere facts & beliefs.

2.Preparadigmatic school/movement appears.

3. Then, one paradigm emerges winning its

competitors.

4.As a paradigm grows in strength and in the

number of advocates, the preparadigmatic
schools fade.

5. And finally paradigm emerges.

 Chapter III - The Nature of
Normal Science
Normal science consists in the actualization of
promise. This is achieved by:

Extending the knowledge of those facts that

the paradigm displays.

Determination of significant facts.

Matching of facts with theory.

Articulation of theory-resolve ambiguities,

refine, permit solution of problems.
 Chapter IV - Normal Science
as Puzzle-solving

Doing research is essentially like solving a

puzzle. Puzzles have rules & predetermined
solutions. So do research.

A striking feature of doing research is that

the aim is to discover what should be known
in advance.

But, When the outcome of a research not

fall into this anticipated result range, it is
considered a failure-significance not obtained.
 Chapter V - The Priority of
Paradigms

For Thomas Kuhn, rules derive from

paradigms and even paradigms can guide
research even in the absence of rules.

Paradigms can determine normal science

without the intervention of discoverable rules
or shared assumptions.

Therefore, Paradigms may come prior to,

more binding and more complete than any
set of rules for research.
 Chapter VI Anomaly & the
Emergence of Scientific
Discoveries
For scientific discoveries to emerge, the
development of the first paradigm leads to:

Anomaly- deviation from the common rule

This bring Fundamental novelties of fact and

theory which resulted in paradigm change.

And these paradigm changes bring

Discovery (novelty of fact) and Invention
(novelty of theory).
.continued

By resisting change, an existing paradigm

guarantees that anomalies that lead to
paradigm change will penetrate new
knowledge to the core.

The more precise and far-reaching that

paradigm is, the more sensitive an indicator
it provides of anomaly and hence of an
occasion for paradigm change.

And this resulted in scientific discoveries.

 Chapter VII - Crisis and the
Emergence of Scientific Theories

In this chapter, Kuhn introduces paradigm

changes that resulted from the invention of
new theories brought by the failure of existing
theory to solve the problems defined by that
theory.

Such failures paves ways for the emergency

of scientific theories/paradigm. Thus, Crises
provide the opportunity for theories to
emerge.
 Chapter VIII
The Response to Crisis

Scientific thought and strategy leads to

successful crisis response:

1. Crisis leads to the eventuality of new

discoveries

3. The crises is reformulated, and left for

more developed tools

4. Paradigm candidacy appears.

5. better Paradigm Emerge as normal science.

 Chapter IX - The Nature and
Necessity of Scientific Revolutions

A scientific revolution is developmental

incident in which an older paradigm is
replaced in whole or in part by an new one.

A scientific revolution that results in

paradigm change is analogous to political
revolutions.
continued

When paradigms change, shifts occur in

the criteria determining the legitimacy
both of problems and of proposed
solutions.

The over all significance of scientific

revolutions are it brings novel ideas and
new Solutions for existing problems.
 Chapter X - Revolutions as
Changes of World View

During scientific revolutions, scientists see new

and different things when looking with familiar
instruments in places they have looked before.

In this stage:
Familiar objects are seen in a different ways

Scientists see new things when looking at old

objects

This difference in view resembles a gestalt

 Chapter XI - The Invisibility of
Revolutions
paradigm shifts not viewed as revolutions but
as additions to scientific knowledge.

Although the history of the field is

represented in the new textbooks that
accompany a new paradigm, a scientific
revolution seems invisible.

While rewriting texts, Scientists disguise not

only the role but the existence and
significance of the revolutions that produced
them.
 Chapter XII - The Resolution of
Revolutions
The emerged paradigm becomes normal
science & revolutions resolved as follows:

The number and strength of the persuasive

arguments in its favor will increase.

More and more scientists are converted;

exploration increases.

The number of experiments, instruments,

articles, and books based on the paradigm will
multiply.
 XIII - Progress Through
Revolutions

o The result of successful creative work is

progress. Progress is an inherent function
within the field of science.
o Progress is subjective. It should be viewed
from a social and a natural perspectives:

1) Social scientists believe in the use of

original sources, the proper evaluation of
alternative solutions, and the selection of
competing paradigms
continued

2) Natural scientists believe in the

effectiveness of textbooks, and they are
systematically substituted for the creative
scientific literature that made them possible

Generally, Individual solutions must satisfy

the needs of the community and The
community must see paradigm change as
progress
 Part-3
The Structure of scientific
revolutions and Ethiopia

Since science is most reliable source of

knowledge in a day-to-day life in a wide
variety of areas in the contemporary world,
Ethiopia also adopted scientific innovation
policies.

For Thomas Kuhns, these innovations

couldnt achieved without developing
paradigm in various aspects.
continued

A normal science which is based on research

has vital role for building a prototype (new
paradigm for Kuhn) and that if successful can
aggravate transformation plan of Ethiopia.

the emergency of new paradigm is promising

for progress through scientific revolution.

For Ethiopia which is scientifically foreign

dependent, scientific revolution is vital.

This resulted in scientific discoveries and

innovations.
 Part-4
Conclusions
Kuhn introduced about the structure of
science.
He stated that the development of science is
cyclical that pass through multiple stages.

As Kuhn point out that the result of

successful creative work is progress.

Thus, if scientifically dependent countries like

Ethiopia start to utilize their scientists in a
proper way, the prevalence of scientific
discoveries will be inevitable.
 Part-5
Recommendations

Science plays a prominent role for the

development of any country.

The prevalence of scientific revolutions

enhances the emergence of new scientific
discoveries that improve quality of life.

Here are the main recommendations I want

to forward:
continued

1. Ethiopias governments devotion to

promote scientific discoveries via 70-30
student enrolment can be considered as a
paradigm shift.

But, without the availability of research-

prototype center as well as balanced
profession-based creative job opportunities,
these young scientists remain idle. So, there
should be wide fields that encourage
discoveries and attract scientific discoveries to
emerge.
2) In order for scientific revolution to develop
and scientific progress to happen different
stake-holders, policy makers should equally
carry out indigenous discoveries as that of
technological discoveries.

3) As we said that science is not linear and it

shift periodically, it is advisable to have up-to-
date knowledge that shift our world view which
is a pre-paradigmatic phase for new ideas and
discoveries.
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