CHAPTER

1
INTRODUCTION
It is crucial that the civil engineering profession, like any other discipline, draws the most lessons
from its failures. Investigations into specific accidents frequently point out the immediate
technical causes of failure, and attempts are undertaken from time to time to conduct an
overarching examination of the causes of failure. Failure is a crucial part of knowledge
expansion. It is obvious that this is not desired in the slightest, but it does indicate that more
research should be done on full-scale loading experiments. Noticing any faults is the greatest
approach to stop structural damage to structures. That might occur throughout a seismic
earthquake[1].
One of the most dangerous natural catastrophes, earthquakes result in significant loss of life and
property. This impact results in the deaths of up to 10,000 people annually. Additionally, there is
a yearly economic loss mostly in billions of dollars. When energy is unexpectedly released from
within the Earth's crust, a phenomenon known as an earthquake occurs[2].
The feasibility of earthquake prediction is uncertain. Predicting an earthquake's location, timing,
and size a few years to a few days in advance is known as earthquake prediction. Even more
challenging than long-term forecasting is the problem of prediction. Many attempts to anticipate
earthquakes have looked for precursors, observable behaviour that precedes earthquakes, because
little is understood about the basic physics of faulting. As previously said, this quest has so far
been largely fruitless[3].
Typical method for examining the seismic performance of structures is the shaking table test.
Understanding the interactions or responses of structures with the earth is greatly aided by these
investigations. Studies on superstructures have also revealed that compared to other ground
motions, such as far-field ground motions, pulse-like ground movements may cause more severe
damage to structures. Peak ground velocity to peak ground acceleration ratios larger than 0.2 are
considered to be pulse-like ground motion, whereas ratios less than 0.15 are considered to be
regular ground motion [4]

1
As engineers, our foremost responsibility is to design and construct structures that are safe,
durable, and able to withstand the various environmental and natural hazards that they may
encounter. Earthquakes, in particular, are a significant hazard that can cause widespread damage
and loss of life if structures are not designed and constructed to resist their forces. The ability of
a structure to resist earthquakes depends on various factors, including the strength of the
materials used, the geometry of the structure, the quality of construction, and the design
principles employed.
To understand the seismic behavior of structures and assess their performance in the face of
earthquakes, engineers have developed various testing methods, including shake table testing.
Shake table testing is a technique that involves subjecting a scaled model of a structure to
simulated ground motions that replicate the effects of earthquakes. The model is placed on a
shake table, which is a device that is capable of generating controlled, repetitive, and complex
vibrations that simulate the ground motions experienced during earthquakes.
The objective of shake table testing is to evaluate the seismic performance of structures and
identify areas of weakness or failure. The results of shake table tests provide valuable
information that can be used to refine the design and construction of structures, to improve
seismic safety, and to develop new and more effective strategies for resisting earthquakes. Shake
table testing also plays a critical role in the development of building codes and standards, which
provide guidance and regulations for the design and construction of earthquake-resistant
structures.
Shake table testing is an important tool for engineers, as it allows them to observe the dynamic
behavior of structures in real-time, to evaluate their seismic performance, and to identify areas of
weakness or failure that may need to be addressed through modifications to the design or
construction. This information is critical for ensuring the safety and well-being of the individuals
who occupy and use these structures, and for demonstrating the commitment of engineers to
excellence, innovation, and public safety.
Moreover, shake table testing provides an opportunity for engineers to contribute to the
advancement of the state of the art in earthquake engineering. As earthquakes are a global
problem, and as structures play a critical role in our daily lives, it is essential that engineers
continue to develop new and more effective strategies for resisting earthquakes, and to
continuously improve the seismic performance of structures. Shake table testing is an important

2
step in this direction, as it provides valuable insights into the seismic behavior of structures and
helps to inform design and construction decisions.
In conclusion, shake table testing is a critical tool for engineers who are responsible for
designing and constructing earthquake-resistant structures. By conducting shake table testing and
using the results to inform design and construction decisions, engineers can help ensure the
safety and well-being of the individuals who occupy and use these structures, and contribute to
the advancement of the state of the art in earthquake engineering. Shake table testing provides a
valuable opportunity for engineers to demonstrate their commitment to excellence, innovation,
and public safety, and to help ensure that structures are designed and constructed to resist
earthquakes.

3
1.2 Problem Definition:

The shake table test is a critical tool used to study the seismic behavior of structures and assess
their performance and capacity under simulated earthquake conditions. The test is performed on
a shake table, which is a large platform equipped with actuators that can generate vibrations and
movements that mimic the ground motions of an earthquake. The purpose of the shake table test
is to evaluate the seismic response of a structure, including its displacement, acceleration, and
other structural parameters, under various levels of seismic loading. The results of the shake
table test can be used to assess the design of the structure, identify any deficiencies or
vulnerabilities, and guide decisions on retrofitting or strengthening measures to improve seismic
resistance.
Seismic loads are complex and unpredictable, and earthquakes can have a significant impact on
the built environment. As a result, it is essential to study the seismic behavior of structures in
order to ensure their safety and stability under seismic events. The shake table test provides a
controlled and systematic approach to evaluate the seismic performance of a structure, and it is
an essential tool for earthquake engineering research, design, and practice. The test allows
engineers to assess the performance of a structure under simulated seismic loads and identify any
weaknesses or potential failure modes that may need to be addressed.
In order to effectively simulate the seismic loads on a structure, the shake table test must be
designed and performed in accordance with relevant codes, standards, and best practices for
seismic testing. The test must accurately reproduce the characteristics of the seismic loads,
including the frequency content, duration, intensity, and other key parameters, in order to
provide reliable and meaningful results. The test must also take into account the dynamic
behavior of the structure, including its mass, stiffness, and damping, and how these parameters
interact with the seismic loads.
The shake table test can be performed on various types of structures, including buildings,
bridges, and other critical infrastructure. The structure may be a full-scale or reduced-scale
model, and it may be a complete structure or a portion of a structure, such as a structural
component or connection. The choice of the structure and the level of detail of the model will
depend on the goals and objectives of the test, as well as the available resources and capabilities
of the testing facility.

4
Once the structure is placed on the shake table, it is subjected to simulated seismic loads, which
can be generated by the actuators on the shake table or by other means. The response of the
structure to the seismic loads is measured using various sensors, including accelerometers,
displacement sensors, and strain gauges, among others. The results of the shake table test are
then analyzed to determine the performance and capacity of the structure under seismic loads,
including its displacement, acceleration, and other structural parameters.
The results of the shake table test can provide valuable insights into the seismic behavior of
structures and guide decisions on retrofitting and strengthening measures. For example, the test
may reveal that a structure is vulnerable to seismic loads and requires additional strengthening to
improve its seismic resistance. On the other hand, the test may also confirm that a structure is
well designed and does not require additional retrofitting measures.
In conclusion, the shake table test is a powerful tool for evaluating the seismic performance of
structures and assessing their capacity under simulated earthquake conditions. The test provides
valuable information that can be used to improve the seismic design of structures and ensure
their safety and stability under seismic events. The shake table test must be carefully designed
and performed in accordance with relevant codes, standards, and best practices for seismic
testing in order to provide reliable and meaningful results.

5
 CHAPTER

2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Earthquake Characteristics:
2.1.1 Plate tectonics
The Earth is believed to be covered by some solid plates that move over its surface and over
a partially molten interior layer. The plates, or lithosphere in geological terminology, are
what makes up the solid rock that makes up the Earth. On the ductile asthenosphere, which
flows, the stiff lithosphere might be thought of as floating. Therefore, the lithosphere (surface
of the Earth) is divided into what are known as tectonic plates; plate tectonics is the geology
theory established to explain the occurrence of continental drift. Tecton is a Greek noun that
means "one who builds and destroys." The tectonic plates and their borders are described by
this hypothesis. The tectonic plates are separated into major and minor plates based on their
surface. As a result, the continental crust is often located above sea level and the oceanic
crust is typically located below sea level. 52 prominent tectonic plates are present. The seven
most significant plates are as follows:
- African plate covering Africa (continental plate).
- Antarctic plate covering Antarctica (continental plate).
- Australian plate (known also as Indo-Australian plate).
- Eurasian plate covering Europe and Asia (continental plate).
- North American plate, covering North America and North-East Siberia (continental plate).
- South American plate, covering South America (continental plate).
- Pacific plate (the biggest), covering the Pacific Ocean (oceanic plate).
Along with the tectonic plates mentioned above, the Arabian plate (a continent), Caribbean
plate, Cocos plate, Juan de Fuca plate, Nazca plate, and Philippine plate—all oceanic
plates—can also be regarded as major plates. It is crucial to emphasise that the tectonic plates
do not match the formation of the continents[2].

6
2.1.2 Faults
As a result of tectonic processes, elastic strain energy accumulates as two plates move relative to
one another. As a result, the interface zone ruptures and releases the two plates. The formless
blocks react immediately in the direction of balance. This interaction causes a seismic motion to
be created. The theory of "elastic rebound" refers to this phenomenon. The term "fault" refers to
the crack that an earthquake causes in the crust[5]. Figure 1 shows fault:

Figure 1: Fault mechanism.

2.1.3 Seismic waves
2.1.3.1 Body waves
Two types of seismic waves are produced by seismic activity that causes earthquakes: body
waves and surface waves. The strata of the earth's interior are traversed by body waves. Primary
waves in the body sometimes referred to as P-waves, and secondary waves (also called as S-
waves). In the soil, P-waves cause successive push (or compression) and pull (or tension). P
waves have a minimal potential for harm. S-waves, on the other hand, propagate both horizontal
and vertical motion. S-waves cause soil along their paths to experience shear stresses [6].

Figure 2: (a): P-wave, (b): S-wave

7
2.1.3.2 Surface waves
Love (L) and Rayleigh (R) waves are examples of surface waves that move through the crust's
outer layers. These waves are produced by body waves as they pass through and under various
layer boundaries while travelling parallel to the ground. Large displacements are caused by these
waves. At a greater separation from the earthquake source, these sorts of waves manifest in a
variety of shapes. While body waves occur at all levels, surface waves only occur during shallow
earthquakes. Because they last so long, surface waves seriously harm structures[7].

Figure 3: (a): Rayleigh wave, (b): Love wave

2.1.4 Magnitude and Intensity of Earthquake

The size of an earthquake is measured by its magnitude, whereas its intensity refers to the extent
of its damage at various locations around its epicentre. The energy released at the hypocenter of
an earthquake is quantified by the term "magnitude." As a result, the magnitude value for a given
earthquake is fixed while the intensity value varies from location to location, typically declining
as we move away from the epicentre. There are several different magnitude scales, but the
Richter scale or Local Magnitude (ML), which Charles Richter proposed in 1934, is the accepted
scale that has been the most frequently used. There are various other magnitude scales, such as
Body wave magnitude (mb), which makes use of the initial P wave's amplitude. The magnitude
scale tends to stay the same even for larger earthquakes because it saturates at higher values
beyond 6 to 6.5. As a result, a different scale known as Surface wave magnitude (Ms) was
established based on the Rayleigh wave's amplitude in 1950.
The Moment Magnitude (Mw), a more accurate scale used in modern seismology, is based on
the analysis of digital waveform data using the seismic moment. The seismic wave's relative
amplitude in relation to a smaller reference amplitude value is used to express the earthquake's

8
magnitude, which is expressed on a logarithmic scale to base 10. Hence, magnitude is simply a
ratio, and is given as number without units[8].

2.2 Effects of Earthquake:

2.2.1 Effects of Earthquake on Environment
Earthquake environmental effects are the results of an earthquake on the immediate environment.
In other words, Earthquake environmental effects are the processes that an earthquake in our
local area brings about. Surface faulting, subsidence, tectonic uplift, soil liquefaction, landslides,
etc. are a few examples of these consequences. These outcomes may be caused by the earthquake
itself or by the ground trembling. Earthquake environmental effects can be seen in both locations
close to and far from the earthquake's epicentre. Earthquake environmental effects have an
impact on man-made structures in addition to the environment. Earthquake environmental effects
are a significant source of risk during large earthquakes. Earthquake environmental effects are
being utilised more frequently as a piece of technology to gauge earthquake severity. Earthquake
effects can be divided into primary and secondary effects. While secondary consequences are
sparked or inspired by the primary effects, primary impacts are the direct results of the
earthquake[9].

2.2.1.1 Primary effect

The earthquake has immediate secondary impacts that follow. The magnitude of the earthquake
and the stress environment both affect when the principal consequences will manifest. The local
intensity ratings of two earthquakes that lose the same amount of energy but have distinct stress
conditions and focal depths might cause diverse environmental impacts. When earthquakes have
shallow focal depths (less than 4 km) and modest magnitudes, such as those that occur near
volcanic hotspots, this variation in intensities is more obvious. Because of this, some macro-
seismic intensity scales, like ESI-2007, assign a lower intensity value (VII) to earthquakes with
shallow depths and a greater intensity value (VIII or more) to earthquakes with higher focal
depths or that occur in volcanic regions[9].

9
2.2.1.2 Secondary effect
The Secondary Effects include things like tsunamis and landslides that have an impact on the
environment as a result of the primary effects[9].

2.2.2 Effects of Earthquake on Structures

2.2.2.1 Soft Story Mechanism
For architectural, practical, and commercial reasons, some R/C buildings' walls may not be
continuous up to the building's height, especially on the ground floor. While brick infill walls on
the ground floor are typically replaced with glass windows, partition walls are built above this
level to divide rooms for residential use. The columns' ends encounter brittle failures as a result
of this circumstance. The most frequent failure mode in mid-rise reinforced concrete buildings is
the soft-storey mechanism, especially at the first storey. Failures may concentrate at any story,
referred to as a "weak storey," where the lateral strength of adjacent stories abruptly changes as a
result of the removal or absence of partition walls or the shrinking of column cross sections.
Therefore, these storeys experience partial and total collapses during an earthquake[10].

2.2.2.2 Transverse reinforcement in columns and beams

During an earthquake, shear forces increase, particularly at beam-column joints and joints
between columns. In light of this, particular attention should be given to the development and
design of beam-column joints and columns. Increasing the ductility of structures is necessary for
a performance-based design approach in seismic design. Particularly, the plastic hinge region of
building columns may not have sufficient transverse reinforcement. As a result, structural
elements with such details perform poorly under dynamic loads and have lost their ability to
support shear and axial loads[10].

2.2.2.3 Short Column

This kind of mechanism can emerge as a result of structural modifications and/or continuous
openings at the top of interior walls between columns. Columns and shear walls are capable of
withstanding lateral earthquake forces. For the dissipation of these loads, the column's length is
crucial. The column becomes stronger and more resilient as its length decreases, making it more

10
susceptible to shear pressures than the other columns. Shear failure, a serious kind of concrete
column damage, consequently happens at these columns[10].

2.2.2.4 Layout of the building

Regularity and symmetry in a building's general shape are significant characteristics. An L- or U-
shaped structure, such as a building with wings, is naturally weaker than one that is fashioned
like a box and is rectangular both in plan and elevation. Buildings with uneven shapes will twist
as they shake, increasing the damage[10].

2.2.2.5 Construction quality

In numerous cases, poor construction quality, inferior materials, poor workmanship, such as a
lack of through stones or bonding units, and unsuitable and inadequate construction, have been
blamed for a building's failure after an earthquake[10].

2.3 Building Behaviour

2.3.1 Elastic Behaviour
Out of the four qualities of configuration, stiffness, strength, and ductility, configuration and
stiffness have the most influence on a building's elastic earthquake behaviour. As a result, the
impacts of seismic structural arrangement and lateral stiffness on the elastic seismic performance
of structures. To illustrate various concepts of elastic behaviour of buildings, all buildings are
designed for full gravity load and lateral loads equal to 10% of the total building weight; the
actual design lateral force of comparable buildings will depend on many factors, such as seismic
zone and type of framing system, as specified by the design codes. The guidelines provided in
the Indian Seismic Code IS: 1893 (Part 1) - 2016, the total lateral force is divided over the
building height and layout. The code mandates that every building be made with a minimum
amount of eccentricity.

11
2.3.1.1 Stiffness
The stiffness of a building is a measurement of the amount of force needed to move it a specific
distance. We would state that Building A is stiffer if it takes more force to move it than Building
B. Because stiffness can reduce the deformation demands on a building, it can be advantageous
in terms of earthquake damage[11].

2.3.1.2 Ductility
The degree to which a material (or construction) can withstand significant deformations without
failing is referred to as ductility. In earthquake engineering, the phrase is used to describe how
well a building will withstand significant lateral displacements brought on by ground
shaking[11].

2.3.2 Vibration
Vibration or oscillation refers to any motion that repeats after a certain amount of time.Examples
of vibrations includes the swinging of a pendulum and the movement of a string being plucked.
The study of oscillatory motions of bodies and the forces causing them is covered by the theory
of vibration. In general, a vibratory system has a way to store potential energy (a spring or elastic
property), a way to store kinetic energy (mass or inertia), and a way to gradually release energy
(damper). A system vibrates when its kinetic energy and potential energy are alternately
converted from one another. If the system is dampened, energy is lost throughout each cycle of
vibration and must be replenished from an outside source in order to sustain a condition of
continuous vibration. There is a phenomenon known as resonance that results in excessive
deflections and failure whenever the natural frequency of vibration of a machine or structure
corresponds with the frequency of the external excitation[12].

12
2.3.2.1 Classification of Vibration
Various categories exist for vibration. These are a few of the significant classifications. Forced
and Free Vibrations

Free Vibration:
The subsequent vibration that occurs when a system is left to vibrate on its own after an initial
disruption is referred to as free vibration. The system is unaffected by outside forces. A simple
pendulum oscillating is an illustration of free vibration.
Force vibration:
Forced vibration is the term for the vibration that results when an external force—often a
repetitive sort of force—is applied to a system.
Resonance takes place and the system experiences extremely significant oscillations if the
frequency of the external force matches with one of its natural frequencies. Resonance has been
linked to the demise of things like buildings, bridges, turbines, and aeroplane wings.
The vibration is referred to as undamped vibration if no energy is lost or absorbed during
oscillation in friction or other resistance. However, if any energy is lost in this manner, the
vibration is referred to as dampened. The quantity of damping in many physical systems is so
negligible that it may be ignored for the majority of engineering applications. However, when
considering vibratory systems close to resonance, taking into account damping becomes
crucial[12].

2.3.3 Equation of Motion

Consider of a system that has no dynamic excitation and is being affected along the Degree of
Freedom by an external static force (fs). Internal resistance to displacement is equal to and
opposing to external force (f). The link between the force (fs) and the relative displacement (u)
connected to deformations in the structure is something that is ideally known. At modest
deformations, this force-displacement relation would be linear, but at bigger deformations, it
would become nonlinear. We analyse both linear and nonlinear relationships. We presume that
the reader is familiar with static structural analyses because determining the link between fs and
u is a common problem in these investigations. As a result, this presentation is condensed and
only covers the most important topics.

13
2.3.3.1 Using Newton’s Second Law of Motion
The forces in effect at a certain moment of time on the mass are shown in Fig 4(a). These consist
of the damping force (fD), the elastic (or inelastic) resistive force, and the external force p(t). It is
assumed that the external force is positive along the x-axis, and that the displacement u(t),
velocity u’(t), and acceleration u”(t) are all positive along the z-axis. Because they are internal
forces that oppose deformation and velocity, respectively, the elastic and damping forces are
depicted acting in the opposite direction[13].
The resultant force along the x-axis is p-fs-fo and Newton's second law of motion gives

p — fS — fD = mu” or mu” + fD + fS = p(t) ------(1)

This equation after substituting Equation becomes

mu”+ cu’+ ku = p(t) ------(2)

This is the equation of motion governing the deformation or displacement u(t) of the idealized
structure, assumed to be linearly elastic, subjected to an external Dynamic force p(t). The units of
mass are force/acceleration. This derivation can readily be extended to inelastic systems.
Equation is still valid and all that needs to be done is to replace Eq (1), restricted to linear
systems, by Eq (3), valid for inelastic systems. For such systems, therefore, the equation of
motion is

mu + cu’ + fs (u, u’) = p(t) ------(3)

Figure 4: (a) Free Body diagram for Newton’s Second Law, (b) Dynamic Equation

14
2.3.3.2 Dynamic Equation
The dynamic equilibrium principle of D'Alembert is particularly alluring. This principle is
founded on the idea of an imaginary inertia force, which is defined as a force equal to the mass
times the acceleration of an object and operating in the opposite direction. It asserts that a system
is in equilibrium at every time instant when inertia forces are taken into account. As a result, it is
possible to design a free-body diagram of a moving mass and create the equation of motion using
statics. The free-body diagram in Fig. 4(b) has the mass substituted by the inertia force f1.
Actual forces Eq (1) is produced when the total sum of all forces is set to zero. This equation was
previously derived using Newton's second law of motion[13].

2.4 Shaking Table Test:

When discussing how a structure may react during an earthquake, the shaking table test is
realistic and understandable. On the table is a specimen that can be moved by actuators. For the
shaking table test, test specimens are typically created, allowing for the possibility of a
destructive test. Occasionally, miniature specimens are employed since the table's capacity is
restricted. A one-dimensional, medium-sized shaking table is available at Building Research
Institute (BRI) in the structural testing lab. Shaking tables that have recently been built can be
driven in two or three dimensions. As a result, they can more accurately mimic real earthquake
motions than one-dimensional tables. The input motion can be selected from random waves such
white noise, sine, rectangle, and triangular waves as well as random waves like fake earthquake
motions and actual earthquake motions. To understand the general dynamic features of the
specimen, steady-state shaking is typically performed using harmonic waves of various
frequencies. Low input harmonic wave amplitudes cause the specimen's response to stay within
the elastic range. White noise is used to generate random shaking in order to test the elastic
range's dynamic qualities. Strong motions that have been observed can be used to replicate
earthquake conditions using random shaking. According to the testing objective and the
specimen's seismic capacity, the amplitude of the strong motion record is modified. The seismic
motion has the potential to destroy and damage the specimen. If powerful motion records with
the appropriate qualities cannot be found, artificial earthquake motions may be used. On the
other side, doing a shaking table test is typically expensive[14].

15
2.5 Building Codes and Ethics for Earthquake-resistant Structures in India: A Review
Earthquakes are a major threat to the safety and stability of structures, particularly in regions that
are prone to seismic activity. To ensure the safety and well-being of the individuals who occupy
and use these structures, it is crucial to have building codes and ethics that promote the design
and construction of earthquake-resistant structures. In India, the primary source of building codes
and standards for earthquake-resistant structures is the National Building Code (NBC).
Building Codes and Standards in India
The National Building Code of India (NBC) is the primary source of building codes and
standards for the design and construction of earthquake-resistant structures in India. The NBC
provides guidance and requirements for the design, construction, and evaluation of buildings and
other structures in seismic zones, including seismic hazard assessment, site selection and
preparation, structural systems and components, materials and construction methods, and
performance-based design. The NBC is regularly updated to reflect the latest advances in
earthquake engineering research and practice, and it is widely recognized as a comprehensive
and authoritative source of information.
In addition to the NBC, there are several other codes, standards, and guidelines that provide
recommendations and requirements for earthquake-resistant design and construction in India. For
instance, the Indian Standard Code of Practice for Earthquake Resistant Design and Construction
(IS 1893) provides recommendations and guidelines for the design and construction of buildings
and other structures in seismic zones (BIS, 2016). The Indian Standard Code of Practice for
Seismic Evaluation and Upgrading of Existing Buildings (IS 13827) provides guidelines for the
evaluation and retrofitting of existing structures.
The key principle of earthquake-resistant design is to ensure that the structure can resist seismic
loads without collapsing, even if some damage to non-structural elements is expected (NRC,
2012). This requires a comprehensive understanding of the seismic hazard, the dynamic behavior
of the structure, and the properties of the materials and components used in construction. The
NBC and other codes and standards provide detailed guidelines and recommendations for the
design and construction of earthquake-resistant structures, including the selection of appropriate
structural systems and components, the use of seismic-resistant materials and construction
methods, and the provision of seismic-resistant details and connections.

16
Another important aspect of earthquake-resistant design is the integration of non-structural
elements, such as walls, partitions, and cladding, into the overall seismic performance of the
structure. These elements can have a significant impact on the seismic behavior of the structure
and must be designed and constructed in accordance with the requirements of the NBC and other
codes and standards.
Building Ethics in India
In addition to building codes and standards, there is a strong tradition of ethical practices in the
design and construction of earthquake-resistant structures in India. This includes a commitment
to professional excellence, public safety, and environmental responsibility. Architects, engineers,
contractors, and building owners must adhere to ethical standards and best practices to ensure the
safety and well-being of the individuals who occupy and use the structures.
2.5.1 Examples of Building Codes for Earthquake-resistant Structures in India:

1. National Building Code of India (NBC): The NBC is a comprehensive guide for the
design, construction, and maintenance of buildings in India. It provides detailed
guidelines on various aspects of building design, including structural design, seismic
design, and earthquake-resistant design.
2. Indian Standards Code (IS): The IS code provides standards for the design and
construction of earthquake-resistant structures in India. Some of the key IS codes relevant
to earthquake-resistant design include IS 1893 (Criteria for Earthquake-resistant design of
structures), IS 13920 (Ductile detailing of reinforced concrete structures subjected to
seismic forces), and IS 4326 (Earthquake-resistant design and construction of buildings).

2.5.2 Factors considered in building codes for earthquake-resistant structures in India:

1. Seismic Zone: The seismic zone of a location is a critical factor in the design of
earthquake-resistant structures. India is divided into four seismic zones, ranging from
Zone 2 (low seismicity) to Zone 5 (very high seismicity), and the design requirements for
structures vary based on the seismic zone of the location.
2. Site Conditions: The site conditions, such as soil type and soil profile, play a significant
role in the seismic performance of structures. Soil profiles can have a significant impact

17
 on the dynamic behavior of structures during earthquakes, and it is important to consider
this factor in the design of earthquake-resistant structures.
3. Structural System: The structural system used for a building plays a critical role in its
seismic performance. Reinforced concrete and steel structures are commonly used in
India, and it is important to consider the seismic behavior of these systems in the design
of earthquake-resistant structures.
4. Ductility: Ductility is the ability of a structure to deform without breaking, and it is an
important factor in the seismic performance of structures. Building codes in India require
that structures be designed to exhibit sufficient ductility to allow them to deform during
earthquakes without collapsing.
5. Load Paths: Load paths refer to the transfer of forces through a structure during
earthquakes. Building codes in India require that structures be designed to provide
multiple load paths to ensure that forces are distributed evenly throughout the structure,
reducing the likelihood of failure.
6. Detailing: Detailing refers to the way that the components of a structure are put together
and connected. Building codes in India require that structures be detailed in a way that
ensures that they are able to resist earthquakes without failure.

In summary, building codes for earthquake-resistant structures in India consider a range of

factors, including the seismic zone of the location, site conditions, structural system, ductility,
load paths, and detailing, to ensure that structures are designed and constructed to resist
earthquakes. By following these codes and guidelines, engineers can help ensure that structures
are safe, durable, and able to withstand the effects of earthquakes.

18
 CHAPTER

3
METHODOLOGY
This design approach involves two phases, the Analytical Research phase and the Experimental
phase. Mixed Method Design is a research methodology that combines both quantitative and
qualitative research methods to achieve a specific objective.
The first phase, Analytical Research, involves the collection and analysis of data. This phase is
critical in gaining a deep understanding of the research problem and the variables involved. The
data collected in this phase may be qualitative or quantitative, depending on the research
question and the available data sources.
Once the data has been analyzed, the results are used to design the second phase of the research,
the Experimental phase. This phase builds on the insights gained from the Analytical Research
phase and is designed to test the theories and hypotheses developed in the first phase. The
experimental phase may involve a controlled study, survey, or other research techniques that
allow for a more in-depth examination of the variables and their relationship to the research
problem. The two phases of Mixed Method Design are interactive and interdependent, as the
results of the Analytical Research phase inform the design of the Experimental phase, and the
results of the Experimental phase inform further analysis and refinement of the theories and
hypotheses. This holistic approach provides a more comprehensive understanding of the research
problem and allows for a more robust examination of the variables and their relationships.
Overall, Mixed Method Design is an effective research methodology for tackling complex
research problems that involve multiple variables and perspectives. By combining both
qualitative and quantitative data, this approach provides a more complete picture of the research
problem and allows for a more rigorous examination of the variables and their relationships.
In the field of seismic engineering, understanding the behavior of structures during earthquakes
is crucial for ensuring public safety and minimizing the negative impacts of these events on the
environment and human life. One of the ways to study this behavior is by simulating earthquakes
in laboratory conditions through shake tests. These tests provide valuable information on the
seismic response of structures and can be used to inform design, retrofit, and risk mitigation

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strategies. To perform a shake test, accurate and comprehensive information on the ground
motion of earthquakes is required. The United States Geological Survey (USGS) is a trusted
source of such information, with a vast database of earthquake data from all over the world. In
this study, we aim to collect data from the USGS database and analyze it to create a shake test
table. The shake test table will provide a summary of the intensity and duration of earthquakes at
various locations.
This information will be used to design and perform shake tests in the laboratory, where the
seismic response of structures can be studied in controlled conditions. The results of these tests
can then be compared to the actual seismic response of structures during earthquakes, providing
valuable insights into the behavior of structures during earthquakes and the factors that
contribute to seismic resistance. This study will provide a critical contribution to the field of
seismic engineering by improving our understanding of the seismic response of structures and
informing the design and retrofit of earthquake-resistant buildings. The methodology of
collecting data from USGS and analyzing it to create a shake test table will be described in the
following chapter.

Chart 1: Mix Method Methodology

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 CHAPTER

4
DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS
3.1 Collection of Seismic Information:
Accurate and comprehensive information on earthquakes is essential for designing a shake table
test that accurately replicates the seismic response of structures during an earthquake. By
collecting data from a trusted source such as the USGS, the research phase is able to obtain
reliable and trustworthy information on the magnitude, location, and intensity of earthquakes.

The collection of data from a trusted source helps to minimize the potential for errors and biases
in the analysis. By using data from a reliable source, the research phase can avoid potential
inaccuracies and biases that can occur when collecting and analyzing data from multiple sources.
The collection of data from a trusted source can improve the validity and reliability of the results.
By using data from a reputable source, the research phase can increase the confidence in the
results, which will be used to inform the design and retrofit of earthquake-resistant buildings.

In conclusion, the collection of data from a trusted source is a crucial step in the analytical
research phase of a shake table test design. By collecting data from the USGS, the research phase
is able to obtain reliable and trustworthy information that will inform the design of the shake
table test and improve the validity and reliability of the results.

The 1952 Kern County earthquake with a magnitude of 7.36 on the Moment Magnitude Scale
serves as the primary reference point for calibrating seismic models. The data for this event was
obtained from the United States Geological Survey (USGS) and was selected as the idealized
earthquake for analytical research due to its significance and impact. This event serves as a
benchmark for the understanding and prediction of future earthquakes, and the data collected
provides valuable insights into the dynamics of earthquakes and their effects on the surrounding
area.

21
The seismogram is displayed below:

Figure 5: Horizontal Component 1

Figure 6: Horizontal Component 2

Seismic Information at each time interval:

Record Sequence
T0.010S T0.02S T0.022S
Number
12 2.1053E-02 2.1550E-02 2.1826E-02

Table 1: Earthquake Data

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3.1.1 Basic model design:

Figure 7: Basic Model Design

Dimensions of the Shakeing table component are as follows :
Top Plate - 600mm x 900mm x 12mm
Bottom Base - 900mm x 900mm x 12mm
Spring diameter – 40cm
RCC construction of M20 grade will be used for the structure that will be set upon the shaking
table. The prototype was scaled down from an ideal structure in accordance with IS code 1893
Part 1 in a ratio of 1:6. (2016). An image of the structure, along with its measurements and
prototype design, is shown below.

Figure 8: (a): Section, (b) Plan

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3.1.2 Components used in the project:
Arduino:
Arduino is an open-source electronics platform based on simple, easy-to-use hardware
and software. It is used for controlling and automating various electronic devices such as
motors, lights, and sensors. In the context of a shake test table used to replicate
earthquakes, precision control of the motors is important in order to accurately simulate
the ground motion and intensity of a real earthquake. This is critical for testing the
seismic resistance of structures and ensuring their safety and stability. The use of Arduino
allows for precise and reliable control of the motors, ensuring that the shake test table
accurately replicates the dynamics of an earthquake. Additionally, the flexibility and ease
of use of the Arduino platform makes it an ideal choice for controlling the motors in a
shake test table, enabling researchers and engineers to efficiently and effectively test the
seismic resistance of structures.

Figure 9: Arduino (Micro Controller)

Servo motor:
A servo motor is a type of motor that can control its position precisely and accurately,
making it ideal for applications that require precise and repetitive movements. Servo
motors are widely used in various fields such as robotics, automation, and control
systems. In the context of a shake test table used to replicate earthquakes, the use of servo
motors is important for controlling the motors with precision to accurately simulate the
ground motion and intensity of a real earthquake. Precise control of the motors allows for
accurate replication of the dynamics of an earthquake, which is crucial for testing the
seismic resistance of structures and ensuring their safety and stability. Additionally, servo
motors are capable of providing rapid and consistent motion, making them ideal for use

24
in a shake test table where rapid and repetitive movements are required. The use of servo
motors in a shake test table allows for precise control of the motors, ensuring that the
table accurately replicates the dynamics of an earthquake and enables effective testing of
the seismic resistance of structures.

Figure 10: Servo Motor

Motor Driver:
A motor driver is an electronic circuit that controls and amplifies the power supply to a
motor, enabling it to operate efficiently and effectively. Motor drivers are typically used
in applications where the motor requires more power than can be supplied by a
microcontroller or a computer, such as in robotics, automation, and control systems.
In the context of a shake test table used to replicate earthquakes, a motor driver is
important for controlling the motors with precision and accuracy to simulate the ground
motion and intensity of a real earthquake. The motor driver amplifies the power supply to
the motors, enabling them to operate efficiently and effectively even when high torque or
speed is required. Precise control of the motors is crucial for accurately simulating the
dynamics of an earthquake and testing the seismic resistance of structures, and the use of
a motor driver ensures that the motors have sufficient power to achieve the desired level
of precision and accuracy.
The use of a motor driver in a shake test table enables effective testing of the seismic
resistance of structures and ensures that the table accurately replicates the dynamics of an
earthquake.

25
 Figure 11: Motor Driver

Display:

An LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) is a type of flat-panel display commonly used in

electronic devices to display information. LCD displays are known for their low power
consumption and high contrast ratio, making them ideal for use in a wide range of
applications.

In the context of a shake test table used to replicate earthquakes, an LCD display is
important for displaying magnitude and intensity values, which provide important
information about the intensity and duration of the simulated earthquake. This
information is crucial for accurately evaluating the seismic resistance of structures and
ensuring their safety and stability. The use of an LCD display allows for real-time
monitoring and display of the magnitude and intensity values, enabling researchers and
engineers to easily and quickly assess the results of the shake test and make necessary
adjustments.

Figure 12: Liquid Crystal Display

26
Springs tried to use as dampers:

A damper is a device used to absorb or dissipate energy and reduce vibrations in a

system. In the context of a shake test table used to replicate earthquakes, dampers are
important in controlling the vibration and motion of the table to accurately simulate the
ground motion and intensity of a real earthquake. During an earthquake simulation, the
shake table generates high levels of vibration and motion, which can cause the table to
become unstable and produce inaccurate results. The use of dampers helps to control the
motion and reduce unwanted vibrations, ensuring that the table operates smoothly and
accurately. This is critical for accurately simulating the dynamics of an earthquake and
testing the seismic resistance of structures.

Furthermore, dampers can also improve the safety of the shake test, as they help to
reduce the stress and strain on the table and its components, preventing damage and
ensuring long-term reliability. The use of dampers in a shake test table is therefore
essential for accurately replicating earthquakes and ensuring the safety and stability of the
testing process.

Figure 13: Springs

27
3.2 Analysis of Seismic Information:

After conducting web-based Analytical Research and extracting relevant data, the team
moved forward with Experimental Research. In this phase, the extracted data was utilized to
control motors in a microcontroller-based system. The system was designed to simulate an
earthquake on a shake test table.
The microcontroller received input from the extracted data and used it to control the motors.
The motors, in turn, drove the shake test table, causing it to move and replicate the motion of
an earthquake. This allowed the team to test the resilience and stability of various structures
and materials under conditions similar to an actual seismic event.
The shake test table was a specialized device that was designed to subject specimens to
controlled and repeated motions, simulating the vibrations and stresses experienced during an
earthquake. The microcontroller-based control system allowed for precise and repeatable
testing, enabling the team to gather meaningful data and insights into the response of
different materials and structures to seismic events.
This experimental research is an important step in the field of structural engineering and
disaster resilience, as it allowed for the testing and validation of new technologies and
materials in a controlled and safe environment. The insights and data gathered from the shake
test table would help inform future design and construction practices, making buildings and
infrastructure safer and more resilient against earthquakes and other natural disasters.

28
3.2.1 Circuit Diagram:

Figure 14: Circuit Diagram

The shake table test was created as part of a research project to replicate earthquakes and
analyze their effects on structures. The aim of the project is to design and build a device
that can simulate the motion of an earthquake in a controlled environment, allowing
researchers to study the behavior of structures under seismic loading. The design of the
shake table is based on an Arduino Mega microcontroller, which is used to control the
movement of two servo motors that are responsible for the movement of the table.

The first earthquake to be replicated in the shake table test is the Kern earthquake that
occurred in 1952. The magnitude and intensity of this earthquake have been recorded,
and these values will be used to program the Arduino Mega to control the movement of
the servo motors. The two servo motors are responsible for controlling the movement of
the table in two different axes, allowing for a more comprehensive simulation of the
earthquake.

To provide control over the shake table, there are three push buttons connected to the
Arduino Mega. The first button is used to start the simulation, the second button is used
29
to stop the simulation, and the third button is used to display the values of magnitude and
intensity in the LCD display that is connected to the microcontroller.

The project starts with the design and building of the shake table. This involves the
selection of the servo motors, the construction of the table, and the programming of the
microcontroller. The servo motors must have sufficient torque to move the table and must
be accurate enough to simulate the motion of the earthquake. The table must be sturdy
and rigid to minimize any motion other than the motion generated by the servo motors.

Once the shake table has been built, the next step is to program the Arduino Mega to
control the movement of the servo motors. The magnitude and intensity of the Kern
earthquake will be used to program the microcontroller, and the servo motors will be
tested to ensure that they can generate the correct motion. The push buttons will also be
tested to ensure that they work as intended and that the LCD display shows the correct
values.

Once the programming and testing of the microcontroller and the servo motors have been
completed, the shake table test can be performed. The first step is to set up the table and
connect the push buttons and the LCD display to the microcontroller. The simulation is
then started by pressing the start button. The servo motors will then start to move the
table, simulating the motion of the Kern earthquake.

During the simulation, the motion of the table can be monitored using the LCD display,
which shows the values of magnitude and intensity in real-time. If the simulation is not
going as expected, the stop button can be pressed to stop the servo motors, allowing the
researchers to make any necessary adjustments to the program.

Once the simulation has been completed, the researchers can analyze the data collected
during the test. This may involve observing the motion of the table and any structures
placed on it, as well as measuring the displacement and acceleration of the table and the
structures. The results of the test can then be used to validate the simulation model and to
make improvements to the design of the shake table.

30
3.2.2 Codes Used:

Figure 15: Basic code to Run a Servo Motor

This code is written in the Arduino programming language and is used to control two
servo motors that move a shake test table. The code uses the Servo library to interface
with the servo motors and perform the necessary movements.

The code starts by including the Servo library and creating two instances of the library
called "myservo." In the setup function, the first servo is attached to digital pin 9 and the
second servo is attached to digital pin 8 on the microcontroller board.

The main part of the code is in the loop function, which moves both servo motors to the
maximum displacement (180 degrees) and then back to their original position (0
degrees). The myservo.write function is used to set the servo position to 180, and the
delay function is used to wait for 15 milliseconds. After that, the myservo.write function

31
is used again to set the servo position back to 0, and another delay function is used to
wait for another 15 milliseconds.

This code will cause both servo motors to continuously move the shake test table from
their original position to the maximum displacement and back in a repetitive manner.

Figure 16: Code to Run Servo Motor with different input Values

The code starts by including the Servo library in the Arduino IDE and creating an
instance of the library named myservo. In the setup() function, the servo motor is
attached to digital pin 9 using the attach() method.
In the loop() function, an array named values is created with three elements representing
different displacement values: 0, 90, and 180. A for loop is then used to iterate through
the values in the array.

32
The displacement values are then converted to servo positions using the map() function.
The map() function maps a value from one range to another. In this case, it maps the
displacement values from a range of [0, 180] to a range of [0, 180] degrees, which
represents the rotary position of the servo motor.
The converted values are then passed to the write() method of the myservo instance,
which sets the servo position to the converted value. The delay() function is used to
pause the execution of the code for 1000 milliseconds (1 second) after each iteration of
the for loop.
The code essentially performs the following steps:
1. Attaches the servo motor to digital pin 9.
2. Creates an array of displacement values.
3. Converts each displacement value to a servo position.
4. Writes the converted values to the servo motor, causing it to rotate to the
corresponding position.
5. Pauses the code execution for 1 second after each iteration.
When the code is uploaded to the Arduino Mega and run, the servo motor will rotate to
the positions corresponding to the displacement values in the array, simulating the
earthquake displacement in a shake test table.

33
 CHAPTER

5
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The shake table test created using the Arduino Mega microcontroller and two servo motors is an
innovative and useful tool for researchers studying earthquakes and their impact. The ability to
recreate the motion of earthquakes and simulate their effects on structures is an important aspect
of the study of natural disasters. The initial replication of the Kern earthquake in 1952
demonstrates the capability of the system to replicate the motion of real earthquakes.

However, there is significant potential for the system to be improved and expanded upon in the
future. Implementing artificial intelligence (AI) technology into the system would allow it to
learn and recognize new earthquakes and replicate them more accurately. This could be done by
incorporating machine learning algorithms that can analyze and identify patterns in the data
collected from real earthquakes and use this information to improve the replication process.

Another aspect of the system that could be improved upon is the use of components. Currently,
the shake table is powered by servo motors and springs, which can produce limited motion and
accuracy. In the future, the system could be upgraded to use more advanced components, such as
dampers, which would provide more precise control over the motion of the shake table.

Additionally, the use of a more advanced microcontroller than the Arduino Mega could provide
greater processing power and efficiency. This would allow for more complex simulations to be
performed and provide more accurate and precise results. These improvements will make the
system an even more valuable asset for researchers and provide greater accuracy and precision in
the study of earthquakes and their impact. Arduino mega as the microcontroller and two servo
motors to control the movement of the table has several shortcomings that must be addressed to
make it a more effective tool for earthquake analysis and replication. The use of servo motors as
the driving force behind the movement of the table is a limiting factor as these motors have
limited torque and weight-bearing capacity. This can result in the table creating a backlash
during movement, causing the components to crash.

34
Another limitation of the current setup is the use of spring suspension system instead of dampers
which would have provided more stability and smoother movements to the table. This leads to
inaccuracies in the replication of earthquakes, which can lead to incorrect analysis of the
earthquake. Additionally, the use of the Arduino mega as the microcontroller may also limit the
capabilities of the Shake table test. While the Arduino mega is a reliable and easy-to-use
microcontroller, it may not have the processing power or memory required to process complex
earthquake data or controls multiple motors with high precision.

To address these limitations, researchers could consider incorporating more advanced

microcontrollers into the Shake table test. These microcontrollers could have a faster processing
speed and more memory, allowing for a more accurate and efficient replication of earthquakes.
Additionally, the use of dampers instead of springs in the suspension system could provide a
smoother and more stable movement of the table, reducing the risk of component crashes.
Another area of improvement could be the integration of Artificial Intelligence (A.I) into the
Shake table test. This could allow the system to learn and record new earthquakes, improving the
accuracy of replications in the future. With the ability to process large amounts of data and make
predictions, A.I could also help identify areas where improvements can be made to the Shake
table test.

In conclusion, the Shake table test created with the Arduino mega and two servo motors has
several shortcomings that need to be addressed to make it a more effective tool for earthquake
analysis and replication. Incorporating advanced microcontrollers and dampers, as well as
integrating A.I, could greatly improve the capabilities and accuracy of the Shake table test,
making it an asset for researchers in the field of earthquake analysis.

35
17(a) 17(b)

Figure 17 (a) & (b): Work on Structure

Figure 18: Work on Electronics

36
 CHAPTER

6
CONCLUSION
The Shake Table Test was created to simulate an earthquake and analyze its effects on various
components. The project aimed to replicate the effects of an earthquake as accurately as possible.
However, the use of less advanced components such as spring instead of dampers and a less
advanced microcontroller than Arduino resulted in several shortcomings. The motors used in the
project were small servo motors, which lacked the weight and power needed to effectively
operate the shake table, leading to a backlash and causing the components to crash.

Despite these shortcomings, the research done during the project can be a valuable asset to future
researchers and experimentalists who are looking to improve the project with a bigger budget.
The results and observations gathered during the project can provide valuable insight into the
challenges and limitations of creating a successful shake table test.

As students, the biggest challenge faced during the project was the lack of financial support. The
limitations of the budget greatly impacted the quality and performance of the shake table test. If
financial support had been provided, the project could have been completed with the use of better
components, resulting in a more accurate and reliable simulation of an earthquake.

In conclusion, while the shake table test project was not successful in fully replicating the effects
of an earthquake, the research done during the project can be a valuable asset for future
improvement. The limitations and challenges faced during the project serve as an opportunity for
future experimentation and improvement. With adequate financial support, the shake table test
project has the potential to evolve into a more accurate and reliable simulation of earthquakes.

37
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