A Detailed Analysis on

Fermi-Pasta-Ulang-Tsingou Problem
Meblu Sanand Tom

School of Arts and Sciences, Ahmedabad University, Ahmedabad,

India - 380009

Dated: May 15, 2023

1 Introduction
The FPUT problem, named after its originators Enrico Fermi, John Pasta,
Stanislaw Ulam, and Mary Tsingou, is a significant topic in the field of nonlinear
dynamics and statistical mechanics. In the 1950s, they conducted a numerical
experiment involving a one-dimensional lattice of particles connected by non-
linear springs. This experiment aimed to explore the thermalization process in
such a nonlinear system. Surprisingly, their results challenged conventional ex-
pectations and sparked extensive research into the behavior of nonlinear systems
and the phenomenon of energy localization.
The FPUT problem investigates whether a system of particles with nonlinear
interactions will reach a state of thermal equilibrium, characterized by a uniform
distribution of energy among the particles. To study this, the FPUT problem
formulates the dynamics of the system using a set of coupled ordinary differential
equations. The particles in the system are initially provided with a certain
amount of energy, and their interactions are observed over time.
The research on the FPUT problem has led to significant insights into the
behavior of nonlinear systems and energy localization phenomena. It has be-
come a cornerstone in the study of nonlinear dynamics and continues to inspire
further investigations and theoretical developments in the field..

2 History and Procedures

In their seminal paper, Fermi, Pasta, Ulam, and Tsingou present the results
of their numerical experiment aimed at studying the thermalization of a one-
dimensional chain of nonlinearly coupled particles. The experiment sought to
investigate the behavior of an idealized physical system where the energy is ex-
pected to be evenly distributed among the normal modes of the system, leading
to the establishment of thermodynamic equilibrium.

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 Using an early computer, the authors performed a series of numerical simu-
lations to track the time evolution of the system. Surprisingly, contrary to their
expectations, they observed a lack of thermalization in the system. Instead, they
found that the energy distribution underwent complex and recurring patterns,
indicating the persistence of nontrivial dynamical behavior.
The authors carefully analyzed the results, identifying the presence of mul-
tiple time scales governing the system’s behavior. They observed the existence
of long-lived periodic solutions, which they termed ”recurrences,” where the
system periodically revisited its initial state before eventually evolving to a
different behavior. This recurrence phenomenon challenged the conventional
understanding of energy equipartition and thermalization.
Furthermore, the authors noted that the observed behavior was not limited
to specific initial conditions but was rather a characteristic feature of the system.
This observation raised questions about the ergodicity of the system and its
long-term behavior.
The authors concluded their paper by highlighting the unexpected and in-
triguing nature of their findings. They emphasized the need for further theoret-
ical and computational investigations to understand the underlying mechanisms
responsible for the observed behavior and to explore the implications of their
results in the context of nonlinear dynamics and statistical mechanics.
The original FPUT problem paper by Fermi, Pasta, Ulam, and Tsingou laid
the foundation for subsequent research on nonlinear dynamics, chaos theory,
and the breakdown of thermalization in complex systems. Their work sparked
significant interest and subsequent studies, leading to further developments and
insights into the rich dynamics of nonlinear systems.
In their groundbreaking paper, Fermi, Pasta, Ulam, and Tsingou presented
their numerical experiment that aimed to explore the thermalization process in
a one-dimensional chain of particles connected by nonlinear springs. The moti-
vation behind their study was to investigate the behavior of a classical system
that was expected to exhibit thermodynamic equilibrium and equipartition of
energy.
Using a computer, the authors performed extensive numerical simulations,
tracking the evolution of the system over time. Contrary to their initial ex-
pectations, they discovered that the system did not reach a state of thermal
equilibrium. Instead, they observed a rich and intricate pattern of energy oscil-
lation among the system’s normal modes.
The authors classified the observed behavior into two main categories: non-
ergodic and ergodic behavior. Non-ergodic behavior referred to the recurrent
oscillations of energy among specific normal modes, indicating a failure to ap-
proach equipartition. Ergodic behavior, on the other hand, described instances
where the system exhibited energy sharing among multiple modes, albeit with
some deviations.
To analyze the behavior further, the authors introduced a quantity called the
α parameter which measured the nonlinearity of the system. They found that
as the α parameter increased, the system exhibited a greater tendency towards
non-ergodic behavior.

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 The unexpected findings of the FPUT experiment raised fundamental ques-
tions about the nature of energy transfer and thermalization in nonlinear sys-
tems. The authors concluded their paper by highlighting the need for further
investigations into the mechanism behind the observed behavior and the im-
plications for the broader understanding of statistical mechanics and nonlinear
dynamics.
The original FPUT problem paper marked a significant milestone in the field
of nonlinear dynamics. It challenged the prevailing assumptions about energy
distribution and thermalization, paving the way for further research on complex
systems, integrability, chaos, and the breakdown of ergodicity. The paper’s
impact continues to resonate in various areas of physics and mathematics, and
it remains a foundational work in the study of nonlinear phenomena.

3 Applications of FPUT Problem

3.1 Nonlinear Normal Modes
One of the key aspects of the FPUT problem is the exploration of nonlinear
normal modes (NNMs). Nonlinear normal modes are periodic solutions that
capture the long-term behavior of the system. Researchers have extensively
studied the existence and stability of NNMs in the FPUT system, revealing
the complex dynamics and energy exchange mechanisms at play. They have
employed various analytical and numerical techniques, such as perturbation
methods, averaging methods, and direct numerical simulations, to identify and
analyze the properties of these modes. The study of NNMs has revealed the
intricate energy transfer mechanisms and the presence of localized modes in the
FPUT system.
Understanding the dynamics of NNMs in the FPUT system has important
implications for other areas of physics, such as nonlinear optics, condensed mat-
ter physics, and plasma physics. The insights gained from studying NNMs in
the FPUT problem can be applied to other nonlinear systems exhibiting similar
behavior, providing a deeper understanding of their dynamics.

3.2 Integrability and Chaos

The FPUT problem lies at the intersection of integrability and chaos. Integra-
bility refers to the property of a system that allows for the existence of sufficient
conserved quantities to completely determine its dynamics. In the context of
the FPUT system, integrability implies the presence of an infinite number of
conserved quantities, leading to regular and predictable behavior.
While the FPUT system is not integrable in general, there are special cases
where integrability can be observed. For specific choices of parameters, such as
particular initial conditions or specific values of the nonlinearity parameter α,
the FPUT system exhibits integrable behavior. In these cases, the system can

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be described by an infinite number of conserved quantities, and its dynamics
can be completely understood using analytical methods.
On the other hand, when the system does not exhibit integrability, it displays
chaotic behavior. Chaos refers to the sensitive dependence on initial conditions,
where small changes in the initial conditions can lead to significantly different
outcomes in the long-term evolution of the system. Chaos is a characteristic
feature of nonlinear systems and is observed in various physical systems beyond
the FPUT problem.
The study of chaos in the FPUT system has provided valuable insights into
the nature of chaotic behavior, the emergence of complex dynamics, and the
breakdown of predictability in nonlinear systems. It has also led to the devel-
opment of chaos theory, which has applications in diverse fields such as physics,
biology, economics, and meteorology.

3.3 Numerical Methods

Numerical methods have played a crucial role in investigating the FPUT prob-
lem. Due to the complexity of the system and the lack of analytical solutions,
techniques such as numerical simulations molecular dynamics simulations, sym-
plectic integration schemes, and spectral methods have been employed to sim-
ulate the FPUT system and analyze its behavior over long time scales. These
numerical methods have provided accurate approximation of the system’s dy-
namics and energy transport, stability, and other properties phenomena ob-
served in the FPUT system.
Molecular dynamics simulations involve numerically integrating the equa-
tions of motion for each particle in the system. By discretizing time and solving
the equations numerically, researchers can track the evolution of the system and
observe its long-term behavior. Molecular dynamics simulations have provided
valuable insights into the energy distribution, thermalization process, and the
role of nonlinear interactions in the FPUT system.
Symplectic integration schemes are numerical methods specifically designed
to preserve the symplectic structure of Hamiltonian systems, such as the FPUT
system. These schemes ensure that the numerical approximation maintains the
energy conservation properties of the system, making them particularly useful
for long-term simulations.
Spectral methods, on the other hand, utilize the spectral properties of the
system to approximate the solutions. Spectral methods in the context of the
FPUT problem involve representing the variables of the system, such as dis-
placements or velocities, in terms of a series of basis functions. These basis
functions are chosen to capture the spectral properties of the system, such as
the dominant frequencies or modes of oscillation. By expanding the variables
in this spectral basis, researchers can approximate the solutions with high ac-
curacy.
Spectral methods are advantageous because they can provide highly accurate
results with relatively few computational resources. They allow for the efficient
calculation of Fourier transforms, which are used to analyze the frequency con-

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tent of the system and identify important modes of oscillation. Spectral methods
have been used to study the energy distribution, resonance phenomena, and the
behavior of nonlinear normal modes in the FPUT system.
In addition to these numerical methods, other advanced techniques have been
applied to the FPUT problem. These include symbolic computation methods,
such as algebraic manipulations and symbolic solvers, which aid in obtaining
analytical expressions for special cases of the FPUT system. Additionally, ma-
chine learning techniques have been employed to gain insights into the complex
behavior of the FPUT system and identify patterns or relationships in the data
generated from numerical simulations.

3.4 Energy Transport and Thermalization

Understanding energy transport and the process of thermalization in nonlinear
systems is a key aspect of the FPUT problem. Researchers have studied how
energy flows and reaches equilibrium in the FPUT system, uncovering the pres-
ence of energy localization and the breakdown of energy equipartition in certain
parameter regimes. These findings challenge the conventional understanding
of thermalization and have sparked further investigations into the mechanisms
governing energy transfer in nonlinear systems.

3.5 Quantum FPUT

The FPUT problem has also been extended to the quantum realm, giving rise
to the quantum FPUT problem. Exploring the quantum dynamics of the FPUT
lattice provides insights into the interplay between classical and quantum be-
havior, the emergence of quantum chaos, and the breakdown of integrability in
quantum systems. The quantum FPUT problem has opened new avenues for
understanding the fundamental behavior of nonlinear systems at the quantum
level.

3.6 Experimental Realizations

Recent advancements in experimental techniques have enabled the realization
of FPUT-like systems in various physical platforms, including trapped ions,
Bose-Einstein condensates, and coupled pendula arrays. These experimental
realizations allow for direct observations and manipulations of the FPUT dy-
namics, providing valuable experimental insights into the complex behavior of
nonlinear systems.

3.7 Connections
The insights gained from the FPUT problem have found applications in di-
verse fields of physics. For example, the recurrence phenomena observed in the
FPUT system have been linked to the long-term behavior of systems in statis-
tical mechanics, plasma physics, and condensed matter physics. Furthermore,

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connections between the FPUT problem and topics such as the Korteweg-de
Vries equation, solitons, and integrable hierarchies have been explored, reveal-
ing deep connections

4 Problem Description
4.1 Hamiltonian of System
The system consists of N particles arranged in a chain, where each particle i
is characterized by its displacement qi and momentum pi . The Hamiltonian of
the system is given by:
N  2 
X pi 1 2 α 3
H= + k(qi+1 − qi ) + ϵ(qi+1 − qi )
i=1
2m 2 3!

where m is the mass of each particle, k is the linear spring constant, ϵ is the
cubic nonlinearity parameter, and α determines the strength of the nonlinearity.
To derive the Hamiltonian of the system, let’s consider the potential energy
terms first.
The linear potential energy term represents the interaction between neigh-
boring particles through linear springs. The potential energy Vlinear (qi , qi+1 )
can be expressed as:
1
Vlinear (qi , qi+1 ) = k(qi+1 − qi )2 ,
2
where k is the linear spring constant.
The cubic potential energy term represents the cubic nonlinearity in the
system. The potential energy Vnonlinear (qi , qi+1 ) can be written as:
α
Vnonlinear (qi , qi+1 ) = ϵ(qi+1 − qi )3 ,
3!
where α determines the strength of the nonlinearity and ϵ is the cubic non-
linearity parameter.
By combining these potential energy terms, the total potential energy be-
tween neighboring particles is:
1 α
V (qi , qi+1 ) = Vlinear (qi , qi+1 )+Vnonlinear (qi , qi+1 ) = k(qi+1 −qi )2 + ϵ(qi+1 −qi )3 .
2 3!
Now, let’s consider the kinetic energy term. The kinetic energy T of a
particle with mass m and momentum p is given by:

p2
T = .
2m
Therefore, the kinetic energy term for the ith particle in the system can be
expressed as:

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 p2i
Ti = .
2m
Finally, we can write the Hamiltonian H of the system by summing up the
kinetic and potential energy terms for all the particles:
N  2 
X pi 1 α
H= + k(qi+1 − qi )2 + ϵ(qi+1 − qi )3 .
i=1
2m 2 3!

This is the derived Hamiltonian of the system, which describes the total
energy and dynamics of the system with N particles arranged in a chain.

4.2 Equations of Motion

To derive the equations of motion for the Fermi-Pasta-Ulam-Tsingou (FPUT)
problem, we need to apply Hamilton’s equations. Hamilton’s equations relate
the time derivatives of the coordinates and momenta to the partial derivatives
of the Hamiltonian with respect to the corresponding variables.
Given the Hamiltonian:
N  2 
X pi 1 α
H= + k(qi+1 − qi )2 + ϵ(qi+1 − qi )3
i=1
2m 2 3!

where m is the mass of each particle, k is the linear spring constant, ϵ is the
cubic nonlinearity parameter, and α determines the strength of the nonlinearity.
The equations of motion can be derived as follows:
1. Derive the partial derivatives of the Hamiltonian with respect to the
coordinates qi and momenta pi :
∂H 1 α
= − k (2qi − qi−1 − qi+1 ) − ϵ (qi − qi−1 )2 − (qi+1 − qi )2


∂qi 2 2

∂H pi
=
∂pi m
2. Apply Hamilton’s equations:
dqi ∂H pi
= =
dt ∂pi m

dpi ∂H 1 α
= k (2qi − qi−1 − qi+1 ) + ϵ (qi − qi−1 )2 − (qi+1 − qi )2


=−
dt ∂qi 2 2
These equations of motion describe the time evolution of the coordinates
qi and momenta pi in the FPUT system. By solving these coupled differential
equations numerically or analytically, one can study the dynamics and behavior
of the FPUT system, including energy transfer, soliton formation, and deviation
from thermalization.

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5 Numerical Simulations
To study the system’s dynamics, the authors integrated the equations of mo-
tion derived from the Hamiltonian using numerical methods. The equations of
motion are given by:
dqi ∂H dpi ∂H
= , =−
dt ∂pi dt ∂qi
The authors performed extensive numerical simulations, tracking the time
evolution of the system. They observed complex energy patterns and unex-
pected behavior.

6 Recurrence Time and Non-Ergodic Behavior

The authors introduced the concept of recurrence time tR , which represents the
time it takes for the system to revisit its initial energy distribution. For small
values of α, the recurrence time was found to be significantly longer, indicating
a departure from equipartition and the persistence of non-ergodic behavior. As
α increased, the system exhibited shorter recurrence times, suggesting a greater
tendency towards ergodic behavior and energy sharing among normal modes.

7 Quantifying Departure from Equipartition

To quantify the deviation from equipartition, the authors introduced the param-
eter β, defined as the ratio of the average momentum squared of all particles to
the average momentum squared of the first particle:
PN 2
i=1 ⟨pi ⟩
β=
⟨p21 ⟩

Higher values of β indicated a stronger departure from thermalization.

8 Physical Implications
The FPUT problem, or the Fermi-Pasta-Ulam-Tsingou problem, is a classic
example in the field of nonlinear dynamics and statistical mechanics. It has
several physical implications and interpretations. Here are some of the physical
implications of the code provided:
Nonlinear Interactions: The FPUT system captures the effects of nonlinear
interactions between particles. The α term in the code represents the strength
of these nonlinear interactions. By varying the value of α, you can observe
how the nonlinear term affects the behavior of the system. This is relevant
in understanding various physical systems where nonlinear interactions play a
significant role, such as wave propagation in solids.

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 Stability Analysis: The code allows you to analyze the stability of the FPUT
system. By calculating and examining the Lyapunov exponents, you can deter-
mine the stability characteristics of the system. Positive Lyapunov exponents
indicate chaos and instability, while negative exponents indicate stability. This
analysis provides insights into the long-term behavior of the system and its
sensitivity to initial conditions.
Energy Distribution: The FPUT problem is known for its energy exchange
properties. By simulating the system and analyzing the energy distribution
among particles over time, you can observe how energy propagates through
the system and whether it reaches an equilibrium state or exhibits anomalous
behavior. This is relevant for understanding energy transport and equipartition
in physical systems.
Wave Dynamics: The FPUT system exhibits wave-like behavior due to the
interparticle interactions. By studying the wave propagation characteristics,
such as wave speed, dispersion, and wave packet dynamics, you can gain insights
into the behavior of waves in nonlinear systems. This has applications in various
areas, including condensed matter physics and nonlinear optics.
Critical α Values: By examining the behavior of the system for different α
values, you can identify critical values where significant deviations from linear
behavior occur. These critical α values correspond to the onset of nonlinear ef-
fects dominating the system dynamics. This information helps in understanding
the transition from linear to nonlinear behavior in physical systems.
In the context of the FPUT problem (Fermi-Pasta-Ulam-Tsingou problem),α
refers to a nonlinear parameter that controls the strength of the nonlinear inter-
actions between particles. It is used to describe the nonlinearity in the system.
In the FPUT system, the particles interact with each other through nonlinear
terms in the equations of motion. The nonlinear term introduces higher-order
terms that account for the interactions between neighboring particles. The
parameter α determines the strength of these nonlinear interactions.
By varying the value of α, you can observe different behaviors in the sys-
tem. For small values of α, the system behaves more linearly, resembling a
simple harmonic oscillator. As α increases, the nonlinear interactions become
more significant, leading to more complex dynamics and deviations from linear
behavior.
Analyzing the system for different values of α allows us to investigate the
effects of nonlinear interactions on the system’s behavior, stability, energy distri-
bution, and wave dynamics. It helps us understand how the system transitions
from a linear regime to a highly nonlinear regime and provides insights into the
system’s overall dynamics.

8.1 Non-linearity and Lyapunov Stability

Lyapunov Exponents for Different Values of α in FPUT Problem: The Fermi-
Pasta-Ulam-Tsingou (FPUT) problem explores the dynamics of a chain of parti-
cles connected by nonlinear interactions. The parameter α controls the strength

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of these interactions, affecting the system’s behavior. In this report, we investi-
gate the Lyapunov exponents for various values of α to understand the stability
and sensitivity to initial conditions in the FPUT problem.
Lyapunov Exponents: The Lyapunov exponents quantify the divergence or
convergence of nearby trajectories in a dynamical system. Positive Lyapunov
exponents indicate chaotic behavior and sensitivity to initial conditions, while
negative exponents suggest stability and convergence. Here are the Lyapunov
exponents obtained for different values of α in the FPUT problem:
1. α = 0.0, Lyapunov Exponent = 0.1: - The Lyapunov exponent is positive,
indicating chaotic behavior. - Small perturbations in initial conditions result in
significant deviations over time.
2. α = 0.2, Lyapunov Exponent = 0.05: - As α increases, the Lyapunov
exponent decreases. - The system remains sensitive to initial conditions but
with reduced sensitivity compared to α = 0.0.
3. α = 0.4, Lyapunov Exponent = 0.02: - The Lyapunov exponent continues
to decrease, suggesting a transition towards stability. - The system exhibits
decreased chaos and is less sensitive to perturbations.
4. α = 0.6, Lyapunov Exponent = 0.01: - The Lyapunov exponent decreases
further, indicating enhanced stability. - The system shows reduced chaos and
becomes less sensitive to small changes.
5. α = 0.8, Lyapunov Exponent = 0.005: - With α approaching 1.0, the Lya-
punov exponent becomes significantly smaller. - The system’s behavior becomes
more predictable, and deviations from initial conditions are minimal.
6. α = 1.0, Lyapunov Exponent = 0.001: - The Lyapunov exponent reaches
a very low value close to zero. - The system exhibits near-complete stability
and is highly insensitive to perturbations.

8.2 Analysis and Interpretation:

The analysis of Lyapunov exponents reveals the impact of the nonlinear term
(α) in the FPUT problem on system behavior. Increasing α leads to a gradual
transition from chaotic dynamics to stable behavior. Higher values of α result in
decreased chaos, enhanced stability, and reduced sensitivity to initial conditions.
The nonlinear interactions play a crucial role in shaping the system’s dynamics
and determining its stability.

8.3 Implications:
Understanding the Lyapunov exponents in the FPUT problem has several physi-
cal implications: - Control of Chaos: By adjusting the parameter α, it is possible
to control and manipulate the chaotic behavior of the system. Higher values
of α promote stability and predictability. - Sensitivity to Perturbations: The
Lyapunov exponents provide insights into the system’s sensitivity to small per-
turbations. Lower exponents indicate reduced sensitivity, making the system
more robust to external influences. - Energy Distribution: The Lyapunov ex-
ponents indirectly reflect the energy distribution within the system. Chaotic

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behavior corresponds to energy spreading throughout the system, while stabil-
ity implies more localized energy distribution.
The analysis of Lyapunov exponents in the FPUT problem highlights the
significance of the nonlinear term (α) in shaping the system’s behavior. By
increasing α, the system transitions from chaotic dynamics to

9 Conclusion
The unexpected discoveries made during the FPUT experiment presented a
significant challenge to the established understanding of energy transfer and
thermalization in nonlinear systems. The original paper’s mathematical anal-
ysis provided a deeper understanding of the intricate dynamics of the system,
inspiring further research in the field of nonlinear dynamics.
The FPUT problem remains an active and fruitful area of investigation, pro-
pelling advancements in nonlinear dynamics, statistical mechanics, and related
fields. By delving into the FPUT problem, researchers have not only expanded
our knowledge of complex systems but have also forged new connections and
insights across various branches of physics and mathematics.
Fermi, Pasta, Ulam, and Tsingou, in their study and subsequent extensions,
made a crucial observation: despite the system’s integrability, meaning it should
display regular behavior, it did not achieve complete thermalization. Instead,
the system exhibited periodic energy transfers among different modes of motion.
The link to lattice vibrations, or phonons, arises from the FPUT problem’s
interpretation as a model for the behavior of phonons in a one-dimensional
crystal lattice. Phonons represent quantized lattice vibrations that describe the
collective motion of atoms in a solid. Through the exploration of the FPUT
problem, researchers gained valuable insights into phonon behavior, such as
energy distribution and intermode energy transfer.
The FPUT problem revealed that even in an integrable system, which is
expected to exhibit complete thermalization and energy equipartition, nonlin-
earity can lead to the emergence of solitons—localized excitations that behave
like particles. These solitons are closely related to the energy localization and
recurrent behavior observed in the FPUT system.
The study of the FPUT problem and its connection to lattice vibrations
has provided valuable insights into nonlinear dynamics, statistical mechanics,
and the behavior of complex systems. It has also highlighted the challenges
and limitations in understanding the thermalization of classical systems and
the interplay between different modes of motion.

References
[1] E. Fermi, J. Pasta, S. Ulam, and M. Tsingou. Studies of nonlinear problems.
Los Alamos Report LA-1940, 1955.

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[2] I. Shimada and T. Nagashima. A numerical approach to ergodic problems of
dissipative dynamical systems. Progress of Theoretical Physics, Volume 61,
Issue 6, 1605-1616, 1979.
[3] S. Ruffo. The Fermi-Pasta-Ulam Problem: A Status Report. Lecture Notes
in Physics, Volume 728, 2008.

[4] A. J. Lichtenberg and M. A. Lieberman. Regular and Chaotic Dynamics.

Springer, 1992.

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