Portland Cement

History of Portland Cement

Portland cement was developed from natural cements made in Britain beginning in
the middle of the 18th century. Its name is derived from its similarity to Portland
stone, a type of building stone quarried on the Isle of Portland in Dorset, England.
The development of modern Portland cement (sometimes called ordinary or normal
Portland cement) began in 1756, when John Smeaton experimented with
combinations of different limestones and additives, including trass and pozzolanas,
relating to the planned construction of a lighthouse, now known as Smeaton's Tower.
In the late 18th century, Roman cement was developed and patented in 1796
by James Parker; Roman cement quickly became popular, but was largely replaced by
Portland cement in the 1850s.
In 1811, James Frost produced a cement he called British cement. James Frost is
reported to have erected a manufactory for making of an artificial cement in 1826.
History of Portland Cement
In 1818, French engineer Louis Vicat invented an artificial hydraulic lime considered the
'principal forerunner' of Portland cement and, 'Edgar Dobbs of Southwark patented a
cement of this kind in 1811'.
Portland cement was used by Joseph Aspdin in his cement patent in 1824 because of the
cement's resemblance to Portland stone. The name 'Portland cement' is also recorded in a
directory published in 1823 being associated with a William Lockwood, a Dave Stewart, and
possibly others. However, Aspdin's cement was nothing like modern Portland cement, but
was a first step in the development of modern Portland cement, called a 'proto-Portland
cement'. William Aspdin had left his father's company, and in his cement manufacturing,
apparently accidentally produced calcium silicates in the 1840s, a middle step in the
development of Portland cement.
In 1843, William Aspdin further improved his cement; in 1853, he moved to Germany,
where he was involved in cement making. William Aspdin made what could be called
'meso-Portland cement' (a mix of Portland cement and hydraulic lime). Isaac Charles
Johnson further refined the production of 'meso-Portland cement' (middle stage of
development), and claimed to be the real father of Portland cement.
History of Portland Cement
John Grant of the Metropolitan Board of Works in 1859 set out requirements for cement to
be used in the London sewer project. This became a specification for Portland cement. The
next development with the manufacture of Portland cement was the introduction of
the rotary kiln, patented by German Friedrich Hoffmann, called a Hoffmann kiln for brick
making in 1858, and then Frederick Ransome in 1885 (U.K.) and 1886 (U.S.); which allowed
a stronger, more homogeneous mixture and a continuous manufacturing process. The
Hoffman 'endless' kiln which gave 'perfect control over combustion' was tested in 1860, and
showed the process produced a better grade of cement. This cement was made at the
Portland Cementfabrik Stern at Stettin, which was the first to use a Hoffman kiln. It is
thought that the first modern Portland cement was made there. The Association of German
Cement Manufacturers issued a standard on Portland cement in 1878.
Portland cement had been imported into the United States from Germany and England, and
in the 1870s and 1880s, it was being produced by Eagle Portland cement near Kalamazoo,
Michigan, and in 1875, the first Portland cement was produced by Coplay Cement Company
under the direction of David O. Saylor in Coplay, Pennsylvania. By the early 20th century,
American-made Portland cement had displaced most of the imported Portland cement.
What is Portland Cement?
• A cement having the color of the Portland stone of England, made
by calcining an artificial mixture of carbonate of lime and clay, or
sometimes certain natural limestones or chalky clays. It contains a
large proportion of clay, and hardens under water
• Common type of powdery cementitious building material made
from finely pulverized alumina, iron oxide, lime, magnesia, and
silica burnt together in a kiln.
•  It is a fine powder, produced by heating limestone and clay
minerals in a kiln to form clinker, grinding the clinker, and adding
small amounts of other materials.
Production of Portland
Cement
Manufacturing Portland Cement
• The basic ingredients of both the dry and wet processes are the same. By mass, lime
and silica make up approximately 85% of Portland cement. The materials that are
commonly used are limestone, shells, chalk, shale, clay, slate, silica sand, and iron
ore. Since limestone is the main component, often cement plants are located near
limestone quarries. The first step in both manufacturing processes after quarrying is
primary crushing. Crushing reduces the size of the rock to three inches or
smaller. Next, the raw materials are combined in the correct amounts and fed into
the kiln system. In the dry process, the materials are grounded, mixed, and
introduced into the kiln system in a dry state. In the wet process, the raw materials
follow all of the steps with water added and are introduced into the kiln system in a
slurry state.
• In the kiln system, the first process is pre-heating. The combined materials are fed
through a series of vertical cyclones. As the material moves through these cyclones,
it comes into contact with the hot kiln exhaust gases. The exhaust gases pre-heat the
material before it enters the main part of the kiln. The pre-heat process allows the
chemical reactions that take place in the kiln to happen quicker and more efficiently.
Manufacturing Portland Cement
• In the main kiln, the raw materials are then heated to approximately 2,700 degrees
F. In the kiln, the initial raw ingredients combine to from clinker. Clinker is mainly
made up of tri and di-calcium-silicates which are the main chemicals that bond
together when water is added to cement. Unwanted gases, including carbon dioxide,
are also emitted from the process. In the next state of the process, clinker is cooled in
coolers. The hot air from the coolers is returned to the pre-heater in order to save
fuel in the overall process.
• The clinker is then ground to produce Portland cement. Gypsum is added during the
grinding process to control the set rate of the cement. Slag and fly ash can also be
added to control other properties of the final product.
• Both the dry and wet processes are very energy intensive. The wet process, however,
uses more energy than the dry process due to the amount of water that must be
evaporated before clinker can be produced. The cement industry is constantly looking
for ways to make the manufacturing process more efficient.
Uses of Portland Cement
1. It is used in mortar for plastering, masonry work, pointing, etc.
2. It is used for making joints for drains and pipes.
3. It is used for water tightness of structure.
4. It is used in concrete for laying floors, roofs and constructing lintels, beams, stairs,
pillars etc.
5. It is used where hard surface is required for the protection of exposed surfaces of
structures against the destructive agents of the weather and certain organic or
inorganic chemicals.
6. It is used for precast pipes manufacturing, piles, fencing posts etc.
7. It is used in the construction of important engineering structures such as bridges,
culverts, dams, tunnels, light houses etc.
8. It is used in the preparation of foundations, water tight floors, footpaths etc.
9. It is employed for the construction of wells, water tanks, tennis courts, lamp posts,
telephone cabins, roads etc.
Chemical Composition of Portland Cement
The raw materials used to manufacture Portland cement are the ff.:
1. Lime (calcium oxide)-Lime is a calcium-containing inorganic material in
which carbonates, oxides, and hydroxides predominate. In the strict sense of the term, lime
is calcium oxide or calcium hydroxide. It is also the name of the natural mineral (native lime)
CaO which occurs as a product of coal seam fires and in
altered limestone xenoliths in volcanic ejecta. The word lime originates with its earliest use as
building mortar and has the sense of sticking or adhering.

These materials are still used in large quantities as building and engineering materials
(including limestone products, cement, concrete, and mortar), as chemical feedstocks, and
for sugar refining, among other uses. Lime industries and the use of many of the resulting
products date from prehistoric times in both the Old World and the New World. Lime is used
extensively for wastewater treatment with ferrous sulfate.
Chemical Composition of Portland Cement
The rocks and minerals from which these materials are derived, typically limestone
or chalk, are composed primarily of calcium carbonate. They may be cut, crushed, or
pulverized and chemically altered. Burning(calcination) converts them into the
highly caustic material quicklime (calcium oxide, CaO) and, through subsequent addition of
water, into the less caustic (but still strongly alkaline) slaked lime or hydrated lime(calcium
hydroxide, Ca(OH)2), the process of which is called slaking of lime. Lime kilns are
the kilns used for lime burning and slaking.

When the term is encountered in an agricultural context, it usually refers to agricultural

lime, which is crushed limestone, not a product of a lime kiln. Otherwise it most commonly
means slaked lime, as the more dangerous form is usually described more specifically
as quicklime or burnt lime.a
Chemical Composition of Portland Cement
2. Silica(silicon dioxide)- Silicon dioxide, also known as silica (from the Latin silex), is
an oxide of silicon with the chemical formula SiO2, most commonly found in nature
as quartz SiO2 and in various living organisms. In many parts of the world, silica is the major
constituent of sand. Silica is one of the most complex and most abundant families of materials,
existing as a compound of several minerals and as synthetic product. Notable examples include
fused quartz, fumed silica, silica gel, and aerogels. It is used in structural materials,
microelectronics as component in the food and pharmaceutical industry.
Inhaling finely divided crystalline silica is toxic and can lead to silicosis, bronchitis, lung
cancer and systemic autoimmune diseases, such as lupus and rheumatoid arthritis.
An estimated 95% of silicon dioxide produced is consumed in the construction industry, e.g. for
the production of Portland cement.
Silica, in the form of sand is used as the main ingredient in sand casting for the manufacture of
metallic components in engineering and other applications. The high melting point of silica
enables it to be used in such applications.
Crystalline silica is used in hydraulic fracturing of formations which contain tight oil and shale gas.
Chemical Composition of Portland Cement
3. Aluminum oxide (alumina)- Aluminium oxide (British English) or aluminum
oxide (American English) is a chemical compound of aluminium and oxygen with
the chemical formula Al2O3. It is the most commonly occurring of several aluminium oxides,
and specifically identified as aluminium(III) oxide. It is commonly called alumina, and may
also be called aloxide, aloxite, or alundum depending on particular forms or applications.
It occurs naturally in its crystalline polymorphic phase α-Al2O3 as the mineral corundum,
varieties of which form the precious gemstones ruby and sapphire. Al2O3 is significant in its
use to produce aluminium metal, as an abrasive owing to its hardness, and as
a refractory material owing to its high melting point.
Chemical Composition of Portland Cement
• 4. Iron oxide- Iron oxides are chemical compounds composed of iron and oxygen. All together,
there are sixteen known iron oxides and ox hydroxides.
• Iron oxides and oxide-hydroxides are widespread in nature, play an important role in many
geological and biological processes, and are widely used by humans, e.g., as iron
ores, pigments, catalysts, in thermite (see the diagram) and hemoglobin. Common rust is a form
of iron(III) oxide. Iron oxides are widely used as inexpensive, durable pigments in paints, coatings
and colored concretes. Colors commonly available are in the "earthy" end of the
yellow/orange/red/brown/black range. When used as a food coloring, it has E number E172.
Chemical Composition of Portland Cement
The raw materials used to manufacture Portland cement are lime, silica, alumina
and iron oxide. These raw materials interact in the kiln, forming complex chemical
compounds.
The main chemical compounds of Portland cement with their chemical formula and
their percentages by weight are as follows:
Chemical Composition of Portland Cement
C3S- Hydrates and hardens rapidly and is responsible for initial set early strength.
Portland cements with higher percentages of C3S will exhibit higher early strength.
C2S- Hydrates and hardens slowly and is largely responsible for increase in strength
beyond 7 days.
C3A- Hydrates and hardens the quickest. Liberates a large amount of heat almost
immediately and contributes somewhat to early strength.
C4AF-Hydrates rapidly but contributes very little to strength. Its use allows lower kiln
temperature in Portland cement color effects are due to C4AF.
CSH2- Without Gypsum, C3A hydration would cause Portland cement to set almost
immediately after addition of water.
Chemical Composition of Portland Cement
There are minor compounds, such as magnesium oxide, titanium oxide, manganese
oxide, sodium oxide and potassium oxide. The term minor refers to their quantity
and not their importance. The two minor compounds, sodium oxide and potassium
oxide, are known as alkalis. These alkalis react with some aggregates causing
disintegration of concrete and affecting the rate of strength development.
Fineness of Portland Cement
Fineness, or particle size of Portland cement affects hydration
rate and thus the rate of strength gain. The smaller the particle size, the
greater the surface area-to-volume ratio, and thus, the more area
available for water-cement interaction per unit volume. The effects of
greater fineness on strength are generally seen during the first seven
days (PCA, 1988).
Specific Gravity of Portland Cement
Specific gravity is normally used in mixture proportioning
calculations. The specific gravity of Portland cement is generally around
3.15 while the specific gravity of Portland-blast-furnace-slag and
Portland-pozzolan cements may have specific gravities near 2.90 (PCA,
1988).
Hydration of Portland Cement

Hydration
The chemical reactions between the cement and water.
Hydration of Portland Cement
Why is it important?
• Ensure the strength and durability of concrete
• Recognize and mitigate the stresses to prevent cracking
• Appreciate the importance of good caring and construction practices
Hydration of Portland Cement
Composition of a typical Portland cement listed by weight percentage
Hydration of Portland Cement
Tricalcium silicate (3CaO.SiO2)
-responsible for most of the early strength (first 7 days)
-Very high heat of hydration
Dicalcium silicate(Ca2SiO4 or 2CaO.SiO2)
-reacts more slowly, contributes only to the strength at later times
-gives off less heat
Tricalcium aluminate (Ca3Al2O6 or 3CaO .Al2O3)
-Very high heat of hydration
-Some contributing to early strength
Tetracalcium aluminoferrite (Ca4Al2Fe2O10 or 4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3)
-little contribution to strength
-controls color of cement
5 Stages of Hydration
Hydration of Portland Cement
Hydration of Portland Cement
Evaluation of hydration cement progress
It includes measuring:
• 1. the heat of hydration
• 2. the amount of calcium hydroxide in the paste development due to
hydration
• 3. then specific gravity of the paste
• 4. the amount of chemically combined water
• 5. the amount of unhydrated cement paste using X ray Quantitative analysis
• 6. the strength of hydrated paste, an indirect measurement.
Voids in Hydrated Cement
• Cement Voids in hydrated cement
Two types of voids:
1. Interlayer hydration space
2. Capillary voids
Voids in Hydrated Cement
• Interlayer Hydration Space
– Space between layers in C-S-H with thickness between 0.5 and 2.5
nm
– Can contribute 28% of paste porosity
– Little impact on strength, permeability, or shrinkage
Voids in Hydrated Cement
• Capillary Voids
– Depend on initial separation of cement particles, which is
controlled by the ratio of water to cement (w/c)
– On the order of 10 to 50 nm, although larger for higher w/c
– Larger voids effect strength and permeability, whereas smaller
voids impact shrinkage
Properties of Hydrated Cement
Strength
The relative strength of the paste depends on the degree to which
gel fills the space available to it leads to the establishment of an
empirical relationship between the porosity and the strength of a
paste.
Porosity and Permeability
The porosity of paste as a whole is usually greater, and it depends
on the original water content and cm the extent to which space bas
become filled with hydration products
The permeability of a granular solid depends on porosity and on the
size and shape of the pores.
Properties of Hydrated Cement
Soundness
Property by virtue of which the cement does not undergo any
appreciable expansion (or change in volume) after it has set
Compressive strength
The most common strength test, compressive strength, is carried
out on a 50 mm (2-inch) cement mortar test specimen. The test
specimen is subjected to a compressive load (usually from a hydraulic
machine) until failure. This loading sequence must take no less than 20
seconds and no more than 80 seconds.
 Water-Cement Ratio
The water–cement ratio is the ratio of the weight of water to the weight of
cement used in a concrete mix and has an important influence on the quality
of concrete produced.
• A lower water-cement ratio leads to higher strength and durability, but  may
make the mix more difficult to place.
• Placement difficulties can be  resolved by using plasticizers or super-
plasticizers.
• Maximum 0.50 water-to-cement ratio (1:2) when concrete is exposed to 
freezing and thawing in a moist condition or to de-icing chemicals, and a 
maximum 0.45 water to cement ratio for concrete in severe or very  severe
sulphate conditions.
Types of Portland Cement
Portland cement is a closely controlled chemical combination of calcium,
silicon, aluminum, iron and small amounts of other compounds, to which gypsum
is added in the final grinding process to regulate the setting time of the concrete.
Some of the raw materials used to manufacture cement are limestone, shells, and
chalk or marl, combined with shale, clay, slate or blast furnace slag, silica sand,
and iron ore. Lime and silica make up approximately 85 percent of the mass (1).
The term "Portland" in Portland cement originated in 1824 when an English mason
obtained a patent for his product, which he named Portland Cement. This was
because his cement blend produced concrete that resembled the color of the
natural limestone quarried on the Isle of Portland in the English Channel. Different
types of Portland cement are manufactured to meet different physical and
chemical requirements for specific purposes. The American Society for Testing and
Materials (ASTM) Designation C 150 provides for eight types of Portland cement:
Types of Portland Cement
TYPE I
Type I is a general purpose Portland cement suitable for all uses where the special
properties of other types are not required. It is used where cement or concrete is not subject
to specific exposures, such as sulfate attack from soil or water, or to an objectionable
temperature rise due to heat generated by hydration. Its uses include pavements and
sidewalks, reinforced concrete buildings, bridges, railway structures, tanks, reservoirs, culverts,
sewers, water pipes and masonry units. TYPE II Type II Portland cement is used where
precaution against moderate sulfate attack is important, as in drainage structures where sulfate
concentrations in groundwaters are higher than normal but not unusually severe.
Cement will usually generate less heat at a slower rate than Type I. With this moderate heat
of hydration (an optional requirement), Type II cement can be used in structures of
considerable mass, such as large piers, heavy abutments, and heavy retaining walls. Its use will
reduce temperature rise -- especially important when the concrete is placed in warm weather.
(1) "Concrete Pipe Handbook", page 2-2, American Concrete Pipe Association, 1988.
Types of Portland Cement
TYPE III
Type III is a high-early strength portland cement that provides high strengths at an early
period, usually a week or less. It is used when forms are to be removed as soon as possible,
or when the structure must be put into service quickly. In cold weather, its use permits a
reduction in the controlled curing period. Although richer mixtures of Type I cement can be
used to gain high early strength, Type III, highearly-strength portland cement, may provide it
more satisfactorily and more economically.
TYPE IA, IIA, IIIA
Specifications for three types of air-entraining portland cement (Types IA, IIA, and IIIA) are
given in ASTM C 150. They correspond in composition to ASTM Types I, II, and III, respectively,
except that small quantities of air-entraining materials are interground with the clinker during
manufacture to produce minute, welldistributed, and completely separated air bubbles.
These cements produce concrete with improved resistance to freeze-thaw action.
Types of Portland Cement
TYPE IV
Type IV is a low heat of hydration cement for use where the rate and amount of
heat generated must be minimized. It develops strength at a slower rate than Type I
cement. Type IV Portland cement is intended for use in massive concrete structures,
such as large gravity dams, where the temperature rise resulting from heat
generated during curing is a critical factor.
TYPE V
Type V is a sulfate-resisting cement used only in concrete exposed to severe
sulfate action -- principally where soils or groundwaters have a high sulfate content.
Table 1 describes sulfate concentrations requiring the use of Type V Portland
cement. Low Tricalcium Aluminate (C3A) content, generally 5% or less, is required
when high sulfate resistance is needed.
Types of Portland Cement
** Should be approved pozzolan that has been determined by tests to
improve sulfate resistance when used in concrete with Type V cement.
Other Cement Types
Addition to ordinary cement, following are the other important types of cement:
• Acid resistant cement
• Blast furnace cement
• Coloured cement
• Expanding cement
• High Alumina cement
• Hydrophobic cement
• Low heat cement
• Pozzolana cement
• Quick setting cement
• Rapid hardening cement
• Sulphate resisting cement
• White cement.
• Air entraining cement
Other Cement Types
Acid-resistant cement
• Acid-resistant cement is composed of the following:
• Acid-resistance aggregates such as quartz, quartzites, etc.
• Additive such as sodium fluosilicate Na2SiF6
• Aqueous solution of sodium silicate or soluble glass.
• The addition of additive sodium flousilicate accelerates the hardening process of soluble glass
and it also increases the resistance of cement to acid and water.
• The binding material of acid-resistance cement is soluble glass which is a water solution of
sodium silicate, Na2O.nSiO­2 or potassium silicate, K2O.nSiO2, where n is the glass modulus.
• The acid-resistance cement is used for acid-resistance and heat resistance coatings of
installations of chemical industry. It is not water-resistant and it fails when attacked by water
or weak acids. By adding 0.5 percent of linseed oil or 2 percent of ceresit, its resistance to the
water is increased and it is then known as the acid and water resistant cement.
Other Cement Types
Blast Furnace Cement
For this cement type, the slag as obtained from blast furnace is used. The slag is
a waste product in the manufacturing process of pig-iron and it contains the basic
elements of cement, namely alumina, lime and silica. The clinkers of cement are
ground with about 60 to 65 percent of slag.
The properties of this cement are more or less the same as those of ordinary
cement. Its strength in early days is less and hence it requires longer curing period.
It proves to be economical as slag, which is a waste product, is used in its
manufacture. This cement is durable, but not suitable for use in dry arid zones.
Other Cement Types
Coloured Cement
The cement of desired colour may be obtained by intimately mixing
mineral pigments with ordinary cement. The amount of colouring material
may vary from 5 to 10 percent. If this percentage exceeds 10 percent, the
strength of cement is affected.
The chromium oxide gives green colour. The cobalt imparts blue colour.
The iron oxide in different proportions gives brown, red or yellow colour. The
manganese dioxide is used to produce black or brown coloured cement.
These types of coloured cement are widely used for finishing of floors,
external surfaces, artificial marble, window sill slabs, textured panel faces,
stair treads, etc.
Other Cement Types
Expanding Cement
This type of cement is produced by adding an expanding medium
like sulpho-aluminate and a stabilising agent to the ordinary cement.
Hence this cement expands whereas other cements shrink.
The expanding cement is used for construction of water retaining
structures and also for repairing the damaged concrete surfaces.
Other Cement Types
High Alumina Cement
This cement is produced by grinding clinkers formed by calcining bauxite and lime.
It is specified that total alumina content should not be less than 32 percent and the
ratio by weight of alumina to lime should be between 0.85 to 1.30.
Other Cement Types
Hydrophobic Cement
This type of cement contains admixtures which decreases the wetting ability of
cement grains. The usual hydrophobic admixtures are acidol, napthenesoap,
oxidized petrolatum, etc. Use of hydrophobic cement considerably increases the
water resistance of an concrete.
Other Cement Types
Low Heat Cement
The considerable heat is produced during the setting of cement. In order to reduce the
amount of heat, this type of cement is used. It contains lower percentage of tricalcium
aluminate C3A of about 5% and higher percentage of dicalcium silicate C2S of about 46%.
This cement possesses less compressive strength. The initial setting time is about one
hour and final setting time is about 10 hours. It is mainly used for mass concrete work.
Other Cement Types
Pozzolana Cement
Pozzolana is a volcanic powder. It is found in Italy near Vesuvius. This type of
cement is used to prepare mass concrete of lean mix and for marine structures. It is
also used in sewage works ad for laying concrete under water.
Other Cement Types
Quick Setting Cement
This cement is produced by adding a small percentage of aluminium
sulphate and by finely grinding the cement. The percentage of gypsum or
retarder for setting action is also greatly reduced. The addition of aluminium
sulphate and fineness of grinding are responsible for accelerating the setting
action of cement. The setting action of cement starts within five minutes
after addition of water and it becomes hard like stone in less than 30
minutes or so.
The extreme care is to be taken when this cement is used as mixing and
placing of concrete are to be completed in a very short period. This type of
cement is used to lay concrete under static water or running water.
Other Cement Types
Rapid Hardening Cement
The initial and final setting times of this cement are same as those of ordinary
cement. But it attains high strength in early days. It contains high percentage of
tricalcium silicate C3S to the extent of about 56%.
Other Cement Types
Sulphate Resisting Cement
In this cement, the percentage of tricalcium aluminate C3A is kept below 5
percent and it results in the increase in resisting power against sulphates.
This type of cement is used for structures which are likely to be damaged by
severe alkaline conditions such as canal linings, culverts, siphons, etc.
Other Cement Types
White Cement
This just a variety of ordinary cement and is prepared from such raw materials
which are practically free from colouring oxides of iron, manganese or chromium.
For burning of this cement, the oil fuel is used instead of coal. It is white in colour
and is used for floor finish, plaster work, ornament work, etc.
Other Cement Types
Air Entraining Cement
It is produced by adding indigenous air entraining agents such as resins, glues,
sodium salts of Sulphates etc during the grinding of clinker. This type of cement is
specially suited to improve the workability with smaller water cement ratio and to
improve frost resistance of concrete.
Mixing Water
Mixing Water
Almost any natural water that is drinkable and has no pronounced taste or odor can be
used as mixing water for making concrete However, some waters that are not fit for drinking
may be suitable for use in concrete. Six typical analyses of city water supplies and seawater
are shown in. These waters approximate the composition of domestic water supplies for
most of the cities over 20,000 population in the United States and Canada. Water from any of
these sources is suitable for making concrete. A water source comparable in analysis to any
of the waters in the table is probably satisfactory for use in concrete Water of questionable
suitability can be used for making concrete if mortar cubes (ASTM C 109 or AASHTO T 106)
made with it have 7-day strengths equal to at least 90% of companion specimens made with
drinkable or distilled water. In addition, ASTM C 191 (AASHTO T 131) tests should be made to
ensure that impurities in the mixing water do not adversely shorten or extend the setting
time of the cement. Acceptable criteria for water to be used in concrete are given in ASTM C
94 (AASHTO M 157) and AASHTO T 26
Mixing Water
TYPES OF MIXING WATER
• ALKALI CARBONATE AND BICARBONATE
• CHLORIDE
• OTHER COMMON SALTS
• IRON SALTS
• MISCELLANEOUS INORGANIC SALTS
• SEAWATER
• ACID WATERS
• WASH WATER
• INDUSTRIAL WASTEWATER
• ALGAE
• SUGAR
• OILS
Mixing Water
ALKALI CARBONATE AND BICARBONATE
• Carbonates and bicarbonates of sodium and potassium have different effects
on the setting times of different cements. Sodium carbonate can cause very
rapid setting, bicarbonates can either accelerate or retard the set. In large
concentrations, these salts can materially reduce concrete strength. When the
sum of the dissolved salts exceeds 1000 ppm, tests for their effect on setting
time and 28-day strength should be made. The possibility of aggravated alkali-
aggregate reactions should also be considered. alkalies, and solids in the
mixing water or appropriate tests can be performed to determine the effect
the impurity has on various properties. Some impurities may have little effect
on strength and setting time, yet they can adversely affect durability and
other properties.
Mixing Water
CHLORIDE
• Concern over a high chloride content in mixing water is chiefly due to the
possible adverse effect of chloride ions on the corrosion of reinforcing steel
or prestressing strands. Chloride ions attack the protective oxide film formed
on the steel by the highly alkaline (pH greater than 12.5) chemical
environment present in concrete.
OTHER COMMON SALTS
• Carbonates of calcium and magnesium are not very soluble in water and are
seldom found in sufficient concentration to affect the strength of concrete.
Bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium are present in some municipal
waters. Concentrations up to 400 ppm of bicarbonate in these forms are not
considered harmful.
Mixing Water
IRON SALTS
• Natural ground waters seldom contain more than 20 to 30 ppm of iron; however, acid mine
waters may carry rather large quantities. Iron salts in concentrations up to 40,000 ppm do
not usually affect concrete strengths adversely
MISCELLANEOUS INORGANIC SALTS
• Salts of manganese, tin, zinc, copper, and lead in mixing water can cause a significant
reduction in strength and large variations in setting time.
SEAWATER
• Seawater containing up to 35,000 ppm of dissolved salts is generally suitable as mixing water
for concrete not containing steel. About 78% of the salt is sodium chloride, and 15% is
chloride and sulfate of magnesium. Although concrete made with seawater may have higher
early strength than normal concrete, strengths at later ages (after 28 days) may be lower.
Mixing Water
ACID WATERS
• Acceptance of acid mixing water should be based on the concentration (in parts
per million) of acids in the water. Generally, mixing waters containing hydrochloric,
sulfuric, and other common inorganic acids in concentrations as high as 10,000
ppm have no adverse effect on strength. Acid waters with pH values less than 3.0
may create handling problems and should be avoided if possible.
WASH WATER
• The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and state agencies forbid discharging
into the nation’s waterways untreated wash water used in reclaiming sand and
gravel from returned concrete or mixer washout operations. Wash water is
commonly used as mixing water in ready mixed concrete
Mixing Water
INDUSTRIAL WASTEWATER
• When such water is used as mixing water in concrete, the reduction in compressive strength is
generally not greater than about 10%-15%.
ALGAE
• Water containing algae is unsuited for making concrete because the algae can cause an
excessive reduction in strength. Algae in water leads to lower strengths either by influencing
cement hydration or by causing a large amount of air to be entrained in the concrete.
SUGAR
• It may cause ah rapid setting of cement.
OILS
• Various kinds of oil are occasionally present in mixing water. Mineral oil (petroleum) not mixed
with animal or vegetable oils probably has less effect on strength development than other oils.
However, mineral oil in concentrations greater than 2.5% by mass of cement may reduce
strength by more than 20%.
Admixtures for Concrete
Admixtures - admixtures are natural or manufactured chemicals which are added
to the concrete before or during mixing.
Why use Admixtures?
-Admixtures are used to give special properties to fresh or hardened concrete.
Admixtures may enhance the durability, workability or strength characteristics of a
given concrete mixture. Admixtures are used to overcome difficult construction
situations, such as hot or cold weather placements, pumping requirements, early
strength requirements, or very low water-cement ratio specifications.
The Portland Cement Association (PCA) identifies
Four Major Reasons for using Admixtures
1. To reduce cost of concrete construction
2. To achieve certain properties in concrete more effectively than by
other means
3. To ensure quality of concrete during the stages of mixing,
transporting, placing, and curing in adverse weather conditions
4. To overcome certain emergencies during concrete operations
Admixtures for Concrete
Admixtures are classified by chemical and functional physical characteristics. These are:
1. Air entrainers
Air entrained concrete can increase the freeze-thaw durability of concrete. This type of
admixture produces a more workable concrete than non-entrained concrete while reducing
bleeding and segregation of fresh concrete. Improved resistance of concrete to severe frost action
or freeze/thaw cycles. Other benefits from this admixture are: High resistance to cycles of wetting
and drying, High degree of workability, High degree of durability.
Admixtures for Concrete
Air entrainers produce tiny bubbles in the hardened concrete to provide space for
water to expand upon freezing. As moisture within the concrete pores structure
freezes, three mechanisms contribute to the development of the internal stresses in
the concrete:
a. Critical saturation – upon freezing, water expands in volume by 9%. If the percent
saturation exceeds 91.7%, the volume increase generates stress in the concrete.
b. Hydraulic pressure – freezing water draws unfrozen water to it. The unfrozen
water moving throughout the concrete pores generates stress depending on length of
flow path, rate of freezing, permeability and concentration of salt in pores.
c. Osmotic pressure – water moves from the gel to capillaries to satisfy
thermodynamics equilibrium and to equalize alkali concentrations. Voids permit water
to flow from the interlayer hydration space and capillaries into the air voids where it
has room to freeze without damaging parts.
Admixtures for Concrete
2. Water Reducers
• Water-reducing admixtures are chemical products that when added to concrete can create a
desired slump at a lower water-cement ratio than what it is normally designed. Water-reducing
admixtures are used to obtain specific concrete strength using lower cement content. ​Lower
cement contents result in lower CO2 emissions and energy usage per volume of concrete
produced. With this type of admixture, concrete properties are improved and help place concrete
under difficult conditions. Water reducers have been used primarily in bridge decks, low-slump
concrete overlays, and patching concrete.
Admixtures for Concrete
3. Superplasticizer
• The main purpose of using superplasticizers is to produce flowing concrete with a high slump in
the range of seven to nine inches to be used in heavily reinforced structures and in placements
where adequate consolidation by vibration cannot be readily achieved. The other major
application is the production of high-strength concrete at which is ranging from 0.3 to 0.4. It has
been found that for most types of cement, superplasticizer improves the workability of concrete.
One problem associated with using a high range water reducer in concrete is slump loss. High
workability concrete containing superplasticizer can be made with a high freeze-thaw resistance,
but air content must be increased relative to concrete without superplasticizer. Superplasticizers
can be used in the following cases: a low water-cement ration beneficial, placing thin sections,
placing concrete around tightly spaced reinforcing steel, placing cement underwater, placing
concrete by pumping, consolidating the concrete is difficult.
Admixtures for Concrete
4. Retarders
• Set retarding concrete admixtures are used to delay the chemical reaction that takes place when
the concrete starts the setting process. These types of concrete admixtures are commonly used to
reduce the effect of high temperatures that could produce a faster initial setting of concrete. Set
retarding admixtures are used in concrete pavement construction, allowing more time for
finishing concrete pavements, reducing additional costs to place a new concrete batch plant on
the job site and helps eliminate cold joints in concrete. Retarders can also be used to resist
cracking due to form deflection that can occur when horizontal slabs
• are placed in sections. Most retarders also function as water reducers
• and may entrain some air in concrete. Retarders are used for several
• reasons, such as: offsetting the effect of hot water, allowing unusual
• placement or long hand distance and providing time for special finishes.
Admixtures for Concrete
5. Accelerators
• Accelerating concrete admixtures are used to increase the rate of concrete strength development
or to reduce concrete setting time. Calcium chloride could be named as the most common
accelerator component; however, it could promote corrosion activity of steel reinforcement.
Nonetheless, concrete best practices such as proper consolidation, adequate cover and proper
concrete mix design could prevent these corrosion issues. Accelerating admixtures are especially
useful for modifying the properties of concrete in cold weather. Accelerators are used to reduce
the amount of time before finishing operations begin, reduce curing time, increase rate of
strength gain and plug leaks under hydraulic pressure efficiently.
Admixtures for Concrete
6. Fine Minerals
• Powdered or pulverized mineral admixtures are siliceous materials added to concrete in
relatively large amounts (20% - 100% of the cement weight) to improve the characteristics
of both plastic and hardened concrete. Mineral admixtures are frequently the waste from a
process. Use of these by-products provides an environmental benefit by reducing waste
disposal. The PCA classifies mineral admixtures by chemical and physical characteristics as:
cementitious, pozzolanic, pozzolanic-cementitious and nominally inert materials.
• Fly ash and natural pozzolans are classified as follows:
• Class N: Raw or calcined pozzolans
• Class F: Fly ash produced from burning bituminous coal
• Class C: Fly ash normally produced from burning lignite (subbituminous) coal. (both
pozzolanic and cementatious)
Admixtures for Concrete
• Effect of mineral admixtures on freshly mixed concrete.
• Water requirements: Fly ash reduces water requirements. Silica fume increases
water requirements.
• Air content: Fly ash and silica fume reduce air content, compensate by increasing
air entrainer.
• Workability: Fly ash, ground slag and inert minerals generally increase workability.
Silica fumes reduces workability, compensate by using superplasticizer.
• Hydration: Fly ash reduces heat of hydration. Silica fume may not affect but
superplasticizer used with silica fume can increase heat.
• Set time: Fly ash, natural pozzolans and blast furnace slag increase set time, can
compensate by using accelerators.
Admixtures for Concrete
• Effect of mineral admixtures on hardened concrete.
• Strength: Fly ash increases ultimate strength but reduces the rate of strength
gain. Silica fume has less effect on rate of strength gain than pozzolans.
• Drying shrinkage and creep: Low concentrations usually have little effect. High
concentrations of ground slag or fly ash may increase shrinkage. Silica fume may
reduce shrinkage.
• Permeability and absorption: generally reduced permeability and absorption.
Silica fume is especially effective
• Alkali aggregate reactively: Generally reduce reactivity, extent of improvement
depends on typed of admixture.
• Sulfate resistance: improved due to reduced permeability.
Specialty Admixtures
• In addition to the previously mentioned admixtures, several
admixtures are available to improve concrete quality in particular
ways. The civil engineer should be aware of these admixtures, but will
need to study their application in detail, as well as their cost, before
using them. Examples of specially admixtures include: workability
agents, corrosion inhibitors, damp proofing agents, permeability
reducing agents, fungicidal, germicidal and insecticidal admixtures,
pumping aids, bonding agents, grouting agents, gas forming agents,
coloring agents.
Pozzolan Cement
What is Pozzolan Cement?
Pozzolans are a broad class of siliceous or siliceous
and aluminous materials which, in themselves, possess little or
no cementitious value but which will, in finely divided form and in the
presence of water, react chemically with calcium hydroxide at ordinary
temperature to form compounds possessing cementitious
properties. The quantification of the capacity of a pozzolan to react
with calcium hydroxide and water is given by measuring its pozzolanic
activity. Pozzolana are naturally occurring pozzolans of volcanic origin.
POZZOLANIC MATERIALS
1. FLY ASH
• Fly Ash the most widely used supplementary cementitious material in concrete, is a byproduct of
the combustion of pulverized coal in electric power generating plants. Fly ash is primarily silicate
glass containing silica, alumina, iron, and calcium. Minor constituents are magnesium, sulfur,
sodium, potassium, and carbon. Crystalline compounds are present in small amounts. The relative
density (specific gravity) of fly ash generally ranges between 1.9 and 2.8 and the color is generally
gray or tan. Fly ash is used in about 50% of ready mixed concrete .
POZZOLANIC MATERIALS
The Benefits of Using Fly Ash
• Greater strength. Fly ash increases in strength over time, continuing to combine with free
lime.
• Decreased permeability. Increased density and long-term pozzolanic action of fly ash,
which ties up free lime, results in fewer bleed channels and decreases permeability.
• Increased durability. The lower permeability of concrete with fly ash also helps keep
aggressive compounds on the surface, where destructive action is lessened. Fly ash
concrete is also more resistant to attack by sulfate, mild acid, and soft (lime hungry) water.
• Reduced alkali silica reactivity. Fly ash combines with alkalis from cement that might
otherwise combine with silica from aggregates, thereby preventing destructive expansion.
• Reduced heat of hydration. The pozzolanic reaction between fly ash and lime generates
less heat, resulting in reduced thermal cracking when fly ash is used to replace a
percentage of Portland Cement.
POZZOLANIC MATERIALS
Disadvantages
• The quality of fly ash to be utilized is very vital. Poor quality often has a negative
impact on the concrete.
• The poor quality can increase the permeability and thus damaging the building.
• Some fly ash, those are produced in power plant is usually compatible with
concrete, while some other needs to be beneficiated, and few other types cannot
actually be improved for using in concrete. Thus, it is very much vital to use only
high quality fly ash to prevent negative effects on the structure of the building.
POZZOLANIC MATERIALS
2. SLAG
Ground granulated blast-furnace slag, also called slag cement, is made from iron
blast-furnace slag; it is a nonmetallic hydraulic cement consisting essentially of
silicates and aluminosilicates of calcium developed in a molten condition
simultaneously with iron in a blast furnace. Some slag concretes have a slag
component of 70% or more of the cementitious material.
POZZOLANIC MATERIALS
Advantages
• Ultimate compressive strength
• Excellent resistance to Chloride & Sulphate attacks
• Low risk of cracking
• Improved workability
• Better compatibility with all types of admixtures
• Better resistance against alkali-silica reaction
• Minimized shrinkage cracks
POZZOLANIC MATERIALS
Disadvantages
•  Strength gain is slow
•  In cold weather condition the low heat of hydration of slag cement
coupled with moderately low rate of strength development, can lead
to frost damage.
POZZOLANIC MATERIALS
3. SILICA FUME
Silica fume, also referred to as microsilica or condensed silica fume, is a
byproduct material that is used as a pozzolan. This byproduct is a result of the
reduction of high-purity quartz with coal in an electric arc furnace in the
manufacture of silicon or ferrosilicon alloy. The relative density of silica fume is
generally in the range of 2.20 to 2.5Silica fume is sold in powder form but is more
commonly available in a liquid. Silica fume is used in amounts between 5% and 10%
by mass of the total cementitious material.
POZZOLANIC MATERIALS
Advantages
• High early compressive strength
• High tensile flexural strength and modulus of elasticity
• Very low permeability to chloride and water intrusion
• Enhanced durability
• Increased toughness
• Increased abrasion resistance on decks, floors, overlays and marine structures
• Superior resistance to chemical attack from chlorides, acids, nitrates and sulfates
and life-cycle cost efficiencies
• Higher bond strength
• High electrical resistivity and low permeability
POZZOLANIC MATERIALS
4. NATURAL POZZOLANS
Natural pozzolanas are abundant in certain locations and are extensively used as an addition to
Portland cement in countries such as Italy, Germany, Greece and China. Volcanic ashes and pumices
largely composed of volcanic glass are commonly used, as are deposits in which the volcanic glass
has been altered to zeolites by interaction with alkaline waters. can be used as a partial
replacement for the cement, typically in the range of 15% to 35%, and to enhance resistance to
sulfate attack, control alkali-silica reactivity, and reduce permeability.