Self-organized criticality

Self-organized criticality (SOC) is a property of

dynamical systems that have a critical point as an
attractor. Their macroscopic behavior thus displays the
spatial or temporal scale-invariance characteristic of the
critical point of a phase transition, but without the need
to tune control parameters to a precise value, because
the system, effectively, tunes itself as it evolves
towards criticality.

The concept was put forward by Per Bak, Chao Tang

and Kurt Wiesenfeld ("BTW") in a paper[1] published
in 1987 in Physical Review Letters, and is considered
to be one of the mechanisms by which complexity[2]
arises in nature. Its concepts have been applied across
fields as diverse as geophysics,[3][4] physical
cosmology, evolutionary biology and ecology, bio-
inspired computing and optimization (mathematics), An image of the 2d Bak-Tang-Wiesenfeld sandpile,
economics, quantum gravity, sociology, solar physics, the original model of self-organized criticality.
plasma physics, neurobiology[5][6][7][8] and others.

SOC is typically observed in slowly driven non-equilibrium systems with many degrees of freedom and
strongly nonlinear dynamics. Many individual examples have been identified since BTW's original paper,
but to date there is no known set of general characteristics that guarantee a system will display SOC.

Overview
Self-organized criticality is one of a number of important discoveries made in statistical physics and related
fields over the latter half of the 20th century, discoveries which relate particularly to the study of complexity
in nature. For example, the study of cellular automata, from the early discoveries of Stanislaw Ulam and
John von Neumann through to John Conway's Game of Life and the extensive work of Stephen Wolfram,
made it clear that complexity could be generated as an emergent feature of extended systems with simple
local interactions. Over a similar period of time, Benoît Mandelbrot's large body of work on fractals
showed that much complexity in nature could be described by certain ubiquitous mathematical laws, while
the extensive study of phase transitions carried out in the 1960s and 1970s showed how scale invariant
phenomena such as fractals and power laws emerged at the critical point between phases.

The term self-organized criticality was first introduced in Bak, Tang and Wiesenfeld's 1987 paper, which
clearly linked together those factors: a simple cellular automaton was shown to produce several
characteristic features observed in natural complexity (fractal geometry, pink (1/f) noise and power laws) in
a way that could be linked to critical-point phenomena. Crucially, however, the paper emphasized that the
complexity observed emerged in a robust manner that did not depend on finely tuned details of the system:
variable parameters in the model could be changed widely without affecting the emergence of critical
behavior: hence, self-organized criticality. Thus, the key result of BTW's paper was its discovery of a
mechanism by which the emergence of complexity from simple local interactions could be spontaneous—
and therefore plausible as a source of natural complexity—rather than something that was only possible in
artificial situations in which control parameters are tuned to precise critical values. An alternative view is
that SOC appears when the criticality is linked to a value of zero of the control parameters.[9]

Despite the considerable interest and research output generated from the SOC hypothesis, there remains no
general agreement with regards to its mechanisms in abstract mathematical form. Bak Tang and Wiesenfeld
based their hypothesis on the behavior of their sandpile model.[1]

Models of self-organized criticality

In chronological order of development:

Stick-slip model of fault failure[10][3]

Bak–Tang–Wiesenfeld sandpile
Forest-fire model
Olami–Feder–Christensen model
Bak–Sneppen model

Early theoretical work included the development of a variety of alternative SOC-generating dynamics
distinct from the BTW model, attempts to prove model properties analytically (including calculating the
critical exponents[11][12]), and examination of the conditions necessary for SOC to emerge. One of the
important issues for the latter investigation was whether conservation of energy was required in the local
dynamical exchanges of models: the answer in general is no, but with (minor) reservations, as some
exchange dynamics (such as those of BTW) do require local conservation at least on average.

It has been argued that the BTW "sandpile" model should actually generate 1/f2 noise rather than 1/f
noise.[13] This claim was based on untested scaling assumptions, and a more rigorous analysis showed that
sandpile models generally produce 1/fa spectra, with a<2.[14] Other simulation models were proposed later
that could produce true 1/f noise.[15]

In addition to the nonconservative theoretical model mentioned above, other theoretical models for SOC
have been based upon information theory,[16] mean field theory,[17] the convergence of random
variables,[18] and cluster formation.[19] A continuous model of self-organised criticality is proposed by
using tropical geometry.[20]

Key theoretical issues yet to be resolved include the calculation of the possible universality classes of SOC
behavior and the question of whether it is possible to derive a general rule for determining if an arbitrary
algorithm displays SOC.

Self-organized criticality in nature

SOC has become established as a strong candidate for explaining a number of natural phenomena,
including:

The magnitude of earthquakes (Gutenberg–Richter law) and frequency of aftershocks

(Omori law) [10][3]
Fluctuations in economic systems such as financial markets (references to SOC are
common in econophysics) [21][22]
The evolution of proteins[23][24]
 Forest fires [25]
Neuronal avalanches in the cortex[7][26][27][28]
Acoustic emission from fracturing materials[29]

Despite the numerous applications of SOC to understanding natural

phenomena, the universality of SOC theory has been questioned.
For example, experiments with real piles of rice revealed their
dynamics to be far more sensitive to parameters than originally
The relevance of SOC to the
predicted.[30][1] Furthermore, it has been argued that 1/f scaling in
dynamics of real sand has been
EEG recordings are inconsistent with critical states,[31] and whether
questioned.
SOC is a fundamental property of neural systems remains an open
and controversial topic.[32]

Self-organized criticality and optimization

It has been found that the avalanches from an SOC process make effective patterns in a random search for
optimal solutions on graphs.[33] An example of such an optimization problem is graph coloring. The SOC
process apparently helps the optimization from getting stuck in a local optimum without the use of any
annealing scheme, as suggested by previous work on extremal optimization.

See also
1/f noise
Complex systems
Critical brain hypothesis
Critical exponents
Detrended fluctuation analysis, a method to detect power-law scaling in time series.
Dual-phase evolution, another process that contributes to self-organization in complex
systems.
Fractals
Ilya Prigogine, a systems scientist who helped formalize dissipative system behavior in
general terms.
Power laws
Red Queen hypothesis
Scale invariance
Self-organization
Self-organized criticality control

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Further reading
Adami C (1995). "Self-organized criticality in living systems". Physics Letters A. 203 (1): 29–
32. arXiv:adap-org/9401001 (https://arxiv.org/abs/adap-org/9401001).
Bibcode:1995PhLA..203...29A (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1995PhLA..203...29A).
CiteSeerX 10.1.1.456.9543 (https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.456.
9543). doi:10.1016/0375-9601(95)00372-A (https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0375-9601%2895%2
900372-A). S2CID 2391809 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:2391809).
Bak P (1996). How Nature Works: The Science of Self-Organized Criticality. New York:
Copernicus. ISBN 978-0-387-94791-4.
Bak P, Paczuski M (July 1995). "Complexity, contingency, and criticality" (https://www.ncbi.nl
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Self-organized criticality on arxiv.org (http://xstructure.inr.ac.ru/x-bin/theme2.py?arxiv=cond-
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