BUILDING TECHNOLOGY REVIEWER
Steel - Henry bessemer invented modern
HISTORY OF BUILDING MATERIALS
Neolithic Revolution - the world first
permanent building was constructed during
neolithic revolution
Bricks - world most famous construction
material
Wooden Hut - oldest recorded evidence of
a timber structure ( 8,500 BCE )
Ancient Egyptians - first civilization to build
structures with stone (granite & limestone)
Around 650 BCE ancient greeks also
began to build structures with stone
Dome Pantheon - constructed in concrete
and worlds largest unreinforced concrete
dome
Glass window - roman invention
Iron - first known use of iron was in late 7th
century china, when tang dynasty
constructed a cast iron pagodas
Iron was rediscovered as a construction
material in 1775 when it was used in the
iron bridge in england
Engineered Timber - first use was in
church of st luke
- Museum of natural History - Otto
hetzer
Abestos - was used first in 1866 as
insulation material
steel making process in 1855
- Eiffel Tower - Alexandre Gustav
1889
PVC - 20th century
Reinforced concrete - invented by joseph
monier in 1849
- Became the material choice of many
modern architects form 1950’s
onward
Float window - made by floating molten
glass
Plastic tensile structure - was used in frei
otto’s design for the west german
pavilion
ETFE (Ethylene Tetrafluoroethylene) -
was used in Eden project and beijing
national aquatics center
The History of Building Materials
Summarized:
Stone Age
The earliest documented materials used for
a “house” was excavated in Europe which
dated around 12,000 BCE used wooden
poles that are assumed to be frames for
animal skins used as walls for a tent.
Bronze Age and early Urban Cultures
people were able to develop a building
material made from mud and formed using
straw with four sides, this materials is what
we call “bricks”, these bricks were made
from sun-drying the mud found along the
aforementioned bodies of water. “ceramic”
where also developed during this time.
Egyptian Civilization
Massive blocks of stones such as
limestone, sandstone, and granite that are
strong and durable were mined and cut by
early Egyptians to construct monumental
structures like Pyramids, mortuaries, and
mastabas.
Greek and Hellenestic cultures
Similar to Egyptian Civilization, Greek and
Hellenestic people also used stones for their
buildings, they used more from local marble
and limestones, since stones available in
their place are not as massive as those in
Egypt
Roman Civilization
Romans contributed the use of concrete as
building material which was derived from
the basic mortar mixture made by sand,
lime and water until 2nd century B.C.E.
when pozzolana was discovered and the
new material called “pulvis puteoli”, natural
cement was then formed with this material.
Romanesque and Gothic Era
During around the 5th century, the Iron Age
started wherein new building technology
was applied in construction.
Renaissance Period
the use of timber trusses with king posts is a
major Roman building technique revived in
this period. The use of clear glass was also
manifested in many Romanesque buildings
which is also called as the “crown glass
method” which is a process handmaking
glass out of soda-lime composition.
The First Industrial Age
at around 18th century, the Industrial
Revolution emerged wherein mass
production of Iron was done to contribute to
the development of machinery which then
lead to the “puddling process” or the
process of production wrought iron in 1769.
The Second Industrial Age
This was the time when steel and electricity
were first used for advancement. Concrete
was then also reformulated adding
powdered brick and pebbles (which soon
evolved into the aggregates we use today)
to the original mixture of lime, sand and
water.
Modern Era
The modern era implies more change in
building technology, most of them aims to
reduce the building construction’s cost.
More research nowadays are being done to
upgrade the building technology with the
common aim which is to make construction
faster and economical.
CONSTRUCTION WASTE

- 30% of a building materials delivered

to a construction site can end up
waste.

- Annual construction waste is

expected to reach 2.2 billion tons
globally by 2025. (Transparency
Market Research)

- More than 75% of all construction

waste from wood, drywall, asphalt
shingles, bricks and clay tiles ends
up in landfills. (EPA)

- Concrete has one of the longest

useful lives among building
materials, but concrete structures
account for the most demolition
projects by far. (Tampere University
of Technology)

FUNDAMENTALS OF INDIGENOUS
BUILDING MATERIALS

Material properties can be defined in many

ways as long as science is concerned.
Oftentimes, building materials are
characterized according to its use or
application, initially, it is classified according
to its properties-in most cases, these
classifications will tell the materials'
strength, durability, toughness, efficiency
and ductility. Generally, building materials
are classified into two -that may be natural
or synthetic. Different classifications of
building materials are further discussed in
the following illustration:

CEMENTING MATERIALS
Lime - one of the oldest manufactured
building materials which is used both as a
mortar and plaster by early civilizations.
- Hydraulic Lime - A type of lime
which will set under water.
- Stalking or Hydration - The process
of mixing quicklime with water during
which water is absorbed and heat is
energetically evolved, driving off
much of the excess water in the form
of steam.
Cement - was first developed by the
Romans by mixing slaked lime with
pozzolana (volcanic ash) which hardened
under the water
Portland Cement - Portland Cement is
made from materials which must contain the
proper proportions of lime, silica, alumina
and iron components.
Blended Cement - not pure portland
cement because pure portland cement is
distributed in bulk.
Special Cements:
White Portland cement – same materials
as normal Portland except in color.
Masonry Cement – designed to produce
better mortar than that made with normal
Portland cement or with a lime-cement
combination.
Air-entraining Portland Cement – small
amounts of this is added to the clinker and
ground with it to produce air-entraining
cements, effective use for resistance to
severe frost.
Oil Well Cement – special Portland cement
used for sealing oil wells.
Waterproofed Portland Cement – normally
produced by adding a small amount of
stearate, usually calcium or aluminum to the
cement clinker during the final grinding.
Alumina cement - Utilizes bauxite, the ore
from which aluminium is made, as the major
raw material and is also known as a
quick-setting cement.
Masonry cements - these are prepared
mixtures of Portland cement with hydrated
lime, granulated slag, silica, etc.
Natural cements - these are cements
made of natural raw materials found mixed
in the correct proportions, needing only
grinding and burning in a kiln to produce a
cement.
Pozzolanic cement - is the type of cement
made of lime mortar and pozzolanic
material.
- Slag cement is a pozzolanic
cement.
Warehouse set occurs from the tendency
of cement at bottom layers to harden due to
the pressure above when cement is stored
in high piles for long periods.
Types of Aggregates Used in Concrete:
Aggregate – sand, gravel crushed stone,
cinder, crushed furnace slag, burned clay,
expanded vermaculite, and perlite.
Sand – found in riverbends, free of salt and
must be washed.
Fine aggregate – smaller than ¼” diameter
stones.
Coarse aggregate – bigger than ¼”
diameter stones.
Concrete:
Concrete – the resulting product when a
large aggregate of more than 6mm (1/4”) in
size is added to cement, water and fine
aggregate.
Reinforced Concrete - concrete
strengthened by having steel embedded in
it.
Plain or Mass Concrete - Concrete without
reinforcement.
CONCRETE MIXES AND ADDITIVES:
Concrete Mixes:
Class “AA” - 1:1 ½ :3 - concrete under
water, retaining walls
Class A - 1:2:4 - footings, columns, beams,
RC slabs
Class B - 1:2 ½:5 - slab on fill, non-bearing
walls
Class C - 1:3:6 - concrete plant boxes, etc.
Control of Concrete Mixes:
Slump Test – when freshly mixed concrete
is checked to ensure that the specified
slump is being attained consistently. A
standard slump cone is 12 inches high
(0.30) and 8 inches (0.20) in diameter at the
bottom and 4 inches (0.10) on top which is
open on both ends.
Compressive Strength Test – common
quality-control test of concrete, based on 7
and 28 day curing periods.
Concrete Additives – materials often
added to the concrete or applied to the
surface of freshly placed concrete to
produce some special result.
Accelerators – an admixture which is used
to speed up the initial set of concrete. Such
a material maybe added to the mix to
increase the rate of early-strength
development for several reasons.
Retarders – to delay or extend the setting
time of the cement paste in concrete.
Air-entraining agents – air-entrained
concrete contains microscopic bubbles of
air formed with the aid of a group of
chemical called surface active agents,
materials that have the property ofreducing
the surface tension of water intended for
use when better resistance to frost action is
concerned.
Concrete Hardeners – applied on concrete
surface to increase hardiness and
toughness.
Waterproofing (permeability-reducing)
compounds – these reduce the capillary
attraction of the voids in the concrete or
mortar.
Colored pigments - are mainly used to
give color to concrete floors.
2 TYPES OF CONCRETE HARDENERS
AND ADMIXTURES:
Chemical Hardeners – liquids containing
silicofluorides or fluosilicates and a wetting
agent which reduces the surface tension of
the liquid and allows it to penetrate the
pores of the concrete more easily.
Fine Metallic Aggregate – are specially
processed and graded iron particles which
are dry-mixed with Portland cement, spread
evenly over the surface of freshly floated
concrete, and worked into the surface by
floating.
Water Reducing Admixtures – material
used to reduce the amount of water
necessary to produce a concrete of given
consistency or to increase the slump for a
given water content.
Damproofers – materials used to reduce or
stop the penetration of moisture through the
concrete. Reduces permeability.
BONDING AGENT:
Paste Slurry – often applied to such an old
surface immediately prior to pouring new
concrete to increase the amount of paste.
2 TYPES OF BONDING AGENTS:
Metallic Aggregate – iron particle are
larger, but with same materials as the
permeability reducer.
Synthetic Latex Emulsion – consists of
highly polymerized synthetic liquid resin
dispersed in water.
Set-Inhibiting Agents – prevent the
cement paste from bonding to the surface
aggregate but will not interfere with the set
throughout the remainder of the pour.
Pozzolanic Admixtures – materials
sometimes used in structures where it s
desirable to avoid high temperature or in
structures exposed to seawater or water
containing sulfates.
WATER - CEMENT - RATIO
The water-cement ratio - the amount of
water used per bag of cement.
Traditional materials used for form
construction are Lumber, Plywood, and
Steel.
METAL REINFORCEMENTS:
Steel Bars or Rods - Reinforcement for
concrete construction is mostly in the form
of steel bars and rods of round or square
cross section.They are called billet-steel
bars or rail-steel bars
Wire Fabric - Wire fabric made of
cold-drawn steel wire is widely used for the
reinforcement of concrete slabs and floors,
as well as for stuccoed work.
Welded Wire Fabric - Fabric consists of a
series wires welded together to form a grid
pattern.
Triangle-mesh Wire Fabric - This is built
up of either single or stranded longitudinal
wires with cross wires or bond wires running
diagonally across the fabric.
Expanded Mesh - This is manufactured
from solid steel sheets, where the sheet is
first cut or pierced in staggered slots or
patterns.
Laths - Permanent centering or
self-centering laths are produced in many
forms.
TYPES OF PROCESSED CONCRETE
Aerocrete - This is a light–weight,
expanded structural concrete produced by
adding a small amount of metallic aluminum
powder to the mixture of Portland cement
and sand of cinders.
Gunite - This is the mixture of sand and
cement deposited under high pneumatic
pressure with a machine manufactured
under the trade name CEMENT GUN.
GUNITE is used for encasing structural
steel, when reinforced, for floor and roof
slabs and curtain walls. Ideal for swimming
pool construction.
Porete - A Portland cement concrete to
which a chemical foam is added to generate
gases in the process of deposition, resulting
in light weight precast or shop-made unit in
both hollow and solid forms.
Haydite - This is processed concrete added
with lightweight aggregate.
CONCRETE PRODUCTS:
These are made of lightweight and
heavyweight materials for use in exterior
and interior load-bearing walls, firewalls,
curtain and panel walls, partitions etc.
Concrete Block:
Hollow load-bearing concrete block – an
8” x 8” x 16” will approximately weigh 40 to
50 lb. Made with heavyweight aggregate
and 25 to 35 lb. when made with lightweight
aggregate.
Solid load bearing block – defines as one
having a core area of not more than 25
percent of the gross cross-sectional area.
Concrete brick
Common Sizes:
4” x 8” x 16” – for non-load bearing
partitions
6” x 8” x 16” – for load bearing walls
Quality:
Hand made – backyard industry
Machine made – commonly sold
Steam cured – manufactured by big and
nationally known factories for load bearing
walls. They are usually specified for
government and multi-storey buildings.
Cellular Concrete Blocks:
lightweight block which is outstanding in
thermal and sound insulation qualities.
Basic ingredients are cement-made from
silica-rich sand and lime-water, and
aluminum powder.
Brick:
basic ingredient is clay.
Three Principal Forms:
- Surface Clay – found near the
surface of the earth
- Shales – clay which have been
subjected to high pressure until they
have become relatively hard.
- Fire Clay – found at deeper levels
and usually have more uniform
physical and chemical qualities.
Two Classes of Clay:
- Calcareous Clays – contains about
15 percent calcium carbonate and
burn to a yellowish color.
- Non-calcareous Clays – composed
of silicate of alumina, with feldspar
and iron oxide.
Structural Clay Tiles:
are hollow units as opposed to brick which
is sold.
Types of Tiles:
Load bearing wall tile – used for bearing
walls of light buildings, the height usually
restricted to four stories. Structural load
bearing wall tile are made in 4, 6, 8, 10 and
12 inches thickness.
Partition tile – non-load bearing
Back-up tile – intended for use in both
bearing and non-bearing walls which will be
faced with brick or facing tile.
Furring tile – used on the inside of exterior
walls to provide air spaces for insulation to
prevent the passage of moisture and to
provide a suitable plastering surface.
Classified as non-load bearing.
Fireproofing tile – structural steel must be
insulated in fireproof construction. One
method of doing this is to cover it with
fire-proofing tile.
Floor tile – manufactured in both
load-bearing and non-load bearing grades
in standard thickness raging from 3 to 12
inches in standard length and widths of 12
inches.
Structural Clay Facing tile – unglazed tile
and may have either a smooth or a rough
textured finish.
Structural Glazed Facing tile – produced
from high-grade light burning clay which is
suitable for the application of ceramic or salt
glaze.
Terra Cotta:
means “fired earth” is a clay product which
has been used for architectural decorative
purposes, since ancient Greece and Rome.
Modern terracotta is machine-extruded and
molded or pressed. The machine-made
product is usually referred to as ceramic
veneer, and is a unit with flat face and flat or
ribbed back.
Two Types of Ceramic Veneer:
Adhesion Type – held to the wall by the
bond of the mortar to the ceramic veneer
back and to the backing wall.
Anchor type – are held y mortar and by
wire tiles between the terracotta and the
wall behind.
MASONRY:
Is a common building material which is a
built-up construction or combination of
building materials as clay, concrete, or
stone set in mortar; or plain concrete.
Bed – The horizontal surfaces on which the
stones or bricks of walls lie in the courses.
Course – A continuous layer of bricks,
stones, or other masonry units
Wythe or Tier – A continuous, vertical
section of the wall, one masonry unit thick.
Bond – That connection between bricks,
stones or other masonry units formed by
lapping them one upon another carrying up
the work
Stretcher – A brick or block masonry laid
lengthwise of a wall
Header – A brick or block masonry
extending over the thickness of the wall.
Heading course – A course in which the
bricks or other masonry units are all
headers.
Soldier – A unit laid on its end with its face
perpendicular to the face of the wall.
Quoins – The corner stones at the angles
of buildings, usually rusticated so as to
project from the normal surface of the wall.
Bond Stones – Stones running through the
thickness of the wall at right angles to its
face, in order to bind it together.
Blocking or Blocking Course – A course
of stones placed on top of cornice crowning
the walls.
MASONRY WALLS
Walls that consist of modular building blocks
or units bonded with mortar to form walls
that are fire-resistant, durable and
structurally efficient in compressive action.
They can be constructed as solid walls,
cavity walls or veneered walls.
Masonry walls are classified according
to the following:
Unreinforced masonry walls (also known
as plain masonry walls) – incorporate
horizontal joint reinforcement and metal wall
ties to bond the wythes of a solid or cavity
walls.
Reinforced Masonry Walls – are walls that
utilize steel reinforcing bars embedded in
grout filled joints and cavities to aid the
masonry in resisting stresses.
BUILDING STONES
Three general categories:
Igneous – formed as a result of the cooling
of molten matter.
Sedimentary – formed by the action of
water either by depositing materials at the
bottom of a water body or depositing them
on the earth’s surface.
Metamorphic – rocks changed from their
original structure by the action of extreme
pressure, heat, or various combinations of
these factors.
Classified according to form:
Rubble – includes rough fieldstone which
may merely have been broken into suitable
sizes, or it may include irregular pieces of
stone that have been roughly cut to size,
usually used for and filling material.
(escombro and lastillas)
Dimension (Cut stone) – consists of
pieces that have been cut or finished
according to a set or drawing. (for facing
walls)
Flagstone (Flat slabs) - consists of thin
pieces (1/2 in. and up which may or may not
have had their face dimensions cut to some
particular size. (for walks and floors)
Crushed rock – consisting of pieces
varying I size from 3/8 to 6 in. and is used to
a large extent in concreting.
Types according to origin:
Argilite – one formed d\from clay,
commonly dark-blue with faint shades of
green, used for floor tile, stair treads, coping
stones, interior wall base, interior window
stools of exterior window sills.
Granite – igneous origin and composed of
quartz, feldspar, hornblende and mica. Its
generally very hard, strong durable and
capable of taking a high polish.
Limestone – a sedimentary rock which is
either oolitic, or calcite cemented
calcareous stone formed of shells
fragments, particularly non-crystalline in
nature, it has no cleavage lines and uniform
in structure and composition.
Travertine – a sedimentary rock, composed
mainly of calcium carbonate. It has been
formed at the earth’s surface through the
evaporation of water from hot springs.
Marble – metamorphic rock, one that has
been changed from its original structure in
this case, limestone and dolomite have
been recrystallized to form marble.
Serpentine – igneous rock with the mineral
serpentine. The mineral is olive green to
greenish black, but impurities may give the
rock other colors.
Sandstone – a class of rock composed of
cemented silica grains. Colors include gray,
buff, light brown and red.
Slate rock – formed by metamorphosis of
clays and shales deposited in layers. A
unique characteristic of the rock is the
relative ease with which it may be separated
into thin tough sheets
Gypsum – a soft mineral consisting of a
hydrated calcium sulfate from which
gypsum plaster is made (by heating);
colorless when pure used as a retarder in
Portland cement.
Stone Construction:
Paneling – consists of using slabs of stone
cut to dimension and thickness to cover
backup walls and provide a finished exterior.
Ashlar – work requires the use of cut stone
and includes broken ashlar, irregular
coursed ashlar, regular coursed ashlar.
Rubblework – used as random when no
attempt is made to produce either horizontal
or vertical course lines.
Trim – involves use of stones cut for a
specific purpose and include Quoin – stones
laid at the intersection of two walls.
As jambs – stones which form the sides of
window and door openings.
As sills – stones which form the bottom of
window and door openings
As belts – special stone courses which are
built into a wall for a particular purpose.
As cornices – specially cut stones which
are built into and project from a masonry
wall near the top to provide the appearance
of a cave.
As lintels – stones which bridge the top of
door and window openings.
As stone steps – made to fit over an
inclined concrete slab or to cap steps cast in
concrete.
As an arch stone – cut to form some
particular type of arch over a door or
window opening.
As stone flooring – walks and patios,
made by covering a base of stone concrete
brick or tile with flagstones, trimmed
flagstone, trimmed rectangular and square.
TYPES OF METALS
Ferrous – metal in which iron is the
principal element
Nonferrous – containing no, or very little
iron.
Ferrous Metal:
Steel – a malleable alloy of iron and carbon
produced by melting and refining pig iron
and/or scrap steel, graded according to the
carbon content.
Pig Iron – used to make cast iron which is
high in compressive strength but low in
tensile strength, and has little use for
construction.
Wrought Iron – produced when pig iron is
melted in such a way as to remove nearly
all of the carbon and other impurities.
Alloy Steels – made by containing other
elements with the molten steel. Nickel,
chromium copper and manganese are used.
Nickel Steel – stronger than carbon steel
and is used to make structural members for
building chromium steel is very hard and
corrosion-resistant.
Stainless Steels – made with chromium or
a combination of nickel and chromium used
in buildings for exterior wall panels, frames
for doors, expansion joints, flashings,
copings, fascia and gravel stops.
Copper – bearing steel has high resistance
to corrosion and is used for making sheet
steel and metal lath.
Manganese Steel – offers great resistance
to abrasion and finds important use in the
cutting edges of heavy digging tools.
Weathering Steel – It forms its protection
against atmospheric corrosion and thus
requires no painting.
Nonferrous Metal:
Aluminum – a lustrous, silver-white
nonmagnetic, lightweight metal which is
very malleable; has good thermal and
electrical conductivity; a good reflector of
both heat and light.
Aluminum Foil – used as a vapor barrier
on walls and ceilings and as reflective
insulation.
Copper – a lustrous reddish metal, highly
ductile and malleable; has high tensile
strength;
Lead – a soft, malleable, heavy metal; has
low melting point and a high coefficient of
thermal expansion.
Tin – a lustrous white, soft and malleable
metal having a low melting point;
STEEL
Steel refers usually to plain carbon steels,
which is defined as alloys of iron and carbon
which do not contain more than 2% carbon
and which are made in malleable or ingot
form.
Wrought Carbon Steels:
- Structural steel - This is a medium
carbon steel with its carbon content
controlled to give both the strength
and ductility necessary for its use.
- Reinforcing Bars - These are
usually used for reinforcing concrete
and are available in commercial
sizes.
- Sheet and Strip - Steel sheet is
made from low carbon steels
generally containing about 0.15%
carbon and not exceeding 0.25%
carbon.
- Corrugated steel - This is rigidized
sheet fabricated from low-carbon
cold or hot-rolled steel sheets which
are either galvanized or covered with
some type of bituminous coating.
- Steel Mesh and Wire Cloth - They
are used for concrete reinforcement,
lath for plaster, stucco, and cement,
fence, insect screens.
- Steel Windows and Doors - They
are used for windows and doors for
residential, commercial, industrial,
institutional and other types such as
for fire-rated materials.
- Hardware - They are used for finish
hardware and other miscellaneous
accessories such as nails, screws,
rivets, etc.
Alloy Steels:
These are steels to which various elements
such as manganese, silicon, aluminum,
titanium, and molybdenum have been
added in sufficient quantity to produce
properties unobtainable in carbon steels in
cast, rolled or heat-treated form.
- High-strength low-alloy steels -
are a group of trade name steels
with improved mechanical properties
and resistance to atmospheric
corrosion, They are being
increasingly used as reinforcing for
pre-stressed concrete, high strength
bolts, special structural steels and
cables for elevators, etc.
- Stainless steels - generally used in
architecture are highly alloyed steels
that contain more than 10%
chromium. They are characterized
by their resistance to heat, oxidation
and corrosion.
METHOD OF JOINING METALS
Soldering - is a method to join metals, to
make electrical connections, to seal joints
hermetically with another lower melting
metal or alloy called the solder.
- Metal Bath Dip - defined as a
metal-joining process where the
workpieces to be joined are
immersed in a pot of molten solder
and because of the relatively low
melting temperature of the solder
(between 350 and 600 degrees F),
only adhesion between the solder
and the workpieces results.
 - Soldering Iron - In this method the
iron piece is preheated and applied
to the joint along with the solder and
the flux.
- Torch - The parts to be soldered are
heated by the torch flame and then
the solder and flux are applied.
Sweat Method - The heating of the metals
to be joined causes the solder to run into
the joint. This is the method used for joining
copper tubing and fittings.
- Corrosive fluxes are known as acid
type and salt type fluxes and include
chlorides of zinc, ammonium,
calcium, magnesium, aluminum and
other metal.
- Neutral fluxes are mild in type and
are used for easily soldered metals
such as copper, brass, lead, and tin
plate. Stearic acid is a typical neutral
flux.
- Non-corrosive fluxes leaves
residues which are noncorrosive and
nonconductive and therefore need
not be removed. Noncorrosive fluxes
are weak with their fluxing action
and their use are limited to the easily
soldered base metals.
Brazing - is a type of soldering in which the
operating temperatures are higher (but
lower than in welding) and in which stronger
and higher-melting alloys are used to fill the
joints, which consequently are stronger than
ordinary soldered joints.
Welding - is the process by which two
metals are so joined that there is an actual
union of the interatomic bonds.
Aluminum Finishes
Aluminum products can and are often given
a wide range of finishes for both decorative
and/or protective purposes. Aluminum can
be surface finished in four types:
- Mechanical Finishes
- Chemical Finishes
- Electrolytic Oxide FinisheS
- Organic Finishes
NAILS
Nails are slender and straight pieces of
metal fasteners with one end pointed and
the other end flared, enlarged or flattened
for hammering into wood or other materials.
NAIL CONSTRUCTION METHODS
Toe-Nailing – also known as tusk or skew
nailing where one hammers the nail
obliquely to the surfaces being joined.
Face-Nailing – the nails are driven or
hammered perpendicular to the face of the
material.
Blind-Nailing – also known as secret or
concealed nailing where the nail heads are
not seen on the face of the work.
SCREWS
Metal fasteners that have tapered,
externally helically-threaded shanks with
slotted heads, use for driving into wood and
other materials by turning with the use of a
screwdriver.
BOLTS
Bolts are threaded metal pins or rods with
one end having the head and with the
external thread on the other end that
accepts a mating nut and is used for holding
together or securing different members or
materials after being inserted through holes.
RIVETS
Rivets are are short pins made of malleable
metal such as steel, copper or iron, having a
head at one end. They are metal pins that
are used for permanently joining two or
more structural steel members by passing a
headed shank through a hole in each piece
and hammering down the plain end to form
a second head.
HINGES
Hinges are those finish hardware elements
on which doors and windows, cabinets, etc.
turn, swing or slide, and open or close.
WOOD
It is a traditional building material, it is easily
worked, has durability and beauty
Classification of Trees:
Hardwoods – ‘deciduous’ trees that have
broad leaves which are normally shed in the
winter time.
Softwoods – ‘conifers’ trees that have
needles rather than leaves and that bear
their seeds in cones.
Moisture Content of Wood – expressed as
a percentage of the oven-dry weight and
can be determined by the oven-dry method
or by an electric-moisture meter method.
Three categories of Lumber:
Yard Lumber – used for ordinary light
construction and finishing work and consists
of 1 and 2 inches material manufactured
Shop Lumber – usually left in 1 and 2
inches rough thickness often containing
knots or defects not ordinarily permissible in
other categories.
Structural Lumber – in intended for use in
heavy construction for load-bearing
purposes and is cut into timbers of large
size than yard lumber, 3 inches or more
thick and 4 inches or more wide. It is made
from the heartwood of the log.
Finishes of Wood:
S1S – surfacing or planning of one side
S2S – two sides planed
S4S – four sides planed
Rough – as sawn and not planed
Wood Grain:
Edge Grain – annual rings run
approximately at right angle to the face.
Flat Grain – when the annual rings run
more or less parallel to the surface.
Angle Grain – when the annual rings are at
about 45 degrees to the face.
Seasoning of Lumber:
Air-Drying – lumber is strip-piled at a slope
on a solid foundation. This allows air to
circulate around every piece while the
sloping allows water to run off quickly.
Kiln-Drying – more expensive lumber
which is required for more refined uses so
as wood will not move, such as furniture.
Flooring and general interior use.
Pressure treated lumber is when lumber
is subjected to pressure and injected with
chemicals or salts to insure it from rots.
Glue laminated timber – term used to
describe a wooden member built up of
several layers of wood whose grain
directions are all substantially parallel
KINDS OF BUILDING BAORDS:
Plywood – made by bonding together thin
layers of wood in a way that the grain of
each layer is at right angles to the grain of
each adjacent layer.
- Veneer - each layer of plywood
- Rotary Cutting – a method of
cutting wood veneer
- Hardboard – made from processed
wood chips.
- Insulating Fiberboard – made from
three types of fiber – wood, sugar
cane, and asbestos, and binder,
formed into a board.
- Corkboard – from the outer bark of
the cork oak tree, cork granules is
mixed with synthetic resin,
compressed and formed into sheet
from 1 to 6 inches thick and baked
under pressure into rigid boards.
BUILDING PAPERS
In building construction, paper is used for
sheathing, roofing and insulation, in making
asphalt shingles, laminated and corrugated
building products, and concrete form
materials, as a moisture and vapor barrier.
- Sheathing Paper – used to provide
an airtight barrier over walls, floors,
etc. Roofing Paper
- Roofing felts - used in making a
built-up roof and are usually
produced in 36 in. wide rolls, in
various weights from 3 to 20
lb/square.
- Rolledroofing – a heavy, mineral
surfaced paper used as a final roof
covering, made 18 and 36 in. wide,
in various weights from 45 to 120
lb/square.
- Insulating Paper – used to secure
bulk and entrapped air with as much
strength as possible.
GLASS AND GLAZING
Glass – a hard, brittle inorganic substance,
ordinarily transparent or translucent;
produced by melting a mixture of silica, a
flux and a stabilizer.
Glazing - in architectural specifications is
the term used for the installation of glass. It
is the setting of glass in an opening.
Glazing Materials - The materials used for
making a weathertight joint between the
glass and the frame into which the glass
sets.
Types of glass:
Window and Sheet Glass – a soda-lime
type of glass used for general glazing,
mirrors, insulating and laminated glass.
Classification of Sheet Glass:
- Window Glass – used for glazing
windows doors and storm sash in
residential buildings where good
light and vision are required at
moderate cost.
- Heavy Sheet Glass – used for
glazing windows and doors where
greater strength is required but
where slight distortion is not
objectionable.
Picture Glass – used for covering pictures,
photographs, maps, charts projector slides
and instrument dials.
Plate Glass – the distinguishing feature of
this glass is its surface rather than the
composition and thickness. It
Float Glass – is produced by pouring
molten glass into a surface of molten tin and
allowing it to cool slowly and the resulting
flat and parallel surface minimize distortion
and eliminate the use of grinding and
polishing.
Reflective Glass – used to control glare
and reduce solar heat.
Tempered Plate Glass – three to five times
as strong as regular plate of the same
thickness – and area in resisting
compressive forces and fracture due to
strain or thermal shock.
Laminated Safety Glass (Bullet Proofing)
– widely used in the automotive industry
and transportation, but now finding some
uses in the building industry, like glass that
can withstand firearm attack and
explosions.
Insulating Glass – consists of two sheets
of plate or sheet glass, separated by an air
space, and joined around the edges to
produce a hermitically sealed unit.
Annealed Glass – type of glass that is
cooled slowly to relieve internal stresses.
Patterned Glass – is semi-transparent
glass with distinctive geometric or linear
designs that was formed during the rolling
process that diffuse light and obscure
vision.
Tempered Glass – annealed glass that has
been reheated to just below the softening
point and then suddenly cooled by
subjecting both surfaces to jets of air.
Obscure Glass – has one or both sides
acid-etched or sandblasted to obscure
vision. Both process, however weaken the
glass and makes it difficult to clean.
GLAZING TYPES
Face Glazing – refers to the setting of small
glass panels or panes in a rabetted frame,
held in place with glazier’s points and
sealed with beveled head of putty glazing
compound.
Wet Glazing – is the setting of glass in a
window frame with glazing tape or a liquid
sealant.
Dry Glazing – is the setting of glass pane in
a window frame with a compression gasket
instead of glazing tape or liquid sealant.
Structural Gasket Glazing – are
pre-formed synthetic rubber or other
elstomeric materials to secure a glass pane
or unit in a window frame or opening.
Types of Waterproofing:
Sound Insulation
Types of Sound Insulation Applications &
Materials:
- SPF (Sprayed Polyurethane Foam)
- Plaster Type
- Fiberglass Type
Water proofing coating
Asphalt emulsions - Minute asphalt
particles dispersed in water and maintained
in suspension (until applied) by a mineral
colloid emulsifying agent
Cutback Asphalts - These are composed
of a wide variety of products from thin
liquids to heavy paste
Types of Waterproofing according to
application:
Integral Waterproofing Compounds -
These are waterproofing compounds that
are manufactured and sold under various
trade names and are available in either
powder or liquid form, e.g.,

- Torch Applied, Integral and “SAHARA”

Membrane “POZOLITH”
- Cementitious Truscon “ZILICON”
- Sprayed Polyurethane Foam “AQUELLA”
- Elastomeric “ANTI-HYDRO”

Types of Damp-proofing: Membrane Waterproofing - The layers of

waterproofing materials used in this method
- Damp-roof Membrane range from the ordinary tar paper laid with
- Asphalt & Bitumens coal-tar pitch to asbestos or asphalted felt
- Plastic sheets laid in asphalt.
PAINT FINISHES
Transparent Finishing Materials
Wood stains - are composed of pigments
(coloring ingredients) and liquid solvents of
water, oil or alcohol. When applied, the
coloring matter penetrates the surface,
remaining transparent to display the
beautiful grain effect to advantage.
Three types of wood stains:
Oil Stains – the pigments are obtained from
various earth clays. After they are dissolved
in linseed oil, the coloring particles remain
suspended between the oil molecules.
Wood Fillers
oxidation of the oil or by the
evaporation of the alcohol.
Lacquer – is made synthetically and
is closely related to rayon or nylon
fabrics. It requires a special thinner
sold by each manufacturer for his
own brand.
Paint Behavior and Defects -
Well-formulated paint, skillfully applied over
a properly prepared surface wears by
gradual “chalking” and maintains a smooth,
tough and durable film that constitutes a
satisfactory surface for repainting
chalking – this is evidenced by surface
dusting and rapid thinning of the film,
sometimes to bare wood.

- Paste Fillers – composed of silex

(stone dust), japan-drier, linseed oil,
turpentine and sometimes colors
ground in oil by adding color to a
filler (both wood filling and staining is
done simultaneously).

- Crack Fillers – plastic wood putty, Sagging and Running – is marked by

stick shellac, etc. They are used for irregular wavy lines that texture an
filling nail holes, cracks and dents. otherwise smooth finish film.

- Shellac – made by refining seed lac

and its natural color is orange; white
shellac is obtained by bleaching. Lac
is a resin exuded by certain insects
in India in the twigs of trees.

- Varnish – is a resolution of resin in

drying oil (oil varnish) or in a volatile
solvent such as alcohol or turpentine
(spirit varnish). It contains no
pigment and hardens into a smooth,
hard and glossy coat by the
Storm Spotting - usually occurs after Cracking and Scaling – are characterized
continuous rains and electric storms are by irregular cracks that subsequently curl at
characterized by unsightly and irregular the edge, flake and finally scale off.
color changes.

Blistering and Peeling – is characterized

Washing – is characterized by streaking on by swelling of the entire film which is usually
the surface, fading color, the final exposure followed by a break in the film and
of the original surface and accumulation of subsequent peeling.
pigment particles below the painted area.

Stains - are surface discolorations which

often disappear gradually as the paint film
wears.

Checking – is characterized by minute

cracks on the surface of elastic paint films. Spot Fading – is characterized by color
changes and flatting of gloss in irregular
patches on the film.

Alligatoring - is an advance state of

checking, varying in degree to a coarse
texturing of the finish film. Wrinkling – should not be confused with
alligatoring, for wrinkling is marked by a
tough, leather-like texturing.
CONCRETE SURFACE FINISHES

Cement Plaster Finish or Stucco

Stucco is a mortar consisting of cement,
sand and water.

Rubbed Finish
The surface of the concrete is grinded a day
or two after it has set using a brick of
carborundum, soft natural stone or emery.

Brushed Finish
A type of finish obtained by scrubbing or
brushing the concrete surface while still
green with fiber or wire brushes and water
to remove the surface film or mortar leaving
the coarse aggregate exposed.

Tooled Finish
Concrete surfaces may be finished by
tooling employing any methods for the
dressing or finishing of natural stone.

Sand-Blast Finish
A sand-blast finish is much the same
appearance as that of a brushed finish. It is
done through the use of washing done top
cement cover with water with a specified
nozzle gun.

Exposed Aggregate Finish

The color of this finish is obtained from the
exposed aggregate and not through the
addition of coloring material to the mixture.