Sensing and Bio-Sensing Research 33 (2021) 100447

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Sensing and Bio-Sensing Research

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/sbsr

THz sensing of CoViD-19 disinfecting products using photonic crystal fiber

Md Rezaul Hoque Khan *, Fath Ahmed Mohamed Ali , Mohammad Rakibul Islam
Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering, Islamic University of Technology, Dhaka, Bangladesh

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Methanol and Benzene are two volatile impurities that can be adulterate into Ethanol to make hand sanitizes,
Photonic crystal fiber putting the disinfection practices at risk. In this paper, an optical fiber-based Photonic Crystal Fiber (PCF) sensor
Optical sensor is developed to offer low loss and increased sensitivity concurrently in order to detect volatile contaminants
Effective material loss
combined with Ethanol in an efficient and safe manner. In the PCF, both the core and cladding area, rectangular
Relative sensitivity
Analyte
air holes are utilized, and an absorbing layer, PML, is imposed to investigate a variety of optical characteristics.
To quantify the exhibition of the recommended fiber sensor, Finite Element Method (FEM) framework is utilized.
The simulation results on the proposed sensor model exhibit very gratifying results on the Relative Sensitivity
(RS) as 99.15%, 99.36% and 99.41% confinement loss as 5 × 10− 17 dB/cm, 2 × 10− 16 dB/cm and 1.17 × 10− 17
dB/cm, EML as 0.00065 cm− 1, 0.00085 cm− 1 and 0.00068 cm− 1 for Ethanol, Methanol and Benzene, respectively
at 2.2 THz frequency regime. Physical insights into the proposed fiber were also highlighted. The current
manufacturing techniques are capable of producing the sensor we proposed. This PCF sensor is applicable to a
larger variety of chemical, gas, and bio-sensing applications.

1. Introduction
The pandemic of CoViD-19 led to a sudden increase in consumption
of disinfecting products, such as hand sanitation or alcohol-based hand-
rubs (ABHRs) [1]. The use of alcohol, specifically, Ethanol (ethyl
alcohol), is ubiquitous with disinfection practices to reduce the potential
for CoViD-19 virus contamination due to its antimicrobial properties
[2]. ABHR disinfection depends on the amount of alcoholic concentra­
tion. The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends that ABHRs
must contain 60 − 95% (v/v) Ethanol and has extended advice to the
consumers to avoid products with inadequate levels of Ethanol due to
volatile impurities [3]. Methanol, Acetaldehyde, Acetal and Benzene are
among the volatile impurities to be added with anhydrous Ethanol, also
known as absolute Ethanol, and Ethanol for disinfection. The anti-
bactericidal effect of toxic Methanol is inadequate and seldom used in
medical treatment [4]. Significant exposure to Methanol can lead,
among other adverse effects, to headaches, vomiting, permanent
blindness, seizures [5]. Quality control of the alcohol as a medical
product is carried out through testing procedures as stipulated by the
pharmacopeia and guided by the International Council for Harmoniza­
tion on technical requirements for pharmaceutical for human use (ICH)
[6]. There are various methods for investigating alcohol impurities
through their physical and chemical properties, such as the density test,
the evaporation test and the vapor-liquid equilibrium (VLE) test [7,8].
The techniques described above are laboratory-driven, time-consuming
and require costly chemicals and equipment. These techniques are
frequently compelled in their accuracy and affectability.
In these environments, extremely fragile, lightweight, conservative
and smart, fiber-based sensors will make an important contribution to
the industry. Photonic Crystal Fiber (PCF) sensors can fulfill all these
criteria. The use of PCF instead of standard optical fibers has many
benefits, including allowing endlessly single-mode large-mode and
extremely nonlinear fibers. With intentional pattern structure in the
fiber cross-section various optical properties like polarization main­
taining [9,10], propagation [11–13], low loss [10] and fiber birefrin­
gence [14] can be tailored flexibly. A number of ground-breaking fiber-
optic applications are therefore possible: PCF-based high-power laser
[15,16], tunable light switch [17] supercontinuum generation [18],
dispersion compensation [19,20] fiber-optic sensors [16,21,22], inter­
ferometry [23,24], terahertz propagation [25] and refractometry
[26,27].
The spectrum of Terahertz (THz) is between 0.1 THz and 10 THz and
in the electromagnetic spectrum, it radiates within the spectrum of
microwave and infrared radiation. PCF finds its application in terahertz
(THz) radiation such as medical imaging [28,29], telecommunication
[30], bio-photonics [31,32], environmental applications [33],

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: rhkhan@iut-dhaka.edu (M.R.H. Khan).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbsr.2021.100447
Received 29 March 2021; Received in revised form 26 July 2021; Accepted 2 August 2021
Available online 8 August 2021
2214-1804/© 2021 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
M.R.H. Khan et al. Sensing and Bio-Sensing Research 33 (2021) 100447

boost the sensitivity and other performances. The HC-PCF central air
hole is penetrated with the alcohol (i.e. Ethanol, Benzene, Methanol)
and the numerical investigation of the comprehensive sensitivity is
performed in aid of a Finite Element Method (FEM). The developed PCF
geometry has been used to monitor liquid samples of alcohol and has a
sensitivity of over 99% at 2.2 THz. Moreover, a mathematical investi­
gation of the different essential characteristics presents very high
sensing capabilities, low loss, flattened dispersion and low birefringence
that is superior to a variety of previously produced prototypes [62–65].

2. Numerical analysis

For numerical analysis, the finite element method (FEM) with a

boundary condition of Perfectly Match Layer (PML) is utilized. A
perfectly matched layer is (PML) used for optical property investigation
and leak elimination. The proposed PCF is subdivided using a meshing
technique in homogeneous triangular subspaces. For each sub-space, the
wave equation is solved. The modal analysis carried out in cross-section
of the x-y plane, with frequencies transmitted through the Z-direction of
fiber, examines the performance of the suggested wave structures ranges
Fig. 1. Meshing output with boundary condition. from 1 − 2 THz optical band. From the maxwell equations, the following
formula is available [66].
pharmaceutical drug testing [34], and sensing applications [35–38]. In
Solid core PCF (SC-PCF) the cladding section consists of different air Δ × [s]− 1 × E − k02 n2 [s]E = 0 (1)
rings while its core consists of strong silicon. The hollow core, with its
unique light guide properties, is quite possibly the most intriguing va­ where [s] represents the PML matrix of 3 × 3 and [s]− 1 is the inverse of
riety of PCF. The PCF that incorporates various small-scaled silicate [s] matrix. The symbol E denotes the electric field vector, n is the
tubes running on its longitude that are optically guided by the hollow- refractive index of the domain, K0 is the wave number in free space, and
core in its center is termed as Hollow-Core PCF (HC-PCF) [21]. The λ is the operating wavelength. The fiber is divided into 198,493 trian­
HC-PCF includes more analytical volumes than the porous core inside gular components. In this simulation. For the suggested PCF structure,
the core region, which enhances the contact between light and the Fig. 1 is displayed with one-fourth of the PML layer computation
materials, as in our plan we considered a hollow-core PCF structure. The window.
HC-PCF also implements of a polarization mechanism. This has been The chemical sensitivity of a terahertz PCF depends entirely on the
shown both by introducing stress on the core [39,40] and by creating strength of the interaction between light and matter. This relies on a
birefringence caused by a powerful anisotropy in the structure of the specific frequency absorption coefficient. It can be described under the
hole [41]. In addition, Topas, Teflon and Zeonex are used effectively in Beer-Lambert law [41,62],
the photonic fiber as background materials (PCF) [42–45]. I(f ) = I0 (f )e[− rαm lc ]
(2)
Several researchers have already developed different geometric PCF
structures for the THz spectrum in liquid samples for chemical sensing where, I(f) and I0(f) represent the optical intensity in presence and in the
[46–50]. Several geometrical designs like heptagonal [51] octagonal absence of targeted substance, respectively. Here, absorption factor is
[52,53], decagonal [54], hexagonal [55], elliptical [56], spiral cladding αm, the relative sensitivity is r, channel range lc and optical frequency is
[57], honey comb cladding [58] etc. has already been proposed. The f. The absorbance (A) can be expressed as [51,67].
sensitivity of Article [53] reveals 77.14% and 78.06% of Ethanol and
Benzene at 1 THz, respectively. Asaduzzaman et al. [59] has an elliptical I
A = log = − rαm lc (3)
core that has less than 50% sensitivity but a high birefringence is pre­ I0
sented for Ethanol. A micro-structured octagonal PCF (O-PCF) sensor for Now, to examine the PCF’s sensing efficiency, the sensitivity must be
detecting Ethanol and Benzene is present in Ademgil et al. [52]. A measured, which can be done using [41],
modified octagonal structure of [52] in [60] shows higher sensitivity of
nr
87% and 47.35% and lower confinement loss for Ethanol and Benzene, r= ×Y (4)
neff
respectively. Simulation results show that [61] for Methanol and
Ethanol, with an almost zero confinement loss immediately after 1.2 where, nr denotes the analyte’s RI (real) to be detected and neff denotes
THz, have higher relative sensitivity of 88% or 91%, respectively. For the guided mode’s Effective RI (ERI), respectively. Furthermore, Y de­
bane chemical recognition, the rectangular hollow core of PCF geometry notes the light interactivity with substance, which is calculated using
was created [48] and exhibits 1.71 × 10− 14 dB/cm confinement loss [41].
with a maximum sensitivity of 94.4%. In this research certain essential ∫ ( )
properties are still prevented, such as dispersion, NA and an effective R Ex Hy − Ey Hx dxdy
analyte sample e
Y= ∫ ( ) (5)
field. Very recently, in 2021, various chemical and bio-sensors are R Ex Hy − Ey Hx dxdy
total e
proposed in the terahertz regime [62–65]. Both A. Maidi et al. [64] and
S. Sen et al. [62] exhibits a low relative sensitivity of 65.34% and here, electric components of x, y are Ex, Ey and magnetic components of
78.56% for Ethanol, respectively. Moreover, in [62] properties like EML x, y are Hx, Hy. Light in the core region should be restricted to the PCF.
and birefringence are not reported. A leaky Mode profile in [64] exhibits due to optical power escaping, any optical power crosses to the cladding
the reason for the low sensitivity. The HC-PCF bio-sensor of A. Habib air slot, and light power losses are handled as confinement losses and
et al. [63] is almost 98% highly sensitive with a modest loss (<0.025 dB/ expressed as [68].
cm). [ ]
α(dB/cm) = 8.686 × ko Im neff × 104 (6)
In this article, we propose a highly sensitive, simple HC-PCF stan­
dardized alcohol based on the background material of Zeonex to further

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M.R.H. Khan et al. Sensing and Bio-Sensing Research 33 (2021) 100447

Dispersion is another significant property for multi-channel con­

nectivity applications to be minimized. Please note, the material
dispersion for the PCF was found to be insignificant for Zeonex over the
entire spectrum of 0.1 − 2.2 THz. Thus, the waveguide dispersion is
considered only. The dispersion of the waveguide is solely determined
by the waveguide’s ERI variance. The following equation can be used to
measure it [41],

2 dneff w d2 neff
β2 = + (11)
c dw c dw2

where, w denotes the angular frequency and c denotes the free space
propagation velocity, respectively.
The numerical aperture (NA) computes the capacity of light aggre­
gation of a PCF core. Hence, the variation of the index of refraction can
be measured as follows [41].
1
NA = √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
( ) (12)
π f 2 Aeff
1+ c2

Fig. 2. Proposed rectangle core photonic crystal fiber.
where, Im[neff] is the imaginary segment of the effective mode index.
The guided mode suffers some unwanted losses when light pulses
spread through the fiber. This characteristics of the PCFs is investigated
using effective material loss (EML), αeff, which is be quantified as [69].
√̅̅̅̅̅̅(∫ 2 ) c
1 ε0 |E| αm η dA
αeff = ∫ (7)
2 μ0 2 All Sz dA
where, for background material Zeonex, amat is the absorption loss and
nm is the RI. ε0 is the permittivity of free space and μ0 is the permeability
into free space, Sz represents the Poynting vector’s z-component.
Birefringence is the physical phenomenon of a substance where the
refractive index is based on the heading or polarization of the distri­
bution of light. The cylindrical symmetry of the fiber will break the
birefringence shown by the material, and it can gain birefringence,
leading to regular exchanges of power between the two components.
The mathematical expression of birefringence as follows [70]:
⃒ ⃒
B = ⃒nx − ny ⃒ (8)
where, Aeff denotes the effective area of the guided mode.
The uniform frequency parameter is called a V parameter to change
the fiber modes. The guide mode is divided into two regions. The first is
single-mode and the second is multi-mode. By the following expression,
the V parameter can be determined [25].
2πrf √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
̅
Veff = n2core − n2cladding ≤ 2.405 (13)
where, ncore and ncladding are the effective refractive indexes of the core
and cladding region, respectively. Physical parameters r, f and c,
respectively, reflect the core radius, the frequency, and the speed of
light. We are conscious that the fiber will behave like a single-mode fiber
if the V-parameter is less than or equal to 2.405 (V < 2.405). On the
other hand, the fiber continues to be multimode and supports multiple
modes when the V parameter is greater than 2.405.
Nonlinearity γ, termed as a nonlinear coefficient, is closely related to
the effective area of the fiber. It is the measure of the ability of the fiber
to confine high intensity light, and can be defined as [71]:
( )( )
2π f n2
γ= (14)
c Aeff

where, effective refractive indices of the fundamental components are where, f is the operating frequency and n2 is the nonlinear refractive
denoted by nx and ny is often quantified as the maximum difference index.
between refractive indices. The spot size is also a significant parameter, which defines the fiber
The effective area that is significant for confinement loss, bending bending loss, nonlinearity and beam divergence performance in optical
loss and numerical aperture is also a critical parameter in the study of fiber communication. For optimum parameters of construction, we can
proposed THz PCF properties. The efficiency of the light beams is also see that the sum of light input into the cladding is small and that light in
represented by these properties. The mathematical expression of effec­ the core area is closely confined. Now, we calculate the spot size using a
tive area, Aeff is expressed as [71]: Marcuse formula, which is as follows: [68].
( ∫∫ )2 ( )
1.619 2.879
|E|2 dxdy Weff = r × 0.65 + 3/2 + 6 (15)
Aeff = ∫∫S (9) V V
S
|E|4 dxdy
In this case, r is the core radius, and V corresponds to the stan­
where E is the field vector, and S relates to the entire cross segment of the dardized value V. The beam divergence is determined by the size of the
fiber. spot.
It is also necessary to examine the power fraction of the PCF struc­ The beam divergence depends strongly on the working frequency.
ture. The entire power flows via the fiber is shown by power fraction. The beam divergence factor is normally measured by the quality of the
Thus, η is defined by [72], light beam in a fiber, which is critical for sensing and optical power
∫ focusing. From the Gaussian-beam theorem, the beam divergence of the
Sz dA
η=∫i (10) suggested PCF can be determined in degree: [73].
S dA
all z ( )
180 × c
The region of interest (core, cladding or air hole etc.) is defined in the θdegree = tan− 1 (16)
f π2 Weff
nominator integration and denominator integration is specified across
the cross-sectional area. where, Weff is determined by Eq. (15), f is the operating frequency and c

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M.R.H. Khan et al. Sensing and Bio-Sensing Research 33 (2021) 100447

Fig. 3. Field distribution for various analytes inside the core of the proposed
HC-PCF. (a, b) Ethanol; x-pol, y-pol, (c, d) Methanol; x-pol, y-pol, (e, f) Benzene;
x-pol, y-pol.
Fig. 5. Relation of the relative sensitivity with frequency of Ethanol, Methanol
and Benzene for core dimension W = 530 μm, H = 580 μm and strut = 10 μm.
[Inset shows the field intensity of Ethanol for frequency of 1 THz, 1.5 THz and
2.2 THZ.]

Fig. 4. Relation of the relative sensitivity with frequency for Ethanol, Methanol
and Benzene for core dimension W = 530 μm, H = 580 μm and strut = 20 μm.
[Inset shows the field intensity of Ethanol for frequency of 1 THz, 1.5 THz and
2.2 THZ.]
Fig. 6. Sensitivity relation with frequency for various core dimensions for
Ethanol for both polarization with Strut = 10 μm.
is the speed of light.

3. Design of the proposed circular core photonic crystal fiber Table 1

The optimized geometrical variables for the proposed HC-PCF.
Due to having a larger volume in the core region, a hollow core PCF W (μm) H (μm) Strut (μm)
has great potential for the improvement of sensitivity. Besides, in a Optimum 530 580 10
fabrication point of view, hollow core drastically reduces requirements 520 570 10
of background material that ultimately reduces material loss absorption. 510 560 10
Fig. 2 presents the complete inter-section of the proposed HC-PCF. The
FEM is used in this paper to study propagation characteristics of modes
minimize manufacturing complexity during the whole operation. The
using a computational method. The software COMSOL Multiphysics 5.5
optimal value of strut width 10 μm and 20 μm to avoid manufacturing
was used to carry out the simulations. The core area is made up of
difficulty, while a strut width of 6.5 μm may be accepted in current
hollow-core air troughs. Hollow core structure width and height are
manufacturing techniques. The perfect matching layer is 1600 μm in
specified respectively as W and H. Core dimensions of W = 530 μm; H =
diameter and is 100 μm in thickness. Different air cladding hole systems
580 μm, W = 520 μm; H = 570 μm and W = 510 μm; H = 560 μm is
do not change by the volume of the analyte filled in the core.
considered in the simulation. The spacing of two neighboring air clad­
In order to absorb the emerging PCF waves a perfectly matched layer
ding holes is referred to as pitch distance, ∧. The cladding is made of
(PML) is placed at the cladding’s boundary as an anti-reflective layer
several rectangular air holes, each of which has a width, X and height of
[41]. Due to its excellent effect on numerical analysis, the width of PML
Y. The structural parameters for the proposed PCF are ∧ = 770 μm, X =
is important. Thus, convergence tests were performed and found that at
340 μm and Y = 385 μm. The cladding air-hole thickness is referred to as
a PML thickness over 10% of the entire diameter, optimal results were
the strut. The optimum thickness of the strut is retained in order to
obtained. It should be pointed out that various alcoholic analytes like

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M.R.H. Khan et al. Sensing and Bio-Sensing Research 33 (2021) 100447

Fig. 10. The frequency dependent effective area for Ethanol, Methanol and
Fig. 7. The relation of EML with frequency for Ethanol, Methanol and Benzene.
Benzene for x polarization.

Fig. 8. The relation of confinement loss with frequency for Ethanol, Methanol
and Benzene. Fig. 11. Frequency dependent dispersion for Ethanol, Methanol and Benzene
for x polarization.

Fig. 12. Simultaneous illustration of relative sensitivity and ERI as a function

of frequency.
Fig. 9. The relation of birefringence with frequency for Ethanol, Methanol
and Benzene.

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M.R.H. Khan et al. Sensing and Bio-Sensing Research 33 (2021) 100447

Fig. 13. Numerical aperture for Methanol, Benzene and Ethanol as a function
of frequency. Fig. 16. Nonlinear coefficient for water, ethanol, methanol and benzene as a
function of frequency.

Fig. 14. The V-parameter variance with frequency for Ethanol, Methanol
and Benzene. Fig. 17. Spot size for water, ethanol, methanol and benzene as a function
of frequency.

Fig. 15. Variation of core power fraction with frequency for Ethanol, Methanol
and Benzene. Fig. 18. Beam divergence for water, ethanol, methanol and benzene as a
function of frequency.

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M.R.H. Khan et al. Sensing and Bio-Sensing Research 33 (2021) 100447

Table 2 light interaction with the cladding is insignificant. In addition, owing to

The proposed HC-PCF sensor’s optical parameters for alcohol sensing at 2.0 THz. the length consideration it is preferable not to characterize the bending
Analyte RS (%) CL (dB/cm) EML (dB/ EA (m2) B (cm− 1) loss. The key cause of optical power loss in the proposed PCF is therefore
cm) the EML, which happens because of the background material used and
Ethanol 99.15 5 × 10− 17
0.00065 1.79 × 0.0001081 can be minimized by having air gaps in the core area. Another reason for
10− 7 using a hollow core is that the thickness of background material from the
Methanol 99.36 2 × 10 − 16
0.00085 1.85 × 0.0001248 core can be minimized to a significant extent and hence helps to mitigate
10− 7 EML.
Benzene 99.41 1.17 × 0.00068 1.77 × 0.0003077
10− 17 10− 7
EML properties are seen in the Fig. 7 in relation to frequency with
variations in analytes. As illustrated, at optimized geometrical variables,
EML decreases in relation with frequency, which eventually fulfill the
Ethanol, Methanol and Benzene with an index of refraction of 1.354, theoretical state of the EML calculation [59]. It is also illustrated from
1.33 and 1.366 were used, respectively, instead of using air in hollow Fig. 7 that EML is as small as 0.00065 cm− 1, 0.00085 cm− 1 and 0.00068
central regions [45]. cm− 1 for Ethanol, Methanol and Benzene, respectively.
Fig. 8 depicts the relationship between the confinement loss for
4. Simulation results and discussions various analytes as a function of frequency. As frequency increases,
confinement loss for all the three analytes reduces due to the mode fields
Fig. 3 demonstrate the optical field power in presence of alcohol in the hollow core area constrict more tightly, resulting in lower
(Ethanol, Methanol and Benzene). Very well guided modes of the both confinement loss as 5 × 10− 17 dB/cm for Ethanol, 2 × 10− 16 dB/cm for
polarization (x-pol and y-pol) of the optical field are shown. Methanol and 1.17 × 10− 17 dB/cm for Benzene. The obtained EMLs are
The relation of the relative sensitivity and corresponding frequency very insignificant relative to the obtained EML.
of Ethanol, Methanol and Benzene for core dimension W = 530 μm, H = Fig. 9 illustrates the property of birefringence for various analytes.
580 μm for two different strut width of 20 μm and 10 μm is presented in The birefringence descends as the frequency grows eventually lower the
Figs. 4 and 5, respectively. From the above figures, it is evident that ERI for each analyte in x-polarization and y-polarization. The obtained
lower strut width would provide batter sensitivity for all three analytes. birefringence for Ethanol, Methanol and Benzene is obtained at opti­
Relative sensitivity can also be shown to rise to a certain frequency and mized conditions as 0.0001081, 0.0001248 and 0.0003077, respec­
then to near flatness. This phenomenon is explained as follows: the core tively. Please keep in mind that decreasing the core size could
power fraction increases with an increase of frequency which ultimately theoretically increase the birefringence much further, but this would
increases the effective RI. As from Eq. (4) The relative sensitivity can be drastically decrease the relative sensitivity.
seen to directly corresponds to the analyte’s RI and inversely corre­ Fig. 10 depicts the frequency dependence of the effective area for
sponds to the effective RI. various analytes. The higher frequency decreases the effective mode
The relation of the relative sensitivity for various core dimensions for area, as seen by the visual representations of this figure.The mode field is
Ethanol is shown in Fig. 6. In this case by changing the core size a plot is heavily concentrated within the core section at higher frequencies,
realized for the sensitivity. The sensitivity is plotted for core dimensions which results in a decline in the effective area. The proposed PCF had a
of W = 530 μm; H = 580 μm, W = 520 μm; H = 570 μm and W = 510 μm; modest effective area value of 1.79 × 10− 7 m2 for Ethanol at the opti­
H = 560 μm. The optimized value is obtained in W = 530 μm; H = 580 mum design condition. This physical effect is depicted in Fig. 8, which
μm which will be used throughout the manuscript. It is observed that shows how confinement loss decreases as frequency increases.
with the rise in the core dimension, relative sensitivity increases. The Fig. 11 shows the frequency dependent dispersion relation for all the
preferred scale W = 530 μm; H = 580 μm is the highest for the proposed analytes applied to the proposed PCF. As can be shown, the dispersion
HC-PCF configuration and will exceed the cladding area if more im­ falls with a rise in frequency.
provements are accomplished. For x-polarization, the relative sensitivity In Fig. 12, both the relative sensitivity and the ERI (real) are plotted
of y-polarization is higher since the core power fraction obtained in this simultaneously in relation to the frequency for Ethanol. As can be
mode is greater than y-polarization. shown, adjusting the cladding air holes dimension has little effect on the
The optimized geometrical variables of the proposed HC-PCF ac­ PCF’s sensing efficiency. Larger dimensions, on the other hand, expand
quired from Figs. 4, 5 and 6 is summarized in Table 1 and will be used to the cladding size, allowing for strong optical signal confinement due to
investigate various performance parameters throughout the manuscript. lower confinement loss. However, this enlarges the sensor’s size and
There are few limiting factors in a Terahertz sensor, such as EML, CL, makes it bulkier. As a result, we select the optimal dimension based on
bending and scattering losses, which limit the effective analyte detec­ the PCF’s size and fabrication tolerance as described in Section 3.
tion. Please notice that the scattering loss property is neglected, as Fig. 3 The numerical aperture for Ethanol, Methanol, and Benzene in
explicitly states that the light in the core is well confined and that the reference to frequency is depicted in Fig. 13. With gradual increases in

Table 3
Table for comparison between the PCF previously mentioned and the HC-PCF fiber we suggested.
Ref. Analyte Frequency/wavelength RS (%) CL (dB/cm) EML(dB/cm) EA (m2) B (cm− 1)
− 06 − 7
[53] Ethanol 1 THz 77.14 2.26 × 10 – 1.46 × 10 –
[69] Ethanol 1.4 THz 96:8 6.95 × 10− 14 0.0035 – 0.0154
[74] Ethanol 1.5 μm 23.75 5.5 × 10− 05 – – –
[75] Ethanol 1.33 μm 67.66 7.5 × 10− 12 – – –
[51] Ethanol 1 THz 68.48 5.2 × 10− 8 – 1.644 × 10− 07 –
[59] Ethanol 1.33 μm 48 8.1 × 10− 12 – – 0.001544
14
[60] Ethanol 1.33 μm 46.31 2.28217 × 10− – – –
[62] Ethanol 1 THz 78.56 6.02 × 10− 8 – 1.4 × 10− 7 –
[64] Ethanol 1.3 μm 65.34 1 × 10− 8 – 1.965 0.0015
[76] Ethanol 1.7 THz 93.8 1.7 × 10− 9 – 6.98 × 10− 6 –
[77] Ethanol 0.6 μm 95.82 1 × 10− 12 – – 0.00832
[78] Ethanol – 95.4 – – – –
Proposed HC-PCF Ethanol 2.2 THz 99.15 5 × 10− 17 0.00065 1.79 × 10− 7 0.0001081

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M.R.H. Khan et al.
frequency, NA acts in a downward way, as seen in the graph. In contrast
to the targeted 2.2 THz frequency as a set point to achieve optimized
performance, at 1 THz frequency mark an increased NA of 0.34 is
achieved.
The V-parameter variance with frequency is seen in Fig. 14. It can be
concluded that the fiber maintains its single-mode nature with Ethanol,
Methanol, and Benzene for frequency maintained at 1.15 THz, 1.45 THz
and 1.02 THz, respectively. However, the fiber transitions to multi-mode
transmission above the respective values of the frequency are raised.
The proportion of power transferred via core air holes of the pro­
posed PCF with increasing frequency is illustrated in Fig. 15. An increase
in the power fraction at incremental frequency means that more light is
spread via the core air holes, indicating that the intensity of the beam is
focused more inside the core.
The correlation between the nonlinear coefficient of liquid analytes
and frequency is seen in Fig. 16. Water, ethanol, methanol and benzene
have almost identical behavior. As the operating frequency increase, the
nonlinear coefficient also increases. Figs. 10 and 16 show anticipated
opposite actions. Nonlinearity and effective area are inversely propor­
tional. Nonlinearity coefficients for Ethanol, Methanol and Benzene are
7.542 × 10− 9, 7.297 × 10− 9 and 7.624 × 10− 9, respectively.
Fig. 17 defines a relationship with various analytes between spot size
and frequency in the THz spectrum. Fig. 17 shows a flattening response
for all samples of the spot size beyond 1.8 THz. For the whole frequency,
point size of 0.215 mm is preserved, which essentially indicates
decreased divergence of beam and improves focusing efficiency.
For different specimens, Fig. 18 indicates the beam divergence in x-
polarization toward frequency. The suggested fiber beam divergence of
11.85 degrees for the liquid sample is reduced with the optimum ge­
ometry frequency of 2.2 THz and rising frequency. From Fig. 18, we find
that the beam divergence decrease as the frequency increases. The
proposed sensor shows a higher sensitivity of 2.2 THz because of low
beam divergence. While this study shows a very significant beam
discrepancy of 2.2 THz, it remains smaller than previous findings
[38,73].
Table 3 compares proposed PCF model with previously reported PCF
based on various performance characteristics and outperformed previ­
ous design in terms of sensitivity.
5. Fabrication and application possibilities of the proposed HC-
PCF
The viability of manufacturing for PCF-based devices is another key
problem. Although various manufacturing technicians have been
developed: capillary packing, stacking and drawing, boiling techniques,
multiple thinning, casting, sol-gel technique etc. [79–88]. Several
hollow-shaped core processes were seen using the technique of 3D
printing [87]. 3D printing techniques have now become PCF’s most
scalable production technique, and are applicable to the HC-PCF model
proposed.
For sensor use, an undisclosed liquid sample should penetrate the
core holes: either Ethanol, Methanol or Benzene. Liquid penetration into
the PCF core can be performed using methods as seen in previously-
related studies [89–91]. The technology of selective air hole filling
[89] is one of the widely recognized techniques used to penetrate liquids
experimentally into PCF core. This method is able to insert liquids in
micro-structure troughs into a fiber, such as core or cladding holes.
6. Conclusions
A high-sensitivity alcohol sensor based on an Ethanol-filled PCF
modal refractometer is presented in this article. The proposed sensor
model for sensing and classifying various alcohol offers sufficient
versatility. The optical parameters for the proposed HC-PCF sensor in
alcohol sensing at 2.2 THz is shown in Table 2. According to our theo­
retical research, it is conceivable to obtain minimal confinement losses
8
Sensing and Bio-Sensing Research 33 (2021) 100447
while maintaining excellent sensitivity for a variety of analytes.
Furthermore, modeling findings show that the overall performance of
the HC-PCF structure is superior than the PCF structure for all liquids
evaluated as shown in Table 3. The major PCF design parameters have
been completely improved in this study in order to maximize production
efficiency.
The suggested alcohol sensor, which has enhanced sensitivity, so­
phisticated packaging to protect the detecting head has a lot of potential
in Ethanol impurities monitoring. The authors strongly believes that,
given current developments in 3D nanofabrication methods, fabrication
of the suggested PCF structures is achievable.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Md Rezaul Hoque Khan: Conceptualization, Methodology, Super­
vision, Data curation, Writing - review & editing. Fath Ahmed
Mohamed Ali: Methodology, Formal analysis, Resources, Software.
Mohammad Rakibul Islam: Resources, Investigation, Methodology,
Conceptualization, Formal analysis.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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