Cement

Lafarge cement plant in Contes, France.

In the most general sense of the word, a cement is a binder, a substance that sets and
hardens independently, and can bind other materials together. The word "cement" traces to
the Romans, who used the term opus caementicium to describe masonry resembling
modern concrete that was made from crushed rock with burnt lime as binder. The volcanic
ash and pulverized brick additives that were added to the burnt lime to obtain a hydraulic
binder were later referred to as cementum, cimentum, cäment, and cement.

Cement used in construction is characterized as hydraulic or non-hydraulic. Hydraulic

cements (e.g., Portland cement) harden because of hydration, chemical reactions that occur
independently of the mixture's water content; they can harden even underwater or when
constantly exposed to wet weather. The chemical reaction that results when the anhydrous
cement powder is mixed with water produces hydrates that are not water-soluble. Non-
hydraulic cements (e.g. gypsum plaster) must be kept dry in order to retain their strength.

The most important use of cement is the production of mortar and concrete—the bonding of
natural or artificial aggregates to form a strong building material that is durable in the face
of normal environmental effects.

Concrete should not be confused with cement, because the term cement refers to the
material used to bind the aggregate materials of concrete. Concrete is a combination of a
cement and aggregate.

Contents
[hide]

 1 History of the origin of cement

o 1.1 Early uses
o 1.2 Modern cement
 2 Types of modern cement
o 2.1 Portland cement
 o 2.2 Portland cement blends
o 2.3 Non-Portland hydraulic cements
 3 Curing (Setting)
 4 Safety issues
 5 Cement industry in the world
o 5.1 China
o 5.2 Africa
 6 Environmental impacts
o 6.1 CO2 emissions
o 6.2 Heavy metal emissions in the air
o 6.3 Heavy metals present in the clinker
o 6.4 Use of alternative fuels and by-products materials
 7 See also
 8 References
 9 Further reading
 10 External links

[edit] History of the origin of cement

[edit] Early uses

It is uncertain where it was first discovered that a combination of hydrated non-hydraulic

lime and a pozzolan produces a hydraulic mixture (see also: Pozzolanic reaction), but
concrete made from such mixtures was first used by the Ancient Macedonians[1][2] and three
centuries later on a large scale by Roman engineers.[3] They used both natural pozzolans
(trass or pumice) and artificial pozzolans (ground brick or pottery) in these concretes. Many
excellent examples of structures made from these concretes are still standing, notably the
huge monolithic dome of the Pantheon in Rome and the massive Baths of Caracalla.[4] The
vast system of Roman aqueducts also made extensive use of hydraulic cement.[5]

Although any preservation of this knowledge in literary sources from the Middle Ages is
unknown, medieval masons and some military engineers maintained an active tradition of
using hydraulic cement in structures such as canals, fortresses, harbors, and shipbuilding
facilities.[6][7] The technical knowledge of making hydraulic cement was later formalized by
French and British engineers in the 18th century.[6]

[edit] Modern cement

Modern hydraulic cements began to be developed from the start of the Industrial
Revolution (around 1800), driven by three main needs:

 Hydraulic cement render (stucco) for finishing brick buildings in wet climates.
 Hydraulic mortars for masonry construction of harbor works, etc., in contact with
sea water.
  Development of strong concretes.

In Britain particularly, good quality building stone became ever more expensive during a
period of rapid growth, and it became a common practice to construct prestige buildings
from the new industrial bricks, and to finish them with a stucco to imitate stone. Hydraulic
limes were favored for this, but the need for a fast set time encouraged the development of
new cements. Most famous was Parker's "Roman cement".[8] This was developed by James
Parker in the 1780s, and finally patented in 1796. It was, in fact, nothing like any material
used by the Romans, but was a "Natural cement" made by burning septaria – nodules that
are found in certain clay deposits, and that contain both clay minerals and calcium
carbonate. The burnt nodules were ground to a fine powder. This product, made into a
mortar with sand, set in 5–15 minutes. The success of "Roman Cement" led other
manufacturers to develop rival products by burning artificial mixtures of clay and chalk.

John Smeaton made an important contribution to the development of cements when he was
planning the construction of the third Eddystone Lighthouse (1755–9) in the English
Channel. He needed a hydraulic mortar that would set and develop some strength in the
twelve hour period between successive high tides. He performed an exhaustive market
research on the available hydraulic limes, visiting their production sites, and noted that the
"hydraulicity" of the lime was directly related to the clay content of the limestone from
which it was made. Smeaton was a civil engineer by profession, and took the idea no
further. Apparently unaware of Smeaton's work, the same principle was identified by Louis
Vicat in the first decade of the nineteenth century. Vicat went on to devise a method of
combining chalk and clay into an intimate mixture, and, burning this, produced an
"artificial cement" in 1817. James Frost,[9] working in Britain, produced what he called
"British cement" in a similar manner around the same time, but did not obtain a patent until
1822. In 1824, Joseph Aspdin patented a similar material, which he called Portland cement,
because the render made from it was in color similar to the prestigious Portland stone.

Setting time and "early strength" are important characteristics of cements. Hydraulic limes,
"natural" cements, and "artificial" cements all rely upon their belite content for strength
development. Belite develops strength slowly. Because they were burned at temperatures
below 1250 °C, they contained no alite, which is responsible for early strength in modern
cements. The first cement to consistently contain alite was made by Joseph Aspdin's son
William in the early 1840s. This was what we call today "modern" Portland cement.
Because of the air of mystery with which William Aspdin surrounded his product, others
(e.g., Vicat and I.C. Johnson) have claimed precedence in this invention, but recent
analysis[10] of both his concrete and raw cement have shown that William Aspdin's product
made at Northfleet, Kent was a true alite-based cement. However, Aspdin's methods were
"rule-of-thumb": Vicat is responsible for establishing the chemical basis of these cements,
and Johnson established the importance of sintering the mix in the kiln.

William Aspdin's innovation was counterintuitive for manufacturers of "artificial cements",

because they required more lime in the mix (a problem for his father), a much higher kiln
temperature (and therefore more fuel), and the resulting clinker was very hard and rapidly
wore down the millstones, which were the only available grinding technology of the time.
Manufacturing costs were therefore considerably higher, but the product set reasonably
slowly and developed strength quickly, thus opening up a market for use in concrete. The
use of concrete in construction grew rapidly from 1850 onwards, and was soon the
dominant use for cements. Thus Portland cement began its predominant role.

In the US the first large scale use of cement was Rosendale cement a natural cement mined
from a massive deposit of a large dolostone rock deposit discovered in the early 19th
century near Rosendale, New York. Rosendale cement was extremely popular for the
foundation of buildings (e.g., Statue of Liberty, Capitol Building, Brooklyn Bridge) and
lining water pipes. But its long curing time of at least a month made it unpopular after
World War One in the construction of highways and bridges and many states and
construction firms turned to the use of Portland cement. Because of the switch to Portland
cement, by the end of the 1920s of the 15 Rosendale cement companies, only one had
survived. But in the early 1930s it was soon discovered that Portland cement while it had a
faster setting time was not as durable, especially for highways, to the point that some states
stopped building highways and roads with cement. An engineer, Bertrain H. Wait, whose
company had worked on the construction of the New York Cities Catskill Aqueduct, and
was impressed with the durability of Rosendale cement, came up with a blend of both
Rosendale and synthetic cements which has the good attributes of both: it was highly
durable and had a much faster setting time. Mr. Wait convinced the New York
Commissioner of Highways to construct an experimental section highway near New Paltz,
New York, of one sack of Rosendale to six sacks of synthetic cement, and it was proved a
success and for decades hence the Rosendale-synthetic cement blend became common use
in highway and bridge construction.[11]

[edit] Types of modern cement

[edit] Portland cement

Main article: Portland cement

Cement is made by heating limestone (calcium carbonate) with small quantities of other
materials (such as clay) to 1450 °C in a kiln, in a process known as calcination, whereby a
molecule of carbon dioxide is liberated from the calcium carbonate to form calcium oxide,
or quicklime, which is then blended with the other materials that have been included in the
mix. The resulting hard substance, called 'clinker', is then ground with a small amount of
gypsum into a powder to make 'Ordinary Portland Cement', the most commonly used type
of cement (often referred to as OPC).

Portland cement is a basic ingredient of concrete, mortar and most non-specialty grout. The
most common use for Portland cement is in the production of concrete. Concrete is a
composite material consisting of aggregate (gravel and sand), cement, and water. As a
construction material, concrete can be cast in almost any shape desired, and once hardened,
can become a structural (load bearing) element. Portland cement may be grey or white.

[edit] Portland cement blends

Portland cement blends are often available as inter-ground mixtures from cement
manufacturers, but similar formulations are often also mixed from the ground components
at the concrete mixing plant.[12]

Portland blastfurnace cement contains up to 70 % ground granulated blast furnace slag,

with the rest Portland clinker and a little gypsum. All compositions produce high ultimate
strength, but as slag content is increased, early strength is reduced, while sulfate resistance
increases and heat evolution diminishes. Used as an economic alternative to Portland
sulfate-resisting and low-heat cements.[13]

Portland flyash cement contains up to 35 % fly ash. The fly ash is pozzolanic, so that
ultimate strength is maintained. Because fly ash addition allows a lower concrete water
content, early strength can also be maintained. Where good quality cheap fly ash is
available, this can be an economic alternative to ordinary Portland cement.[14]

Portland pozzolan cement includes fly ash cement, since fly ash is a pozzolan, but also
includes cements made from other natural or artificial pozzolans. In countries where
volcanic ashes are available (e.g. Italy, Chile, Mexico, the Philippines) these cements are
often the most common form in use.

Portland silica fume cement. Addition of silica fume can yield exceptionally high
strengths, and cements containing 5–20 % silica fume are occasionally produced. However,
silica fume is more usually added to Portland cement at the concrete mixer.[15]

Masonry cements are used for preparing bricklaying mortars and stuccos, and must not be
used in concrete. They are usually complex proprietary formulations containing Portland
clinker and a number of other ingredients that may include limestone, hydrated lime, air
entrainers, retarders, waterproofers and coloring agents. They are formulated to yield
workable mortars that allow rapid and consistent masonry work. Subtle variations of
Masonry cement in the US are Plastic Cements and Stucco Cements. These are designed to
produce controlled bond with masonry blocks.

Expansive cements contain, in addition to Portland clinker, expansive clinkers (usually

sulfoaluminate clinkers), and are designed to offset the effects of drying shrinkage that is
normally encountered with hydraulic cements. This allows large floor slabs (up to 60 m
square) to be prepared without contraction joints.

White blended cements may be made using white clinker and white supplementary
materials such as high-purity metakaolin.

Colored cements are used for decorative purposes. In some standards, the addition of
pigments to produce "colored Portland cement" is allowed. In other standards (e.g. ASTM),
pigments are not allowed constituents of Portland cement, and colored cements are sold as
"blended hydraulic cements".
Very finely ground cements are made from mixtures of cement with sand or with slag or
other pozzolan type minerals that are extremely finely ground together. Such cements can
have the same physical characteristics as normal cement but with 50% less cement
particularly due to their increased surface area for the chemical reaction. Even with
intensive grinding they can use up to 50% less energy to fabricate than ordinary Portland
cements.[16]

[edit] Non-Portland hydraulic cements

Pozzolan-lime cements. Mixtures of ground pozzolan and lime are the cements used by the
Romans, and can be found in Roman structures still standing (e.g. the Pantheon in Rome).
They develop strength slowly, but their ultimate strength can be very high. The hydration
products that produce strength are essentially the same as those produced by Portland
cement.

Slag-lime cements. Ground granulated blast furnace slag is not hydraulic on its own, but is
"activated" by addition of alkalis, most economically using lime. They are similar to
pozzolan lime cements in their properties. Only granulated slag (i.e. water-quenched, glassy
slag) is effective as a cement component.

Supersulfated cements. These contain about 80% ground granulated blast furnace slag,
15 % gypsum or anhydrite and a little Portland clinker or lime as an activator. They
produce strength by formation of ettringite, with strength growth similar to a slow Portland
cement. They exhibit good resistance to aggressive agents, including sulfate.

Calcium aluminate cements are hydraulic cements made primarily from limestone and
bauxite. The active ingredients are monocalcium aluminate CaAl2O4 (CaO · Al2O3 or CA in
Cement chemist notation, CCN) and mayenite Ca12Al14O33 (12 CaO · 7 Al2O3, or C12A7 in
CCN). Strength forms by hydration to calcium aluminate hydrates. They are well-adapted
for use in refractory (high-temperature resistant) concretes, e.g. for furnace linings.

Calcium sulfoaluminate cements are made from clinkers that include ye'elimite
(Ca4(AlO2)6SO4 or C4A3 in Cement chemist's notation) as a primary phase. They are used
in expansive cements, in ultra-high early strength cements, and in "low-energy" cements.
Hydration produces ettringite, and specialized physical properties (such as expansion or
rapid reaction) are obtained by adjustment of the availability of calcium and sulfate ions.
Their use as a low-energy alternative to Portland cement has been pioneered in China,
where several million tonnes per year are produced.[17][18] Energy requirements are lower
because of the lower kiln temperatures required for reaction, and the lower amount of
limestone (which must be endothermically decarbonated) in the mix. In addition, the lower
limestone content and lower fuel consumption leads to a CO2 emission around half that
associated with Portland clinker. However, SO2 emissions are usually significantly higher.

"Natural" cements correspond to certain cements of the pre-Portland era, produced by

burning argillaceous limestones at moderate temperatures. The level of clay components in
the limestone (around 30–35 %) is such that large amounts of belite (the low-early strength,
high-late strength mineral in Portland cement) are formed without the formation of
excessive amounts of free lime. As with any natural material, such cements have highly
variable properties.

Geopolymer cements are made from mixtures of water-soluble alkali metal silicates and
aluminosilicate mineral powders such as fly ash and metakaolin.

[edit] Curing (Setting)

Cement sets or cures when mixed with water which causes a series of hydration chemical
reactions. The constituents slowly hydrate and crystallize; the interlocking of the crystals
gives cement its strength. Maintaining a high moisture content in cement during curing
increases both the speed of curing, and its final strength. Gypsum is often added to Portland
cement to prevent early hardening or "flash setting", allowing a longer working time. The
time it takes for cement to cure varies depending on the mixture and environmental
conditions; initial hardening can occur in as little as twenty minutes, while full cure can
take over a month. Cement typically cures to the extent that it can be put into service within
24 hours to a week.

[edit] Safety issues

Bags of cement routinely have health and safety warnings printed on them because not only
is cement highly alkaline, but the setting process is exothermic. As a result, wet cement is
strongly caustic and can easily cause severe skin burns if not promptly washed off with
water. Similarly, dry cement powder in contact with mucous membranes can cause severe
eye or respiratory irritation. Cement users should wear protective clothing.[19][20][21]

[edit] Cement industry in the world

Global Cement Production in 2010

Global Cement Capacity in 2010

Cement output in 2004
See also: List of countries by cement production

In 2010 the world production of hydraulic cement was 3,300 million tonnes. The top three
producers were China with 1,800, India with 220 and USA with 63.5 million tonnes for a
combined total of over half the world total by the world's three most populated states.[22]

For the world capacity to produce cement in 2010 the situation was similar with the top
three states (China, India and USA) accounting for just under half the world total
capacity.[23]

[edit] China

"For the past 18 years, China consistently has produced more cement than any other
country in the world. [...] (However,) China's cement export peaked in 1994 with 11 million
tonnes shipped out and has been in steady decline ever since. Only 5.18 million tonnes
were exported out of China in 2002. Offered at $34 a ton, Chinese cement is pricing itself
out of the market as Thailand is asking as little as $20 for the same quality."[24]

In 2006 it was estimated that China manufactured 1.235 billion tonnes of cement, which
was 44% of the world total cement production.[25] "Demand for cement in China is
expected to advance 5.4% annually and exceed 1 billion tonnes in 2008, driven by slowing
but healthy growth in construction expenditures. Cement consumed in China will amount to
44% of global demand, and China will remain the world's largest national consumer of
cement by a large margin."[26]

In 2010, 3.3 billion tonnes of cement was consumed globally. Of this, China accounted for
1.8 billion tonnes. [27]

[edit] Africa

See also: Cement in Africa

[edit] Environmental impacts

Cement manufacture causes environmental impacts at all stages of the process. These
include emissions of airborne pollution in the form of dust, gases, noise and vibration when
operating machinery and during blasting in quarries, and damage to countryside from
quarrying. Equipment to reduce dust emissions during quarrying and manufacture of
cement is widely used, and equipment to trap and separate exhaust gases are coming into
increased use. Environmental protection also includes the re-integration of quarries into the
countryside after they have been closed down by returning them to nature or re-cultivating
them.

[edit] CO2 emissions

Cement manufacturing releases CO2 in the atmosphere both directly when calcium
carbonate is heated, producing lime and carbon dioxide,[28] and also indirectly through the
use of energy if its production involves the emission of CO2. The cement industry produces
about 5% of global man-made CO2 emissions, of which 50% is from the chemical process,
and 40% from burning fuel.[29] The amount of CO2 emitted by the cement industry is nearly
900 kg of CO2 for every 1000 kg of cement produced. [30] The high proportion of carbon
dioxide produced in the chemical reaction leads to large decrease in mass in the conversion
from limestone to cement. So, to reduce the transport of heavier raw materials and to
mimimize the associated costs, it is more economical for cement plants to be closer to the
limestone quarries rather than to the consumer centers.[31]

In certain applications, lime mortar, reabsorbs the same amount of CO2 as was released in
its manufacture, and has a lower energy requirement in production than mainstream
cement. Newly developed cement types from Novacem[32] and Eco-cement can absorb
carbon dioxide from ambient air during hardening.[33] Use of the Kalina cycle during
production can also increase energy efficiency.

[edit] Heavy metal emissions in the air

In some circumstances, mainly depending on the origin and the composition of the raw
materials used, the high-temperature calcination process of limestone and clay minerals can
release in the atmosphere gases and dust rich in volatile heavy metals, a.o, thallium,[34]
cadmium and mercury are the most toxic. Heavy metals (Tl, Cd, Hg, ...) are often found as
trace elements in common metal sulfides (pyrite (FeS2), zinc blende (ZnS), galena (PbS),
...) present as secondary minerals in most of the raw materials. Environmental regulations
exist in many countries to limit these emissions. As of 2011 in the United States, cement
kilns are "legally allowed to pump more toxins into the air than are hazardous-waste
incinerators."[35]

[edit] Heavy metals present in the clinker

The presence of heavy metals in the clinker arises both from the natural raw materials and
from the use of recycled by-products or alternative fuels. The high pH prevailing in the
cement porewater (12.5 < pH < 13.5) limits the mobility of many heavy metals by
decreasing their solubility and increasing their sorption onto the cement mineral phases.
Nickel, zinc and lead are commonly found in cement in non-negligible concentrations.

[edit] Use of alternative fuels and by-products materials

A cement plant consumes 3 to 6 GJ of fuel per tonne of clinker produced, depending on the
raw materials and the process used. Most cement kilns today use coal and petroleum coke
as primary fuels, and to a lesser extent natural gas and fuel oil. Selected waste and by-
products with recoverable calorific value can be used as fuels in a cement kiln, replacing a
portion of conventional fossil fuels, like coal, if they meet strict specifications. Selected
waste and by-products containing useful minerals such as calcium, silica, alumina, and iron
can be used as raw materials in the kiln, replacing raw materials such as clay, shale, and
limestone. Because some materials have both useful mineral content and recoverable
calorific value, the distinction between alternative fuels and raw materials is not always
clear. For example, sewage sludge has a low but significant calorific value, and burns to
give ash containing minerals useful in the clinker matrix.[36]

[edit] See also

 BET theory
 Cement chemist notation
 Cement render
 Fly ash
 Geopolymers
 Portland cement
 Rosendale cement
 Tiocem

[edit] References
1. ^ Macedonians created cement three centuries before the Romans, BBC News
Europe
2. ^ Heracles to Alexander The Great: Treasures From The Royal Capital of Macedon,
A Hellenic Kingdom in the Age of Democracy, Ashmolean Museum of Art and
Archaeology, University of Oxford
3. ^ Hill, Donald: A History of Engineering in Classical and Medieval Times,
Routledge 1984, p. 106.
4. ^ Pure natural pozzolan cement.
5. ^ Aqueduct Architecture: Moving Water to the Masses in Ancient Rome.
6. ^ a b Sismondo, Sergio. An Introduction to Science and Technology Studies. John
Wiley and Sons, 2009. 2nd edition, illustrated. 256 pages (page 142). ISBN 978-1-
405-18765-7.
7. ^ Mukerji, Chandra. Impossible engineering: technology and territoriality on the
Canal du Midi. Princeton University Press, 2009. Illustrated edition. 304 pages
(page 121). ISBN 978-0-691-14032-2.
8. ^ A.J. Francis, The Cement Industry 1796–1914: A History, David & Charles, 1977,
ISBN 0-7153-7386-2, Chap. 2.
9. ^ Francis op. cit., Chap. 5
10. ^ Hewlett op. cit., Chap. 1
11. ^ "Natural Cement Comes Back", October 1941, Popular Science
12. ^ Kosmatka, S.H.; Panarese, W.C. (1988). Design and Control of Concrete
Mixtures. Skokie, IL, USA: Portland Cement Association. pp. 17, 42, 70, 184.
ISBN 0-89312-087-1.
13. ^ U.S. Federal Highway Administration. "Ground Granulated Blast-Furnace Slag".
http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/infrastructure/materialsgrp/ggbfs.htm. Retrieved 2007-01-
24.
14. ^ U.S. Federal Highway Administration. "Fly Ash".
http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/infrastructure/materialsgrp/flyash.htm. Retrieved 2007-
01-24.
15. ^ U.S. Federal Highway Administration. "Silica Fume".
http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/infrastructure/materialsgrp/silica.htm. Retrieved 2007-01-
24.
16. ^ SINTEF Civil and Environmental Engineering, Cement and Concrete, N-7465
Trondheim, Norway. %7C Cement and Concrete Research 35 (2005) 315– 323.
"Mechanism for performance of energetically modified cement EMC".
http://www.emccement.com/Articles/EMC%20mechanism%20paper.pdf %7C
Cement and Concrete Research 35 (2005) 315– 323..
17. ^ Bye G.C. (1999), Portland Cement 2nd Ed., Thomas Telford, 1999, ISBN 0-
7277-2766-4, pp. 206–208
18. ^ Zhang L., Su M., Wang Y., Development of the use of sulfo- and ferroaluminate
cements in China in Adv. Cem. Res. 11 N°1, pp. 15–21.
19. ^ CIS26 – cement. (PDF) . Retrieved on 2011-05-05.
20. ^ "Mother left with horrific burns to her knees after kneeling in B&Q cement while
doing kitchen DIY". Daily Mail (London). 2011-02-15.
http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1357208/Mother-left-horrific-burns-knees-
kneeling-cement-doing-kitchen-DIY.html.
21. ^ Pyatt, Jamie (2011-02-15). "Mums horror cement burns". The Sun (London).
http://www.thesun.co.uk/sol/homepage/news/3412957/Mums-horror-cement-
burns.html.
22. ^ United States Geological Survey. "USGS Mineral Program Cement Report. (Jan
2011)". http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/cement/mcs-2011-
cemen.pdf.
23. ^ Edwards, P; McCaffrey, R. Global Cement Directory 2010. PRo Publications.
Epsom, UK, 2010.
24. ^ Li Yong Yan China's way forward paved in cement, Asia Times January 7, 2004
25. ^ China now no. 1 in CO2 emissions; USA in second position: more info, NEAA,
published 2007-06-19. Retrieved 2007-07-20.
26. ^ China's cement demand to top 1 billion tonnes in 2008, CementAmericas, Nov 1,
2004
27. ^ http://www.worldcoal.org/coal/uses-of-coal/coal-cement/
28. ^ EIA – Emissions of Greenhouse Gases in the U.S. 2006-Carbon Dioxide
Emissions
 29. ^ The Cement Sustainability Initiative: Progress report, World Business Council for
Sustainable Development, published 2002-06-01
30. ^ Mahasenan, Natesan; Steve Smith, Kenneth Humphreys, Y. Kaya (2003). "The
Cement Industry and Global Climate Change: Current and Potential Future Cement
Industry CO2 Emissions". Greenhouse Gas Control Technologies – 6th
International Conference. Oxford: Pergamon. pp. 995–1000.
ISBN 9780080442761. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B873D-
4P9MYFN-BK/2/c58323fdf4cbc244856fe80c96447f44. Retrieved 2008-04-09.
31. ^ Chandak, Shobhit. "Report on cement industry in India". scribd.
http://www.scribd.com/doc/13378451/Cement-Industry-In-India. Retrieved 21 July
2011.
32. ^ Novacem | Imperial Innovations
33. ^ Jha, Alok (2008-12-31). "Revealed: The cement that eats carbon dioxide". The
Guardian (London). http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2008/dec/31/cement-
carbon-emissions. Retrieved 2010-04-28.
34. ^ "Factsheet on: Thallium".
http://www.epa.gov/safewater/pdfs/factsheets/ioc/thallium.pdf. Retrieved 2009-09-
15.
35. ^ Berkes, Howard (2011-11-10). "EPA Regulations Give Kilns Permission To
Pollute : NPR". NPR.org. http://www.npr.org/2011/11/10/142183546/epa-
regulations-give-kilns-permission-to-pollute. Retrieved 2011-11-17.
36. ^ Guidelines for the Selection and Use of Fuels and Raw Materials in the Cement
Manufacturing Process, World Business Council for Sustainable Development,
published 2005-06-01.

[edit] Further reading

 Aitcin, Pierre-Claude (2000). "Cements of yesterday and today: Concrete of
tomorrow". Cement and Concrete Research 30 (9): 1349–1359. doi:10.1016/S0008-
8846(00)00365-3.
 van Oss, Hendrik G.; Padovani, Amy C. (2002). "Cement Manufacture and the
Environment, Part I: Chemistry and Technology". Journal of Industrial Ecology 6
(1): 89–105. doi:10.1162/108819802320971650.
 van Oss, Hendrik G.; Padovani, Amy C. (2003). "Cement Manufacture and the
Environment, Part II: Environmental Challenges and Opportunities". Journal of
Industrial Ecology 7 (1): 93–126. doi:10.1162/108819803766729212.
 Friedrich W. Locher: Cement : Principles of production and use, Düsseldorf,
Germany: Verlag Bau + Technik GmbH, 2006, ISBN 3-7640-0420-7
 Javed I. Bhatty, F. MacGregor Miller, Steven H. Kosmatka; editors: Innovations in
Portland Cement Manufacturing, SP400, Portland Cement Association, Skokie,
Illinois, USA, 2004, ISBN 0-89312-234-3
 "Cement Industry Is at Center of Climate Change Debate" article by Elizabeth
Rosenthal in the New York Times October 26, 2007
 Neville, A.M. (1996). Properties of concrete. Fourth and final edition standards.
Pearson, Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-582-23070-5. OCLC 33837400.
  Taylor, H.F.W. (1990). Cement Chemistry. Academic Press. p. 475. ISBN 0-12-
683900-X.

[edit] External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Cement

 British Cement Association (UK)

 Cembureau (EU)
 Portland Cement Association (US)
 Verein Deutscher Zementwerke e. V. (VDZ), (Germany)
 Carbon dioxide emission from the global cement industry (in 1994)
 World Business Council for Sustainable Development: Cement Sustainability
Initiative
 How is Cement Made? Flash Animation
 Cement Mixers
 Cement by the Barrel and Cask, Concrete in Australia, 26 3: 10–13, 2000
Portland cement
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

A pallet with Portland cement

Blue Circle Southern Cement works near Berrima, New South Wales, Australia.

Portland cement (often referred to as OPC, from Ordinary Portland Cement) is the most
common type of cement in general use around the world because it is a basic ingredient of
concrete, mortar, stucco and most non-specialty grout. It is a fine powder produced by
grinding Portland cement clinker (more than 90%), a limited amount of calcium sulfate
(which controls the set time) and up to 5% minor constituents as allowed by various
standards such as the European Standard EN197-1:

Portland cement clinker is a hydraulic material which shall consist of at least two-thirds by
mass of calcium silicates (3 CaO·SiO2 and 2 CaO·SiO2), the remainder consisting of
aluminium- and iron-containing clinker phases and other compounds. The ratio of CaO to
SiO2 shall not be less than 2.0. The magnesium oxide content (MgO) shall not exceed 5.0%
by mass.

(The last two requirements were already set out in the German Standard, issued in 1909).

ASTM C 150 defines portland cement as "hydraulic cement (cement that not only hardens
by reacting with water but also forms a water-resistant product) produced by pulverizing
clinkers consisting essentially of hydraulic calcium silicates, usually containing one or
more of the forms of calcium sulfate as an inter ground addition." Clinkers are nodules
(diameters, 0.2-1.0 inch [5–25 mm]) of a sintered material that is produced when a raw
mixture of predetermined composition is heated to high temperature. The low cost and
widespread availability of the limestone, shales, and other naturally occurring materials
make portland cement one of the lowest-cost materials widely used over the last century
throughout the world. Concrete is one of the most versatile construction materials available
in the world.

Portland cement clinker is made by heating, in a kiln, a homogeneous mixture of raw

materials to a sintering temperature, which is about 1450 °C for modern cements. The
aluminium oxide and iron oxide are present as a flux and contribute little to the strength.
For special cements, such as Low Heat (LH) and Sulfate Resistant (SR) types, it is
necessary to limit the amount of tricalcium aluminate (3 CaO·Al2O3) formed. The major
raw material for the clinker-making is usually limestone (CaCO3) mixed with a second
material containing clay as source of alumino-silicate. Normally, an impure limestone
which contains clay or SiO2 is used. The CaCO3 content of these limestones can be as low
as 80%. Second raw materials (materials in the rawmix other than limestone) depend on the
purity of the limestone. Some of the second raw materials used are clay, shale, sand, iron
ore, bauxite, fly ash and slag. When a cement kiln is fired by coal, the ash of the coal acts
as a secondary raw material.

Contents
[hide]

 1 History
o 1.1 Cement grinding
 2 Setting and hardening
 3 Use
 4 Types
o 4.1 General
o 4.2 ASTM C150
o 4.3 EN 197
o 4.4 White Portland cement
 5 Safety issues
 6 Environmental effects
 7 Cement plants used for waste disposal or processing
 8 See also
 9 References
 10 External links

[edit] History
Portland cement was developed from natural cements made in Britain in the early part of
the nineteenth century, and its name is derived from its similarity to Portland stone, a type
of building stone that was quarried on the Isle of Portland in Dorset, England.[1]

The Portland cement is considered to originate from Joseph Aspdin, a British bricklayer
from Leeds. It was one of his employees (Isaac Johnson), however, who developed the
production technique, which resulted in a more fast-hardening cement with a higher
compressive strength. This process was patented in 1824.[1] His cement was an artificial
cement similar in properties to the material known as "Roman cement" (patented in 1796
by James Parker) and his process was similar to that patented in 1822 and used since 1811
by James Frost who called his cement "British Cement". The name "Portland cement" is
also recorded in a directory published in 1823 being associated with a William Lockwood,
Dave Stewart, and possibly[vague] others.[citation needed]

Aspdin's son William, in 1843, made an improved version of this cement and he initially
called it "Patent Portland cement" although he had no patent. In 1848 William Aspdin
further improved his cement and in 1853 he moved to Germany where he was involved in
cement making.[2] Many people have claimed to have made the first Portland cement in the
modern sense, but it is generally accepted that it was first manufactured by William Aspdin
at Northfleet, England in about 1842.[3] The German Government issued a standard on
Portland cement in 1878.[4]

[edit] Cement grinding

Main article: Cement mill

A 10 MW cement mill, producing cement at 270 tonnes per hour

In order to achieve the desired setting qualities in the finished product, a quantity (2-8%,
but typically 5%) of calcium sulfate (usually gypsum or anhydrite) is added to the clinker
and the mixture is finely ground to form the finished cement powder. This is achieved in a
cement mill. The grinding process is controlled to obtain a powder with a broad particle
size range, in which typically 15% by mass consists of particles below 5 μm diameter, and
5% of particles above 45 μm. The measure of fineness usually used is the "specific surface
area", which is the total particle surface area of a unit mass of cement. The rate of initial
reaction (up to 24 hours) of the cement on addition of water is directly proportional to the
specific surface area. Typical values are 320–380 m2·kg−1 for general purpose cements, and
450–650 m2·kg−1 for "rapid hardening" cements. The cement is conveyed by belt or powder
pump to a silo for storage. Cement plants normally have sufficient silo space for 1–20
weeks production, depending upon local demand cycles. The cement is delivered to end-
users either in bags or as bulk powder blown from a pressure vehicle into the customer's
silo. In industrial countries, 80% or more of cement is delivered in bulk.

Typical constituents of Portland clinker plus Gypsum

Cement chemists notation under CCN.
Clinker CCN Mass %
Tricalcium silicate (CaO)3 · SiO2 C3S 45-75%
Dicalcium silicate (CaO)2 · SiO2 C2S 7-32%
Tricalcium aluminate (CaO)3 · Al2O3 C3A 0-13%
Tetracalcium aluminoferrite (CaO)4 · Al2O3 · Fe2O3 C4AF 0-18%
Gypsum CaSO4 · 2 H2O 2-10%
Typical constituents of Portland cement
Cement chemists notation under CCN.
Cement CCN Mass %
Calcium oxide, CaO C 61-67%
Silicon dioxide, SiO2 S 19-23%
Aluminum oxide, Al2O3 A 2.5-6%
Ferric oxide, Fe2O3 F 0-6%
Sulfate 1.5-4.5%

An alternative fabrication technique EMC (Energetically modified cement) uses very finely
ground cements that are made from mixtures of cement with sand or with slag or other
pozzolan type minerals which are extremely finely ground together. Such cements can have
the same physical characteristics as normal cement but with 50% less cement particularly
due to their increased surface area for the chemical reaction. Even with intensive grinding
they can use up to 50% less energy to fabricate than ordinary Portland cements.[5]

Chemical composition of EMC (50/50 OPC/FA - Fly Ash)

Compound OPC % FA % EMC %
CaO 62.4 15.0 40.9
SiO2 17.8 49.4 33.2
Al2O3 4.0 19.6 6.3
Fe2O3 3.9 5.2 4.1
SO3 3.2 0.8 1.6
Na2O <0.1 0.3 0.1
K2O 0.3 1.2 1.2
Insolubles 0.5 51.3 21.6

[edit] Setting and hardening

Cement sets when mixed with water by way of a complex series of chemical reactions still
only partly understood. The different constituents slowly crystallise and the interlocking of
their crystals gives cement its strength. Carbon dioxide is slowly absorbed to convert the
portlandite (Ca(OH)2) into insoluble calcium carbonate. After the initial setting, immersion
in warm water will speed up setting. In Portland cement, gypsum is added as a compound
preventing cement flash setting.

[edit] Use

This unreferenced section requires citations to ensure verifiability.

Decorative use of Portland cement panels on London’s Grosvenor estate[6]

The most common use for Portland cement is in the production of concrete. Concrete is a
composite material consisting of aggregate (gravel and sand), cement, and water. As a
construction material, concrete can be cast in almost any shape desired, and once hardened,
can become a structural (load bearing) element. Users may be involved in the factory
production of pre-cast units, such as panels, beams, road furniture, or may make cast-in-situ
concrete such as building superstructures, roads, dams. These may be supplied with
concrete mixed on site, or may be provided with "ready-mixed" concrete made at
permanent mixing sites. Portland cement is also used in mortars (with sand and water only)
for plasters and screeds, and in grouts (cement/water mixes squeezed into gaps to
consolidate foundations, road-beds, etc.).
When water is mixed with Portland Cement, the product sets in a few hours and hardens
over a period of weeks. These processes can vary widely depending upon the mix used and
the conditions of curing of the product, but a typical concrete sets in about 6 hours and
develops a compressive strength of 8 MPa in 24 hours. The strength rises to 15 MPa at
3 days, 23 MPa at 1 week, 35 MPa at 4 weeks and 41 MPa at 3 months. In principle, the
strength continues to rise slowly as long as water is available for continued hydration, but
concrete is usually allowed to dry out after a few weeks and this causes strength growth to
stop.

[edit] Types

This unreferenced section requires citations to ensure verifiability.

[edit] General

There are different standards for classification of Portland cement. The two major standards
are the ASTM C150 used primarily in the U.S. and European EN-197. EN 197 cement
types CEM I, II, III, IV, and V do not correspond to the similarly named cement types in
ASTM C 150.

[edit] ASTM C150

There are five types of Portland cements with variations of the first three according to
ASTM C150.

Type I Portland cement is known as common or general purpose cement. It is generally

assumed unless another type is specified. It is commonly used for general construction
especially when making precast and precast-prestressed concrete that is not to be in contact
with soils or ground water. The typical compound compositions of this type are:

55% (C3S), 19% (C2S), 10% (C3A), 7% (C4AF), 2.8% MgO, 2.9% (SO3), 1.0% Ignition
loss, and 1.0% free CaO.

A limitation on the composition is that the (C3A) shall not exceed fifteen percent.

Type II is intended to have moderate sulfate resistance with or without moderate heat of
hydration. This type of cement costs about the same as Type I. Its typical compound
composition is:

51% (C3S), 24% (C2S), 6% (C3A), 11% (C4AF), 2.9% MgO, 2.5% (SO3), 0.8% Ignition
loss, and 1.0% free CaO.

A limitation on the composition is that the (C3A) shall not exceed eight percent which
reduces its vulnerability to sulfates. This type is for general construction that is exposed to
moderate sulfate attack and is meant for use when concrete is in contact with soils and
ground water especially in the western United States due to the high sulfur content of the
soil. Because of similar price to that of Type I, Type II is much used as a general purpose
cement, and the majority of Portland cement sold in North America meets this
specification.

Note: Cement meeting (among others) the specifications for Type I and II has become
commonly available on the world market.

Type III is has relatively high early strength. Its typical compound composition is:

57% (C3S), 19% (C2S), 10% (C3A), 7% (C4AF), 3.0% MgO, 3.1% (SO3), 0.9% Ignition
loss, and 1.3% free CaO.

This cement is similar to Type I, but ground finer. Some manufacturers make a separate
clinker with higher C3S and/or C3A content, but this is increasingly rare, and the general
purpose clinker is usually used, ground to a specific surface typically 50-80% higher. The
gypsum level may also be increased a small amount. This gives the concrete using this type
of cement a three day compressive strength equal to the seven day compressive strength of
types I and II. Its seven day compressive strength is almost equal to types I and II 28 day
compressive strengths. The only downside is that the six month strength of type III is the
same or slightly less than that of types I and II. Therefore the long-term strength is
sacrificed a little. It is usually used for precast concrete manufacture, where high 1-day
strength allows fast turnover of molds. It may also be used in emergency construction and
repairs and construction of machine bases and gate installations.

Type IV Portland cement is generally known for its low heat of hydration. Its typical
compound composition is:

28% (C3S), 49% (C2S), 4% (C3A), 12% (C4AF), 1.8% MgO, 1.9% (SO3), 0.9% Ignition
loss, and 0.8% free CaO.

The percentages of (C2S) and (C4AF) are relatively high and (C3S) and (C3A) are relatively
low. A limitation on this type is that the maximum percentage of (C3A) is seven, and the
maximum percentage of (C3S) is thirty-five. This causes the heat given off by the hydration
reaction to develop at a slower rate. However, as a consequence the strength of the concrete
develops slowly. After one or two years the strength is higher than the other types after full
curing. This cement is used for very large concrete structures, such as dams, which have a
low surface to volume ratio. This type of cement is generally not stocked by manufacturers
but some might consider a large special order. This type of cement has not been made for
many years, because Portland-pozzolan cements and ground granulated blast furnace slag
addition offer a cheaper and more reliable alternative.

Type V is used where sulfate resistance is important. Its typical compound composition is:
38% (C3S), 43% (C2S), 4% (C3A), 9% (C4AF), 1.9% MgO, 1.8% (SO3), 0.9% Ignition loss,
and 0.8% free CaO.

This cement has a very low (C3A) composition which accounts for its high sulfate
resistance. The maximum content of (C3A) allowed is five percent for Type V Portland
cement. Another limitation is that the (C4AF) + 2(C3A) composition cannot exceed twenty
percent. This type is used in concrete that is to be exposed to alkali soil and ground water
sulfates which react with (C3A) causing disruptive expansion. It is unavailable in many
places although its use is common in the western United States and Canada. As with Type
IV, Type V Portland cement has mainly been supplanted by the use of ordinary cement
with added ground granulated blast furnace slag or tertiary blended cements containing slag
and fly ash.

Types Ia, IIa, and IIIa have the same composition as types I, II, and III. The only
difference is that in Ia, IIa, and IIIa an air-entraining agent is ground into the mix. The air-
entrainment must meet the minimum and maximum optional specification found in the
ASTM manual. These types are only available in the eastern United States and Canada but
can only be found on a limited basis. They are a poor approach to air-entrainment which
improves resistance to freezing under low temperatures.

Types II(MH) and II(MH)a have recently been added with a similar composition as types
II and IIa but with a mild heat. The cements were added to ASTM C-150 in 2009 and will
be in publication in 2010.

[edit] EN 197

EN 197-1 defines 5 classes of common cement that comprise Portland cement as a main
constituent. These classes differ from the ASTM classes.

Comprising Portland cement and up to 5% of minor additional

I Portland cement
Portland-composite
II
cement
III Blastfurnace cement
IV Pozzolanic cement
V Composite cement
constituents
Portland cement and up to 35% of other single constituents
Portland cement and higher percentages of blastfurnace slag
Portland cement and up to 55% of pozzolanic
constituents(volcaince ashs)
Portland cement, blastfurnace slag or fly ash and pozzolana

Constituents that are permitted in Portland-composite cements are artificial pozzolans

(blastfurnace slag, silica fume, and fly ashes) or natural pozzolans (siliceous or siliceous
aluminous materials such as volcanic ash glasses, calcined clays and shale).

[edit] White Portland cement

Main article: White Portland cement

White Portland cement or white ordinary Portland cement (WOPC) is similar to ordinary,
gray Portland cement in all respects except for its high degree of whiteness. Obtaining this
color requires substantial modification to the method of manufacture and, because of this, it
is somewhat more expensive than the gray product.

Sampling fast set concrete made from Portland cement

[edit] Safety issues

Bags of cement routinely have health and safety warnings printed on them because not only
is cement highly alkaline, but the setting process is exothermic. As a result, wet cement is
strongly caustic and can easily cause severe skin burns if not promptly washed off with
water. Similarly, dry cement powder in contact with mucous membranes can cause severe
eye or respiratory irritation. Cement users should wear protective clothing.[7][8][9]

When traditional Portland cement is mixed with water the dissolution of calcium, sodium
and potassium hydroxides produces a highly alkaline solution (pH ~13): gloves, goggles
and a filter mask should be used for protection, and hands should be washed after contact as
most cement can cause acute ulcerative damage 8–12 hours after contact if skin is not
washed promptly.[10] The reaction of cement dust with moisture in the sinuses and lungs
can also cause a chemical burn as well as headaches, fatigue,[11] and lung cancer.[12] The
development of formulations of cement that include fast-reacting pozzolans such as silica
fume as well as some slow-reacting products such as fly ash have allowed for the
production of comparatively low-alkalinity cements (pH<11)[13] that are much less toxic
and which have become widely commercially available, largely replacing high-pH
formulations in much of the United States. Once any cement sets, the hardened mass loses
chemical reactivity and can be safely touched without gloves.

In Scandinavia, France and the UK, the level of chromium(VI), which is considered to be
toxic and a major skin irritant, may not exceed 2 ppm (parts per million).

[edit] Environmental effects

Portland cement manufacture can cause environmental impacts at all stages of the process.
These include emissions of airborne pollution in the form of dust, gases, noise and
vibration when operating machinery and during blasting in quarries, consumption of large
quantities of fuel during manufacture, release of CO2 from the raw materials during
manufacture, and damage to countryside from quarrying. Equipment to reduce dust
emissions during quarrying and manufacture of cement is widely used, and equipment to
trap and separate exhaust gases are coming into increased use. Environmental protection
also includes the re-integration of quarries into the countryside after they have been closed
down by returning them to nature or re-cultivating them.

Epidemiologic Notes and Reports Sulfur Dioxide Exposure in Portland Cement Plants,
from the Centers for Disease Control, states "Workers at Portland cement facilities,
particularly those burning fuel containing sulfur, should be aware of the acute and chronic
effects of exposure to SO2 [sulfur dioxide], and peak and full-shift concentrations of SO2
should be periodically measured."
—[14]

"The Arizona Department of Environmental Quality was informed this week that the
Arizona Portland Cement Co. failed a second round of testing for emissions of hazardous
air pollutants at the company's Rillito plant near Tucson. The latest round of testing,
performed in January 2003 by the company, is designed to ensure that the facility complies
with federal standards governing the emissions of dioxins and furans, which are byproducts
of the manufacturing process." [15] Cement Reviews' "Environmental News" web page
details case after case of environmental problems with cement manufacturing.[16]

An independent research effort of AEA Technology to identify critical issues for the
cement industry today concluded the most important environment, health and safety
performance issues facing the cement industry are atmospheric releases (including
greenhouse gas emissions, dioxin, NOx, SO2, and particulates), accidents and worker
exposure to dust.[17]

The CO2 associated with Portland cement manufacture falls into 3 categories:

Source 1. CO2 derived from decarbonation of limestone,

Source 2. CO2 from kiln fuel combustion,

Source 3. CO2 produced by vehicles in cement plants and distribution.

Source 1 is fairly constant: minimum around 0.47 kg CO2 per kg of cement, maximum
0.54, typical value around 0.50 worldwide.[citation needed] Source 2 varies with plant
efficiency: efficient precalciner plant 0.24 kg CO2 per kg cement, low-efficiency wet
process as high as 0.65, typical modern practices (e.g. UK) averaging around 0.30.[citation
needed]
Source 3 is almost insignificant at 0.002-0.005. So typical total CO2 is around 0.80 kg
CO2 per kg finished cement. This leaves aside the CO2 associated with electric power
consumption, since this varies according to the local generation type and efficiency.
Typical electrical energy consumption is of the order of 90-150 kWh per tonne cement,
equivalent to 0.09-0.15 kg CO2 per kg finished cement if the electricity is coal-generated.

Overall, with nuclear- or hydroelectric power and efficient manufacturing, CO2 generation
can be reduced to 0.7 kg per kg cement, but can be as high as twice this amount. The thrust
of innovation for the future is to reduce sources 1 and 2 by modification of the chemistry of
cement, by the use of wastes, and by adopting more efficient processes. Although cement
manufacturing is clearly a very large CO2 emitter, concrete (of which cement makes up
about 15%) compares quite favorably with other building systems in this regard[citation needed].

[edit] Cement plants used for waste disposal or

processing

Used tires being fed to a pair of cement kilns

Due to the high temperatures inside cement kilns, combined with the oxidizing (oxygen-
rich) atmosphere and long residence times, cement kilns are used as a processing option for
various types of waste streams: indeed, they efficiently destroy many hazardous organic
compounds. The waste streams also often contain combustible materials which allow the
substitution of part of the fossil fuel normally used in the process.

Waste materials used in cement kilns as a fuel supplement:[18]

 Car and truck tires – steel belts are easily tolerated in the kilns
 Paint sludge from automobile industries
 Waste solvents and lubricants
 Meat and bone meal - slaughterhouse waste due to bovine spongiform
encephalopathy contamination concerns
 Waste plastics
 Sewage sludge
  Rice hulls
 Sugarcane waste
 Used wooden railroad ties (railway sleepers)
 Spent Cell Liner (SCL) from the aluminium smelting industry (also called Spent Pot
Liner or SPL)

Portland cement manufacture also has the potential to benefit from using industrial by-
products from the waste-stream.[19] These include in particular:

 Slag
 Fly ash (from power plants)
 Silica fume (from steel mills)
 Synthetic gypsum (from desulfurisation)

[edit] See also

 Cement
 Lime mortar
 Mortar (masonry)
 Rosendale cement
 White Portland cement
 Calcium Silicate Hydrate

[edit] References
1. ^ a b Gillberg, G.; Jönsson, Å.; Tillman, A-M. (1999) (in Swedish). Betong och
miljö [Concrete and environment]. Stockholm: AB Svensk Byggtjenst. ISBN 91-
7332-906-1.
2. ^ "The Cement Industry 1796-1914: A History," by A. J. Francis, 1977
3. ^ P. C. Hewlett (Ed)Lea's Chemistry of Cement and Concrete: 4th Ed, Arnold,
1998, ISBN 0-340-56589-6, Chapter 1
4. ^ German Cement Works' Association http://www.vdz-online.de/314.html?&L=1
5. ^ Performance of Energetically Modified Cement (EMC) and Energetically
Modified Fly Ash (EMFA) as Pozzolan. SINTEF.
http://www.sintef.info/upload/Performance_of_energetically_modified_cement.pdf.
6. ^ Housing Prototypes: Page Street
7. ^ http://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/cis26.pdf
8. ^ "Mother left with horrific burns to her knees after kneeling in B&Q cement while
doing kitchen DIY". Daily Mail (London). 2011-02-15.
http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1357208/Mother-left-horrific-burns-knees-
kneeling-cement-doing-kitchen-DIY.html.
9. ^ Pyatt, Jamie (2011-02-15). "Mums horror cement burns". The Sun (London).
http://www.thesun.co.uk/sol/homepage/news/3412957/Mums-horror-cement-
burns.html.
10. ^ Bolognia, Jean L.; Joseph L. Jorizzo, Ronald P. Rapini (2003). Dermatology,
volume 1. Mosby. ISBN 0-323-02409-2.
 11. ^ Oleru, U. G. (1984). "Pulmonary function and symptoms of Nigerian workers
exposed to cement dust". Environ. Research 33: 379–385.
12. ^ Rafnsson, V; H. Gunnarsdottir and M. Kiilunen (1997). "Risk of lung cancer
among masons in Iceland". Occup. Environ. Med 54: 184–188.
13. ^ Coumes, Céline Cau Dit; Simone Courtois, Didier Nectoux, Stéphanie Leclercq,
Xavier Bourbon (December 2006). "Formulating a low-alkalinity, high-resistance
and low-heat concrete for radioactive waste repositories". Cement and Concrete
Research (Elsevier Ltd.) 36 (12): 2152–2163.
doi:10.1016/j.cemconres.2006.10.005.
14. ^ Epidemiologic Notes and Reports Sulfur Dioxide Exposure in Portland Cement
Plants
15. ^ http://www.azdeq.gov/function/news/2003/jan.html
16. ^ CemNet.com | The latest cement news and information
17. ^ Toward a Sustainable Cement Industry: Environment, Health & Safety
Performance Improvement
18. ^ Chris Boyd (December 2001). "Recovery of Wastes in Cement Kilns". World
Business Council for Sustainable Development. Archived from the original on
2008-06-24.
http://web.archive.org/web/20080624230936/http://www.wbcsdcement.org/pdf/lafa
rge1_en.pdf. Retrieved 2008-09-25.
19. ^ Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures. Skokie, Illinois: Portland Cement
Association. 1988. pp. 15. ISBN 0-89312-087-1. "As a generalization, probably
50% of all industrial byproducts have potential as raw materials for the manufacture
of Portland cement."

[edit] External links

 World Production of Hydraulic Cement, by Country
 PCA - The Portland Cement Association
 Alpha The Guaranteed Portland Cement Company: 1917 Trade Literature from
Smithsonian Institution Libraries
 Cement Sustainability Initiative
 A cracking alternative to cement
 What is the Difference Between Cement, Portland Cement & Concrete?
 Aerial views of the world's largest concentration of cement manufacturing capacity,
Saraburi Province, Thailand, at 14°37′57″N 101°04′38″E / 14.6325°N
101.0771°E
 Fountain, Henry (March 30, 2009). "Concrete Is Remixed With Environment in
Mind". The New York Times.
http://www.nytimes.com/2009/03/31/science/earth/31conc.html. Retrieved 2009-
03-30.

From: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia