1) What are the causes of cybercrime among students in Chukwuemeka Odumegwu

Ojukwu University?

2) What are consequences of cybercrime on the academic performance of Chukwuemeka

Odumegwu Ojukwu University Students?

3) What are the patterns of cybercrime amongst students of Chukwuemeka Odumegwu

Ojukwu University?

4) What are the preventive measures that can be adopt to address cybercrime amongst

students of Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University?

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

The review of literature will be divided into four parts as follows: the conceptual frame work,

the review of empirical review, theoretical framework, and summary of literature review.

2.1 Conceptual Framework

UNDERSTANDING CYBERCRIME FROM A GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE

Globalization has led to rapid development all over the world; it has reduced stress and made
activities a lot easier. Despite the advantages brought by globalization, it also paved way for
negativity. Internet use is one of the inventions introduced by globalization. The sole purpose
is to bring the world together and to make gathering of information very easy and fast. The
Internet has created unlimited access for both legitimate and illegitimate transactions. Some
group of people harness the positive use of the internet and use it for deceit. This gave birth
to the phenomenon called cybercrime- it has become a significant area of interest as
perpetrators, victims, and motives vary greatly in cyber-criminal activities. Dashora (2011),
noted that cybercrime has become a challenge in the cyber world. In the same vein,
McCusker (2006) believes cybercrime has become almost an everyday lifestyle; victims
accept their fate after being dwindled by the perpetrator. The perpetrators of cybercrime are
so crafty to the extent that it is difficult to trace them and this is because fake identities are
major and core tools for fraudulent activities. However, this is the reason why citizens
especially in developing countries resign after being duped. Dalal (2006) observes that
information technology is two-sided; it can destroy a strongly built system and in the same
vein constructively strengthen cyber security.
Cybercrime is a global phenomenon; the term cybercrime represents offences capable of
producing psychological and geopolitical concerns perpetuated with the usage of computer
and internet (Suleiman, 2016). Cybercrime is not limited to a country neither is it restricted
by geographical boundaries. It has become a global phenomenon, affecting both developed
and developing countries. Tanebaum (2001) acknowledges the fact that the function of
computer is the same around the globe, the only difference is the brand and model. Computer
technology have been in existence for a very long time. According to McLaughlin (1978),
dating back to the 60s till present day cybercrime is gradually updating as technology
develops. In 1960, cybercrime focused on physical destruction to computer system parts and
stored data. In the mid-1960s, the United States criminal abuse focused on databases and the
related risks to privacy. In 1970s, traditional ways of committing crimes such as manual
stealing was in place. The computer came into place and modernized ways of stealing. In
1980s, the number of computer systems has increased, hence creating more potential targets
for cybercriminals. Yee, (2000) explains that internet access enables cybercriminals
perpetrate crimes through the computer without being present at the crime scene.
In the 1990s, a graphical interface 1World Wide Web (WWW) was introduced, this led to a
tremendous growth in the number of internet users, and this invention also welcomed new
challenges in the cyber world. It means more advanced functions, more perpetrators and more
victims. Another challenge associated with internet access is the investigation of cybercrimes.
Information exchange has greatly affected investigation process, this is because most of the
cybercriminals communicate with themselves, and this helps them keep clear tracks to avoid
being caught. In each preceding decade, there is always a new twist in cybercrime. The
perpetrators always find new means after which their previous scheme has been blown open.
In the 21st century, offenders can automate attacks with new schemes and train up interested
persons which have led to the increase of cybercriminals around the world. Countries around
the world including international organizations have responded greatly to the growing
challenges caused by cybercrime and have given it utmost priority. This action can be subject
to both civil and criminal action depending on the target (Salifu, 2008).
Wall (2007: 45), in his research; Cybercrime: The Transformation of Crime in The
Information Age, opined that the “first generation of cybercrimes consists of traditional
crimes where (stand‐alone) computers are merely a tool; these are ‘low end’ cybercrimes.
The second generation, from the 1970s onwards, consists of crimes facilitated by local or
global computer networks; these are still largely traditional crimes, but they give rise to new
globalized opportunities and jurisdictional problems. The third generation are true crimes
wholly mediated by technology, constituting a ‘step‐change in the transformation of
cybercrime.”
The term cybercrime is interpreted differently if examined from the perspective of the Model
Penal Code. In Africa, cybercrime has been almost widely accepted. In Nigeria, cybercrime is
also known as “2yahoo-yahoo” and the advanced version is “3yahoo plus”. Those involved in
yahoo-yahoo are called “4yahoo boys” (Adeniran 2008). In Ghana, cybercrime is called
“sakawa” and the perpetrators are called “sakawa boys” (See, Oumarou 2007; Boateng et al.,
2011). Chawki, (2009), believes in Africa, internet use is very high in South Africa but
cybercriminals are higher in Nigeria.
The US-based Internet Crime Complaints Centre (IC3) operated by the Federal Bureau of
Investigation (2016) reported that in 2016, internet auction fraud was the most reported
offence case, it comprised of: “44.9 percent of crime complaints, cheque fraud recorded 4.9
percent, credit/debit card fraud 4.8 per cent, computer fraud consists of 2.8 percent, financial
institutions fraud 1.6 per cent, identify theft 1.6 per cent, investment fraud 1.3 per cent and
child pornography 1.0 per cent. From the statistics, it shows that a lot of people suffer lot of
loss from cybercrime.” The 2020 Internet Crime Report from the Internet Crime Complaint
Centre (IC3) reported that identity theft became the third highest complaint at 9.8% in 2010.
From the Internet Crime Report in 2008, it was recorded that Nigeria occupy third position in
fraudulent cyber activities with 5.9% and Ghana, sits among the top ten in fraudulent cyber
activities in the world (Button, 2017).
Crime has become an integral element of every society in the world, and as much as we try to
totally remove crime from our everyday life, it seems almost impossible (Cyber Crime
General, 2007). Advance fee Fraud, is a form of cybercrime that has emerged across the
world and it is believed to have originated from West Africa, particularly in Nigeria
(Grabosky and Smith, 2001). It is a type of Internet fraud that is used to defraud unsuspecting
victims, they convince them to willingly succumb to their request after several tempting
offers to make quick money (Smith and Grabosky 2001; Cukier et al., 2007).
Nigerian youths especially undergraduates and the unemployed have embraced Information
Communication Technology inventions such as mobile telephone, computers, smartphones
and 11

many more gadgets that have internet access as a medium to carry out some of these illicit
activities. This gave rise to the emergence of yahoo-yahoo among the Nigerian youths,
particularly in the cities. Development of the Internet has granted unlimited access for
cybercriminals to contact potential victims (Newman and Clarke 2013). The innovations in
technology have opened possibilities for creativity and development and deviant career
opportunities (Quinn and Forsyth 2005; Nuth 2008).
Adeniran (2006) observed that the Internet has introduced certain alterations in the behavioral
patterns of Nigerian youths. In the same vein Achebe (1984), in his write up said Nigeria is
one of the most corrupt countries in the world due to political instability and negligence on
the part of the leaders. Mabogunje (1998) said the Nigerian youths are prepared to contribute
to the development of the nation but the government do not give them appropriate
opportunities. Adeniyi (1999) affirms that youths are the foundation for the growth and
sustenance of the nation; they are the major key agents to effect social change, economic
development and technological innovations. The resultant effects of the gaps mentioned
above is that when a system in the society does not play its role effectively, the other system
suffers for it. The negligence of the government to provide social and welfare support for the
youths led them to the illegal means to make a living.
2 Cybercrime in Nigeria
Cybercrime has been on the agenda of the Nigerian Government for many years.

Investigations – in particular of fraud-related cybercrime – have been carried out in particular

by the Economic and Financial Crime Commission (EFCC). Though the Evidence Act was

amended in 2011 to cater for the admissibility of electronic evidence, the absence of a legal

framework on cybercrime hampered effective criminal justice measures until 2015. In

February 2015, the Government adopted the National Cybersecurity Policy and Strategy

prepared by the Inter-Ministerial Committee coordinated by the Office of the National

Security Adviser. It is based on the understanding that threats to information and

communication technology are threats to Nigeria national security touching the “economic,

political and social fabric of Nigeria.” The most significant threats identified are cybercrime,

cyber-espionage, cyber conflict, cyber-terrorism and child online abuse & exploitation.

The Cybercrimes (Prohibition, Prevention, Etc) Act, 2015 was enacted and entered into force

on 15th May 2015. The purpose of the Act is also to promote cybersecurity and cybercrime

prevention, and it provides for obligations to the private sector – including ISPs,

telecommunication operators and financial institutions – to report and cooperate with law

enforcement authorities and the Nigerian Computer Emergency Response Team (ng-CERT).

It provides for the National Security Adviser to coordinate LEAs and the Attorney General to

oversee and strengthen the legal and institutional framework whilst establishing a Cybercrime

Advisory Council to facilitate effective implementation, capacity-building, multi-stakeholder

engagement and inter-agency/international cooperation. The Nigerian Computer Emergency

Response Team was established in the Office of the National Security Adviser. Its mission is

“To manage the risks of cyber threats in the Nigeria’s cyberspace and effectively coordinate

incident response and mitigation strategies to proactively prevent cyber-attacks against

Nigeria”. The core function of ngCERT are:

l to establish a shared Situation Awareness platform - Coordinate information sharing

at the National Level

l to efficiently manage and coordinate management of incident of national interest

l to support the National Cybersecurity Policy

l to provide technical support and expertise to sectorial CSIRT’s as and when required

l to serve as international Point of contact for all Internet Security Incident in Nigeria.

In March 2016 – in line with Articles 42 and 43 Cybercrimes Act – the Cybercrime Advisory

Council is to be established, comprising representatives of a wide range of ministries and

agencies under the overall coordination of the National Security Adviser. Functions include:

l CreatiCreating an enabling environment for sharing of information and experience

l Formulating policy guidelines regarding implementation of provisions of the

Cybercrimes Act 2015

l Advice on preventive and other measures regarding cybercrime and cybersecurity

l Promoting training and education, including research and traineeships.

In 2019 the Data Protection Bill passed the approval of the National Assembly, but it wasn’t

signed by the President. Following the presidential elections though, the proposal had to go

back to the approval of the Parliament and it is currently being revisited to restart the

legislative process.

According to Obono(2008, p.40),cybercrime describes “those criminal acts either

committed in cyberspace, such as various forms of identity theft and bank fraud, or
acts that have a physical component and are simply facilitated by the use of internet-
based tools”. Such acts commonly include distribution of fraudulent e-mails, and
pornography on the internet.
 He further notes that cybercrimes are illegal activities perpetrated by one or
more people using the cyberspace through the medium of networked computers,
telephones and other information and communication technology equipment. There is
hardly any crime committed in the world today that does not have cybercrimes
undertone, because of high of dependence on modern technology.

According to Oketola (2009:49) some young people use the web for
information on current issues in health, education, politics, researches, sports, and for
personal development as well as building skills. While others, misuse it for
unconstructive activities. It is perceived by many, that what constitutes young
people’s involvement in cybercrimes largely depends on their low level of moral
standards, peer pressure, corruption, greed, poverty, and get-rich-quick-syndrome, lack
of parental guidance and lack of jobs.

According to Maitanmi (2013) cybercrime is a type of crime committed by criminals

who make use of a computer as a tool and the internet as a connection in order to reach
a variety of objectives such as illegal downloading of music files and films, piracy, spam
mailing and the likes. Similarly, Okeshola (2013) opined that the term cybercrime can
be used to describe any criminal activity which involves the use of computer or the
internet network, including such crimes as fraud, theft, blackmail, forgery, and
embezzlement. These two definitions are very narrow in the sense that it does not give
a holistic view about what cybercrime is all about. As a consequence, the
European Commission as cited in Nigerian Communications Commission (‘n.d’) noted
that a threefold definition for cybercrime is:
1) traditional forms of crime such as fraud or forgery, though committed over
electronic communication networks and information systems;
2) the publication of illegal content over electronic media (e.g. child sexual abuse
material or incitement to racial hatred); 3) crimes unique to electronic networks, e.g.
attacks against information systems, denial of service and hacking.
Furthermore, the Home Office and the SOCA-led Cyber Threat Reduction Board (TRB) as
cited in House of Common (2013) defined cybercrime by using a three-fold
categorization
including:
i. Pure online crimes, where a digital system is the target as well as the means of
attack. These include attacks on computer systems to disrupt IT infrastructure,
and stealing data over a network using malware (the purpose of the data theft is
usually to enable further crime);
ii. Existing crimes that have been transformed in scale or form by use of the internet.
The growth of the internet has allowed these crimes to be carried out on an
industrial scale; and
iii. Use of the internet to facilitate drug dealing, people smuggling and many other
‘traditional’ types of crime.
This definition seems more comprehensive because it covers comprehensive aspects
that
could be associated with crimes using internet facilities. Based on the above
conceptualisations, cybercrimes in this study is defined as any criminal act relating to
the
use of electronic means with the sole aim of gaining financial or other personal benefits
at the detriment of other people.

2.1.3Effects of Cybercrime and Internet Fraud on University Students in Nigeria

Cybercrime and internet fraud have become prevalent issues in Nigeria, posing significant

threats to individuals, businesses, and even institutions of higher education. University

students, in particular, are highly vulnerable to these crimes due to their extensive use of

technology and online platforms. This essay examines the effects of cybercrime and internet

fraud on university students in Nigeria, exploring the psychological, financial, and academic

consequences they face. It emphasizes the need for awareness, preventive measures, and

support systems to mitigate the impact of these crimes.

I. Psychological Effects:

u Trust and Security Concerns:

a. University students may develop a general sense of distrust towards online transactions and

communication, affecting their online activities.

b. Fear of becoming victims of cybercrime can lead to heightened anxiety, stress, and

diminished confidence in using the internet.

c. The emotional impact may result in decreased productivity and hinder personal and

academic growth.

u Identity Theft and Privacy Invasion:

a. Cybercriminals often engage in identity theft, causing immense distress and psychological

harm to the victims.

b. University students may experience a loss of control over their personal information,

leading to feelings of vulnerability and invasion of privacy.

c. The fear of further exploitation can negatively impact students' mental well-being and their

ability to trust others, both online and offline.

II. Financial Consequences:

u Financial Loss:

a. University students may fall prey to various online scams, such as phishing, lottery scams,

or fraudulent investment schemes, resulting in significant financial losses.

b. The financial burden can lead to increased stress, debt accumulation, and financial

instability, potentially affecting their academic pursuits.

u Impaired Economic Prospects:

a. Victims of cybercrime may face long-term financial consequences, such as damaged credit

scores or compromised financial records, affecting their ability to secure loans or

employment opportunities.

b. Financial setbacks may force students to divert their attention from studies to part-time

jobs or other means of financial support, thereby compromising their academic performance.

III. Academic Impact:

u Distraction and Reduced Productivity:

a. Engaging in fraudulent activities or falling victim to cybercrime can distract students from

their academic responsibilities.

b. Students may spend excessive time dealing with the aftermath of cyberattacks, impacting

their focus, concentration, and overall productivity.

u Academic Dishonesty:

a. Cybercriminals may target students by offering services such as essay writing, exam

cheating, or purchasing fake degrees, leading to academic dishonesty.

b. Participation in such activities undermines the integrity of the education system and can

have severe consequences, including expulsion or tarnished academic records.

u Reputation and Future Opportunities:

a. University students involved in cybercrime or internet fraud can face significant

reputational damage, impacting their future career prospects.

b. Employers may be reluctant to hire individuals with a history of fraudulent activities,

hindering their professional growth and limiting job opportunities.

The effects of cybercrime and internet fraud on university students in Nigeria are far-

reaching, encompassing psychological, financial, and academic domains. To address these

challenges, a comprehensive approach is necessary. This includes raising awareness about

online risks, implementing robust security measures, enhancing digital literacy programs, and

establishing support systems for affected students. By fostering a secure and supportive

online environment, universities can play a crucial role in safeguarding their students against

cybercrime and internet fraud, ensuring their personal well-being and academic success.

2.1.4 Ways to Eradicate cybercrime and internet fraud in Nigeria

Eradicating cybercrime and internet fraud in any country, including Nigeria, requires a

comprehensive and multi-faceted approach involving various stakeholders, such as

government agencies, law enforcement, financial institutions, and individuals. Here are some

strategies that can help combat cybercrime and internet fraud:

Strengthen Legislation: Enhance and enforce existing laws related to cybercrime and

internet fraud. This includes ensuring appropriate penalties for offenders and providing law

enforcement agencies with the necessary legal frameworks to investigate and prosecute

cybercriminals effectively.

Public Awareness and Education: Conduct public awareness campaigns to educate

individuals about common cyber threats, online scams, and best practices for staying safe

online. Educate citizens about the risks of engaging in cybercriminal activities and promote

digital literacy to empower users to protect themselves.

Collaboration and Cooperation: Encourage collaboration and information sharing among

government agencies, law enforcement, financial institutions, and international organizations

to track, identify, and dismantle cybercriminal networks. Foster cooperation with foreign

counterparts to facilitate the extradition of cybercriminals involved in transnational crimes.

Strengthen Law Enforcement Capacity: Provide specialized training and resources to law

enforcement agencies to enhance their technical capabilities in investigating cybercrimes.

Establish dedicated cybercrime units that can effectively respond to incidents and gather

digital evidence for prosecution.

Enhance Cybersecurity Infrastructure: Invest in robust cybersecurity infrastructure at

the national level to protect critical infrastructure, government systems, and sensitive data.

Encourage organizations and individuals to implement strong security measures, such as

multi-factor authentication, encryption, and regular software updates.

Financial Regulations and Monitoring: Implement stricter financial regulations and

monitoring mechanisms to prevent money laundering and the use of illicit funds obtained

through cybercrime. Financial institutions should adopt robust anti-fraud measures and

conduct thorough customer due diligence to detect and prevent fraudulent transactions.
International Cooperation: Collaborate with international partners and organizations to

share intelligence, exchange best practices, and coordinate efforts in combating cybercrime.

Participate actively in global initiatives focused on cybersecurity and information sharing.

Support for Startups and Innovation: Foster a supportive environment for cybersecurity

startups and innovation. Encourage the development of local cybersecurity solutions,

products, and services to address emerging threats and vulnerabilities.

Reporting and Support Mechanisms: Establish user-friendly reporting channels for

cybercrime incidents and provide support to victims. Encourage individuals and

organizations to report cybercrimes promptly, ensuring their confidentiality and protection.

Continuous Monitoring and Adaptation: Maintain constant vigilance and adapt strategies

to keep up with evolving cyber threats. Regularly assess the effectiveness of implemented

measures and make necessary adjustments to stay ahead of cybercriminals.

It's important to note that eradicating cybercrime completely is challenging, and efforts

should focus on minimizing its impact, increasing awareness, and creating a safer digital

environment for all users.

2 .2 Theoretical Framework

Here theories as it relates to cybercrime and internet fraud will be discussed.

2.2.1 Robert K. Merton’s Anomie/Strain Theory

Merton (1968) argued that deviance, in whatever form, is a product of the culture and

structure of the society. This theory is based on the functionalist concept of value consensus

which refers to common values accepted by members of the society. Thus, deviance occurs

when the values acceptable by the society do not match or cannot be attained by the culturally

prescribed means. Merton (1968) believes that members of the society share major goals or
values such as success which is often measured by wealth and material possessions. On the

other hand, there are institutionalized means of attaining such goals which may include

educational qualifications, hard work, talent, skill, determination, and ambition. In a normal

and balanced society, emphasis ought to be placed on both the cultural goals and the

institutionalized means. However, an unbalanced society will result in neglect of the means

which results in a state of anomie where members of the society abandon the rules of the

game in a bid to achieve the goals. When the rules are no longer adhered to, deviance, in

whatever form, is promoted. But members of the society do not all respond to this situation in

the same way. In fact, Merton identifies five distinct ways presented below:

a. Conformity: This is the most common response. Here, members of the society conform to

the cultural goals and stick to the institutionalized means. They strive to achieve these goals

through the normative means or accepted channels. This is the most common, and it is the

basis upon which the continuity and stability of the society is based.

b. Innovation: This is the response that provoked interest in this study. It involves the

rejection of normative means of achieving success and turns to deviance. In other words,

innovators accept the cultural goals but adopt alternative means of achieving such goals

which promises greater returns than institutionalized means.

c. Ritualism: Those who respond under this category are regarded as deviant because they

abandon social goals of success but stick to the institutionalized means of achieving such

goals. According to Merton, this occurs because they have been socialized to such norms and

goals but have leas opportunity to reach the goals.

d. Retreatism: This applies to pariahs, vagabonds, outcasts, vagrants who despite

internalizing both cultural goals and institutionalized means, are still unable to achieve
success. Thus, they resolve this conflict by abandoning both, a situation that can be likened

with “dropping out” of the society.

e. Rebellion: It is the rejection of both cultural goals and institutionalized means. However, in

addition to the rejection, an attempt is made to replace them with alternative goals and means

in order to create a new society.

Merton describes the causes of deviance as individual adaptations to the contradictions in the

structure and sociocultural goals of the modern society. Economic success is defined as

accessible and achievable by all and this assumption is the basis upon which cultural goals

are proposed for all members of the society. However, the means to achieving such goals are

not equally available to all members of the society (Farnworth & Leiber, 2007). This societal

disjunction results in varying strains at the individual level as already described, especially

when the lower class recognizes the hindrances of conventional means to achieving such

cultural goals. Furthermore, Merton specified that economic wealth is a dominant goal in

society and education is the conventional means of attaining such wealth. Strains occur when

means cannot achieve goals as the existence of jobs within the country can no longer serve as

a means of achieving the cultural goal of wealth which results in pressure on youths who give

in to varying individual responses.

The suitability of the Anomie/Strain Theory (AST) for the study is underpinned by the result

of other studies on the factors that motivate young persons to delve into Internet fraud and

other criminal acts, especially in Nigeria. Jegede et al. (2016) explained that the failure of the

government and society at large to provide legally acceptable and institutionalized means of

achieving cultural goals such as economic success has led younger members of the society to

opt for either attitudinal apathy towards the society or deviant innovation. This position is

equally echoed by Makinde (2005) as youths are constantly innovating as a way of adapting
to the harsh political and economic environment. As several studies implicate poverty

(Okeshola & Adeta, 2013; Tade & Aliyu, 2011), unemployment and underemployment

(Adesina, 2017; Adeniran, 2008) as the major factors that motivate involvement in

cybercrimes, it is obvious that young adults in the society experience severe hindrances to

their ability to achieve economic success through the traditional means. In this regards,

Merton’s Innovation strain appears as an interesting theoretical framework for explaining the

involvement of young persons in Internet fraud.

2.2.2Routine Activity Theory (RAT)

The theory focused on environmental “opportunities for crime”. Essentially, when a potential

criminal opportunity arises the act will occur at a juncture in time and space between a

motivated offender and a suitable target for victimization. This crime will ultimately take

place in a location that lacks a capable guardian to protect the ‘suitable target,’ which is

considered to be either a vulnerable person or one’s unguarded property. Thus, the absence of

any one of these three situational factors should theoretically make the commission of a crime

impossible (Davis, 2002 in Collins, Sainato & Khey 2011). As a result, routine activity theory

is considered to be a macro-level theory applicable to numerous types of crime as it seeks to

explain the criminal victimization process and not a criminal’s specific motivations (Akers &

Sellers, 2009 in Collins, Sainato & Khey 2011).The theory predicts that crime occurs when a

motivated offender comes into contact with a suitable target in the absence of a capable

guardian that could potentially prevent the offender from committing crime. Ngo and

Paternoster (2011) said that, the theory posits that variations in crime rates could be explained

by the supply of suitable targets and capable guardians, and from our understanding the

theory is somewhat agnostic about the role of the supply of motivated offenders.

2.2.3 Differential Association Theory

Differential association theory was propounded by Edwin Sutherland. He coined the phrase

(differential association) to address the issue of how people learn deviance. This theory

explains deviance regarding the individual social relationships. The theory sees the

environment as playing a major role in deciding which norms people learn to violate.

Specifically, people within a particular reference group provide norms of conformity and

deviance. This theory is significant because it puts an individual social environment into

context as a means to explain why some individual engage in criminal behaviour. The theory

has the following assumptions, which is related to this study;

1. Criminal behaviour is learned: this means that criminal behaviour is not inherited as

such the person who is not already trained in crime does not invent criminal behaviour. This

assumption proposes that individuals are inherently good and only turn towards deviant

behaviour as a result of learning the behaviour.

2. Criminal behaviour is learned in interaction with other persons in the process of

communication. An individual is influenced to participate in criminal behaviour through

watching and interacting with other individuals who are engaging in the criminal behaviour.

3. The principal part of the learning of criminal behaviour occurs within intimate personal

groups this would be any group that has a significant influence over them such

as their family or close friends this factor makes a great deal of sense. Since the process of

socialisation and growing up is heavily influenced by the groups of people that an individual

is a part of. Most families try to institute a positive influence on a member of their own,

however, if a juvenile comes from a family that is broken and develop strong emotional ties

with friends engaged in deviant behaviour then this is likely also to drive them into the same

deviant behaviour.
4. When criminal behaviour is learnt, the learning includes techniques of committing the

crime, which is sometimes very complicated, sometimes simple and they learn the specific

direction of motives, drives, rationalisations and attitudes for committing a crime. This means

that an individual will be influenced into believing that the behaviour which they may have

previously believed was wrong, into believing that it is right through rationalisation of the

actions. For example, an individual from a disadvantaged background may rationalise

cybercrime as taking from those who have wealth to make things fair, among others.

This theory was propounded to help explain white-collar crime, fits in with those who violate

or commit cybercrime.

2.3 Empirical Review

There are numerous causes of Internet fraud identified by several empirical studies. For

instance, Hassan, Lass and Makinde (2012) opined that the causes of cybercrime are

urbanization and negative role models, while Okeshola and Adeta (2013) pointed to defective

socialization, peer pressure, group influence, weak laws, easy access to Internet and poverty.

However, Tade and Aliyu, (2011) identified the following as the causes of cybercrime:

gullibility/greed of the victims, lack of standards, inefficient national central control, lack of

national functional database, porous nature of the Internet, get rich syndrome, and lack of e-

policing, while other studies implicate unemployment, corruption, and poverty as the causes.

Jegede (2010) pointed out that due to economic and social realities prevailing in the society,

youths are constantly innovating, finding means of achieving societal goals through other

alternative means. However, some of these alternatives are sometimes illegal or deviant and

often include crimes such as cybercrimes, prostitution, kidnapping, and armed robbery. Tade

and Aliyu (2011) assert that Internet fraudsters, especially in Nigeria, do not view Internet

fraud as deviant but a product of innovation in their coping strategies. Consequently, their
knowledge of the Internet is deployed, without minding the consequences for the national

image, as a way of coping with economic issues of poverty and unemployment. This

continues to encourage other youths to join the increasing number of Internet fraudsters and

has complicated government efforts to curb their activities.

The study adopted an in-depth analysis of the underlying ideologies and circumstances that

continue to motivate the involvement of young adults in fraudulent activities while adopting

Robert Merton’s Anomie/Strain Theory as the theoretical thrust of the study. However, this

study clearly departs from what is usually obtained in cybercrime studies by choosing to

investigate the subjective construction of Internet fraud as an innovative enterprise (and not a

criminal act) among young adults who are engaged in this act. By doing so, the study brings

to light the differing opinions held by young adults and law enforcement agencies about

Internet fraud and offers insight into what may be wrong with the Nigerian government’s war

on Internet fraud. Finally, the study contributes to existing literature on the Internet fraud by

presenting empirical facts about the subjective perception of Internet fraud that motivates

young adults to remain involved in such criminal acts despite clampdowns from law

enforcement agents and also indicates other interesting areas for further research.

In 2008, 275,284 complaints were referred to the Internet Fraud Complaints Centre.

According to this report, this is an increase of 33.1% from the previous year (which recorded

206,884 reports). About 77.4% of the perpetrators were male and the majority of the

perpetrators reside in the United States, closely followed by the United Kingdom, Nigeria,

Canada, China and South Africa. A study published by Youth against Cybercrimes and Fraud

in Nigeria (2008) indicated that one out of every five, or 20% of youths in major urban

centers in Nigeria is a cybercriminal. This is rather disturbing trend has been attributed to the

worsening state of Nigeria’s economy and the status of the country in the comity of nations

(Jegede & Olowookere, 2014).

In a study conducted by Bengal et al. (2012) to determine the prevalence of cybercrime in

Nigeria, the estimated consumer loss to cybercrime in Nigeria was put at

N2,146,666,345,014.75 ($13,547,910,034.80) which ranges from different types of

cybercrime like fake lotteries and Internet scams. In a study by Oluwadare, et al. (2018) to

examine the prevalence of cybercrime in Ekiti State University, Nigeria, it was revealed that

cybercrime is a common trend in the university such that an overwhelming number of

participants in the study affirmed that they have heard about the phenomenon in recent times.

In a related work by Okesola and Abimbola (2013), it was reported that the perpetrator(s) of

cybercrime are not aliens but members of our immediate social environment. Furthermore,

the Nigeria Communication Commission (2017) says that Nigeria is currently ranked 3rd

globally in cybercrime behind the United Kingdom and the United States of America in

which Nigeria has lost #125 billion to cybercrime as estimated in 2015. Its prevalence is due

to the fact that many youths or students see cybercrime as an assured path to financial

freedom. As in all parts of the world, the consequences of cybercrime in Nigeria are related to

financial loss. According to the Nigeria Deposit Insurance Corporation (NDIC), in its 2014

Annual Report, the Niferua Banking sector between 2013 and 2014 witnessed a 183%

increase in e-payment fraud. Another report published by the Centre for Strategic and

International Studies, UK, in 2014 estimated the cost of cybercrime to Nigeria to be about

0.08% of our GDP on an annual basis (Iroegbu, 2016).

2.4 Summary of Literature Review

Here things that was Discussed in this chapter will be summarize according to how it was

discussed.

This chapter started with Conceptual framework where some concepts were discussed as it

relates to internet fraud and cybercrime. The conceptual framework started with Internet
Fraud in Nigeria, Here things about internet fraud in Nigeria was exposed. The prevalence

and increased involvement of Nigerian youth in cybercrime has remained a concern for the

national government and relevant agencies due to adverse effects such as a negative

international image for Nigeria and Nigerians. This is even as the country continues to be

regarded as the breeding ground for con artists and fraudsters (Muraina & Muraina, 2015).

According to a global network cyber security vendor, Check Point, in 2016, Nigeria was

ranked 16th in cyber-attacks vulnerabilities in Africa (Ewepu, 2016). The perception of

Nigerians as fraudsters globally is informed partly by the high number of Nigerians

implicated and/or indicted in such criminal acts compared to other nationalities. This is a fact

that is often readily pointed out in the media (Omodunbi, Odiase, Olaniyan & Esan, 2016).

According to Olaide and Adewole (2004), the majority of cybercriminals in Nigeria are

youths. The identified benefits of Internet technology are the main motivating factor for mass

participation of youths in virtual spaces globally, even for the wrong reasons (Jegede,

Olowookeere & Elegbeleye, 2016). In explaining the seeming affinity between youths and

cybercrimes, Jegede et-al. (2016) posited that it is important to identify the causal factors in

the nature of the society. The state of the society has a way of influencing or presenting

challenges to the survival of the society and occupants. These include cultural,

socioeconomic and psycho-physical components of such society. According to Jegede et al.

(2016) in order to understand the youth-cybercrime situation in Nigeria, the role of the state

in the prevalence of cyber fraud cannot be ignored. Citing a Nigerian Institute of Social and

Economic Research (NISER) review (2001), Jegede at al. (2016) pointed to the failure of the

Nigerian state to fully cater to the economic and social wellbeing of its citizens by failing to

implement laudable policies, a malaise that has several socioeconomic problems

Another concept that was discussed is Cybercrime in Nigeria, cybercrime has been on the

agenda of the Nigerian Government for many years. Investigations – in particular of fraud-
related cybercrime – have been carried out in particular by the Economic and Financial Crime

Commission (EFCC). Though the Evidence Act was amended in 2011 to cater for the

admissibility of electronic evidence, the absence of a legal framework on cybercrime

hampered effective criminal justice measures until 2015. In February 2015, the Government

adopted the National Cybersecurity Policy and Strategy prepared by the Inter-Ministerial

Committee coordinated by the Office of the National Security Adviser. It is based on the

understanding that threats to information and communication technology are threats to

Nigeria national security touching the “economic, political and social fabric of Nigeria.” The

most significant threats identified are cybercrime, cyber-espionage, cyber conflict, cyber-

terrorism and child online abuse & exploitation.

The Cybercrimes (Prohibition, Prevention, Etc) Act, 2015 was enacted and entered into force

on 15th May 2015. The purpose of the Act is also to promote cybersecurity and cybercrime

prevention, and it provides for obligations to the private sector – including ISPs,

telecommunication operators and financial institutions – to report and cooperate with law

enforcement authorities and the Nigerian Computer Emergency Response Team (ng-CERT).

In this chapter theories were discussed for assumption and predictions reasons . Three

theories was used used here in order to give a better understanding to this topic. The first

theory is; Robert K. Merton’s Anomie/Strain Theory.

Merton (1968) argued that deviance, in whatever form, is a product of the culture and

structure of the society. This theory is based on the functionalist concept of value consensus

which refers to common values accepted by members of the society. Thus, deviance occurs

when the values acceptable by the society do not match or cannot be attained by the culturally

prescribed means. Merton (1968) believes that members of the society share major goals or

values such as success which is often measured by wealth and material possessions. On the
other hand, there are institutionalized means of attaining such goals which may include

educational qualifications, hard work, talent, skill, determination, and ambition. In a normal

and balanced society, emphasis ought to be placed on both the cultural goals and the

institutionalized means. However, an unbalanced society will result in neglect of the means

which results in a state of anomie where members of the society abandon the rules of the

game in a bid to achieve the goals. When the rules are no longer adhered to, deviance, in

whatever form, is promoted. But members of the society do not all respond to this situation in

the same way. The second theory is; Routine Activity Theory (RAT).

The theory focused on environmental “opportunities for crime”. Essentially, when a potential

criminal opportunity arises the act will occur at a juncture in time and space between a

motivated offender and a suitable target for victimization. This crime will ultimately take

place in a location that lacks a capable guardian to protect the ‘suitable target,’ which is

considered to be either a vulnerable person or one’s unguarded property. Thus, the absence of

any one of these three situational factors should theoretically make the commission of a crime

impossible (Davis, 2002 in Collins, Sainato & Khey 2011). As a result, routine activity theory

is considered to be a macro-level theory applicable to numerous types of crime as it seeks to

explain the criminal victimization process and not a criminal’s specific motivations (Akers &

Sellers, 2009 in Collins, Sainato & Khey 2011).The theory predicts that crime occurs when a

motivated offender comes into contact with a suitable target in the absence of a capable

guardian that could potentially prevent the offender from committing crime. Ngo and

Paternoster (2011) said that, the theory posits that variations in crime rates could be explained

by the supply of suitable targets and capable guardians, and from our understanding the

theory is somewhat agnostic about the role of the supply of motivated offenders. The last

theory is; Differential Association Theory.

Differential association theory was propounded by Edwin Sutherland. He coined the phrase

(differential association) to address the issue of how people learn deviance. This theory

explains deviance regarding the individual social relationships. The theory sees the

environment as playing a major role in deciding which norms people learn to violate.

Specifically, people within a particular reference group provide norms of conformity and

deviance. This theory is significant because it puts an individual social environment into

context as a means to explain why some individual engage in criminal behaviour. Those

theories are very important, it a great help for the work.