2
Injection Molding Machines
Introduction
The injection molding machine (IMM) is
one of the most significant and rational form-
ing methods existing for processing plastic
materials. A major part in this development
has been by the forward-thinking machinery
industry, which has been quick to seize on in-
novations and incorporate them into plastic
molded products. The most recent examples
are the all-electric and hybrid IMMs. A major
focus continues to be on finding more rational
means of processing the endless new plastics
that are developed and also produce more
cost-efficient products. A simplified general
layout for an IMM is shown in Figs. 2-1 and
1-3.
For years so-called product innovation was
the only rich source of new developments,
such as reducing the number of molded prod-
uct components by making them able to per-
form a variety of functions or by taking full
use of material’s attributes. In recent years,
however, process innovation has also been
moving into the forefront (Fig. 1-16). The lat-
ter includes all the means that help tighten
up the manufacturing process, reorganizing
and optimizing it. All activity is targeted for
the most efficient application of production
materials, a principle which must run right
through the entire process from plastic ma-
terials to the finished product (Fig. 1-15 and
Chap. 4).
28
Even though modern IMM with all its in-
genious microprocessor control technology is
in principle suited to perform flexible tasks,
it nevertheless takes a whole series of pe-
ripheral auxiliary equipment to guarantee the
necessary degree of flexibility. Examples in-
clude (1) raw material supply systems; (2)
mold transport facilities; (3) mold preheat-
ing banks; (4) mold-changing devices, includ-
ing rapid clamping and coupling equipment;
( 5 ) plasticizer-cylinder-changing devices; (6)
molded-product handling equipment, par-
ticularly robots with interchangeable arms
allowing adaptation to various types of pro-
duction; and (7) transport systems for fin-
ished products and handling equipment to
pass molded products on to subsequent pro-
duction stages.
There are different types and capacities of
IMMs to meet different product and cost-
production requirements. The types are prin-
cipally horizontal single clamping units
with reciprocating and two-stage plasticators.
They range in injection capacity (shot size)
from less than an ounce to at least 400 oz
(usually from 4 to 100 oz) and in clamp
tonnage up to at least 10,000 tons (usual
from 50 to 600 tons). Other factors when
specifying an IMM include clamp stroke,
clamping speed, maximum daylight, clear-
ances between tie rods, plasticating capacity,
injection pressure, injection speed, and SO on,
as reviewed in this chapter and Chap. 4. The
 2 Injection Molding Machines 29

INJECT ION
(OR PLASTICIZING) UNIT

Fig. 2-1 General layout for an injection molding machine.

designer should also review Chap. 15 regard-
ing micro injection molding.
The type and size of IMM to be used are de-
pendent on the molded product dimensions
and volume, which determine the processing
requirements and the shot size (Chap. 4), as
well as the required pressure and material
behavior (Chap. 6). Examples of product di-
mensions that directly influence the size of
the machine required include all part dimen-
sions; the number of parts to be molded in a
single cycle; the mold runner system needed
to produce required number of parts; the
mold width, length, stack height (if stacking is
used), and opening distance; and the ejector
rod spacing. This information will determine
the preliminary requirements for the IMM.
Reciprocating (Single-Stage) Screw
Machines
Reciprocating, or single-stage, IMMs are a
conventional type where plastic is melted us-
ing a combination of conductive heat from
heater bands surrounding the barrel and fric-
tional heating created by a rotating screw in-
side the barrel (Figs. 2-2 and 2-3). The screw

EXTRUDER SCREW

FLOW VALVE HYDRAULIC INJECTION JR LIFT FOR SCREW REMOVAL

AIR
CYLINDERS
I I I
I
PULL-IN CYLINDER HEATING BANDS

Fig. 2-2 In-line reciprocating screw unit with hydraulic drive schematic.
30 2 Injection Molding Machines
 2 Znjection Molding Machines
moves back to allow melted plastic to accu-
mulate ahead of it, then moves forward, in-
jecting all the melt into the mold in a single
stage. The accumulation of melt at the screw
tip forces the screw towards the rear of the
machine until enough melt is collected for
a shot. The back pressure required on the
screw during this plasticating action is low,
and when the shot size is produced, the screw
stops rotating.
With the mold halves closed, the nonrotat-
ing screw acts as a plunger and rams the melt
into the cavity or cavities, using controlled in-
jection pressure and rate of travel. After in-
jection of the melt is complete, the screw ro-
tates to prepare the next shot. The advantages
of the reciprocating screw IMM over the
two-stage IMM include the following: (1)re-
duced residence time, (2) self-cleaning screw
action, and (3) responsive injection control.
These advantages are key to processing heat-
sensitive plastics.
Figure 2-4 describes a simplified sequence
of operations for a reciprocating screw ma-
-- ELECTRIC
~ C R E W
INJECTS
MOLD BEING
FILLED
Fig. 2-4 Sequence of operations for a reciprocating screw machine.
31
chine. In A, the shot (melted plastic) is in
front of the retracted screw, which is being
used as a ram to force the shot into the mold
cavity, B. After the shot has completely filled
the cavity and the plastic melt in the mold
gate(s) is sufficiently solidified (frozen) so
melt will not travel back into the plasticator,
the screw starts rotating and retracts to pre-
pare the next shot, C. An optional soak peri-
od, or idle time, prior to the shot being forced
into the mold cavity, may be included as part
of the processing cycle. One complete cycle
of the IMM operation is shown in Fig. 1-13.
In the single-stage IMM, melt is fed into
a shot chamber (in front of the screw). This
motion generates controllable low back pres-
sure [usually 50 to 300 psi (0.34 to 2.07 MPa)]
that causes the screw to retract at a pressure-
controlled rate. A preset device (such as a
screw position transducer) is activated when
the shot size is attained, to stop the rotation of
the screw. If the IMM does not have sufficient
shot capacity, the screw is instead allowed to
continue rotating, permitting additional melt
=PEED HOPPER
32 2 Injection Molding Machines
I
Diverter valve
\
Injection plunger
Fig. 2-5 Schematic of a two-stage screw IMM with parallel layup.
to enter the cavity prior to shot. However,
for plastics with certain melt characteristics,
melt flow problems can develop in this case.
(Chap. 7).
At a preset time the screw acts as a ram
to push the melt into the mold. Depending
on the plastic’s melt flow characteristics, the
injection pressure at the nozzle is between
2,000 and 30,000 psi (14 and 200 MPa). The
required pressure is determined by the plas-
tic being processed and the melt pressure re-
quired in the cavity or cavities, taking into
account pressure drops as the melt travels
through the mold. While the shot is injected
into the mold, an adequate clamping pressure
must be used to keep the mold from opening
(flashing) during and after the filling of the
cavity.
Molds are designed to meet different re-
quirements. They include hot runners or
cold runners (for TPs or TSs) with different
lengths of runners, gates, etc. (reviewed in
Chap. 4).
Two-Stage Machines
Another very popular injection molding
method uses a two-stage arrangement of
screws. Such a machine is also called a pre-
plasticizing IMM. The two-stage IMM uses a
fixed plasticating screw (first stage) to feed
the required melted plastic through a valve
mechanism into a chamber, or accumulator
(second stage). This screw does not require
reciprocating action (as in a single-stage
IMM), since it only conveys melts by means
of some type of diverter mechanism (valve)
into a holding (injection accumulator) cylin-
der (Figs. 2-5 to 2-7). When a sufficient quan-
tity of melt has been transferred, the diverter
valve again shifts to create a flow path over a
prescribed time cycle from the accumulator
cylinder into the mold. The second stage (ram
injection stage) provides the pressure needed
for the desired rate of injection of the melt
(shot) into the mold cavity or cavities. Af-
ter injection is completed, the diverter valve
shifts to direct the melt flow from the first
stage into the second-stage holding cylinder,
and this operating cycle repeats. During all
this action the first-stage extruder is continu-
ously rotating; in practice this does not cause
problems even when the melt flow is slightly
restricted by being cut off from the second
stage (1,518,525).
Thus the diverter or shuttle valve has three
positions. One position is the closed mode,
during which time the extruder is only prepar-
ing the melt. The next position directs the
melt from the extruder into the accumula-
tor (second stage). The third position directs
a shot of melt from the accumulator into the
mold cavity.
Injection Hydraulic Accumulator
The injection hydraulic accumulator is a
device for increasing the speed of the melt
 2 Injection Molding Machines 33

"SHOOTING"

"SHOOTING"

,
PAEPLASTlClZlNG SHUT-OFF VALVE
CYLINDER

Fig. 2-6 Schematic of a two-stage screw IMM with right-angle design.

injected into the mold in a conventional IMM
(Fig. 2-8). It is a cylindrical pressure vessel
that is precharged (filled) with an inexpen-
sive inactive gas (usually nitrogen) to a pre-
determined pressure level. Hydraulic fluid is
pumped into the accumulator opposite the
contained gas, with an internal floating pis-
ton serving as a gas-oil separator. When the
IMM signals to inject, the fluid in the accu-
mulator is directed by controlled valving into
the injection cylinder.
During all this action, which occurs within
seconds, the extruder (first stage) conti-
nues to operate, producing melt. When it is
not being directed into the accumulator, the
melt remains in the barrel, possibly building
up slight pressure for a short time. The ex-
truder is designed so that the screw can move
back some what, allowing melt to accumulate
in the front of its barrel without any major
buildup of pressure. Designs are used such
that controls can be set to prevent damage to
the melt.
Compared to the reciprocating screw
IMM, the advantages of this technique in-
clude: (1) consistent melt quality; (2) ram
action in the accumulator, providing high in-
jection pressure very fast; (3) very accurate
shot size control; (4)product clarity; and ( 5 )
easy molding of very thin-walled parts. Disad-
vantages include higher equipment cost and
possible increased maintenance.
Reciprocating vs. Two-Stage Machines
Both types of machines are operated hy-
draulically, electrically, or both. The recip-
rocating screw design, which has many ad-
vantages in a hydraulic power environment,
to date has limited the use of of all-electric
machines in that it requires large and costly
electromechanical drives for shot weights ex-
ceeding 80 02.
An example of a recently developed elec-
trical machine for large shot sizes is shown in
34 2 Injection Molding Machines

Y R A U L I C CYLINDER

Fig.2-7 Schematic of a two-stage screw IMM with a stuffer cylinder to handle strip-fed plastic material.

Shutoff valve provides exact and

repeatable material displacement
every shot; with less than t 1% Fixed-screw extruder with 20 1 Hydraulic motor drive gives
variation in shot weight from L/D screw assures a well- precise, independent control
injection to injection plasticized homogeneous melt

Back pressure &

flow Control
gives adjustable

control of back

I
Hydraulically controlled shutoff
nozzle eliminates premature
expansion of the melt; pin seals
nozzle opening-prevents
cold slug. Independent hydraulic m o t 0
Tank
oumo charae an accumulator.
accumulator:
building inrection pressure to'
20,000 psi, adequate
'
/ u -
Valve

for engineering materials

Fig.2-8 Example of a two-stage unit with a fast second-stage injection pressure system.
 2 Injection Molding Machines 35

Fig. 2-9 Milacron’s large two-stage electric injection molding unit.

Fig. 2-9. This Milacron machine has patented
features for a two-stage design that allow
first-in-first-out melt handling, quick and
easy color change, and precision mini-shot
control down to 2 to 3% of barrel capacity. It
also provides melt quality, compounding, and
venting advantages unique to freestanding
extruders (3). Simultaneously it satisfies the
need for high throughput and pressure in an
all-electric IMM. It eliminates all the guess-
work about sizing an injection unit. Intro-
duced in 150-, 110-, and 80-oz (4250-, 3100-,
and 2300-g) capacities, they are capable of
economical large-shot molding at pressures
up to 30,000 psi (210 MPa, 2000 bar) (325).
Simple physics shows the advantages of a
two-stage electric unit. It takes less power
to generate injection pressure with a small-
diameter screw while lengthening the stroke
to get the required melt volume. There are
certain limits on how much these parameters
can be varied with a reciprocating unit, be-
cause the plasticizing and injection functions
are interdependent; in contrast, the two-stage
design completely separates these functions.
Hydraulic IMMs share a drive for the screw
motor and injection unit, using the extrusion
screw as an injection plunger to lower ma-
chine cost. This capability, in reciprocating
screw units, has significantly expanded their
use, in preference to two-stage units, since
the 1960s. However, as injection volumes in-
crease, the diameter of the screw has to be
increased correspondingly, because there is
36 2 Injection Molding Machines
an inherent limit on how far one can move
the screw to obtain additional volume. These
larger diameter screws are no problem to
push with a hydraulic system, but are cost-
prohibitive with the original electromechan-
ical drive designs.
Other tradeoffs with the reciprocating de-
sign include that increasing the screw diam-
eter to add volume limits the precision at
the small end of the shot range. Because the
stroke gets so short, it is difficult to have preci-
sion melt control. The reciprocating injection
unit is usually oversized for the actual mold-
ing requirement because the effective diame-
ter for plasticizing decreases with increasing
screw stroke. As an example, it has become
standard to size molding operations to 30 to
70% of a reciprocating injection unit’s capac-
ity. This sizing keeps the IMM in the best
operating range for larger shots-typically
300 oz (8500 g), corresponding to a 150-oz
(4250-g) two-stage unit process.
The two-stage unit design is a fundamen-
tal departure from the past reciprocating unit
design. It frees the design of the injection
function from dependence on the plasticiz-
ing function, because it uses an indepen-
dent shooting chamber. This permits use of a
smaller-diameter injection barrel and longer
injection stroke for a given volume. The result
is to make it easier to generate high injection
rates, pressures, and volumes with smaller,
precise, and proven electromechanical drives.
The two-stage injection unit can shoot its full
volume, unlike reciprocating units, which are
usually sized twice as large.
The need for affordable high-pressure,
large-shot injection with an electric drive led
Milacron to look at new approaches rather
than simply scaling up the size of a ball-screw,
rack-and-pinion, or other linear actuator to
accommodate the limits of a reciprocating
screw. The two-stage unit evolved as a practi-
cal, effective way to dramatically extend the
performance range of their electric IMMs,
while meeting cost targets.
Drawing on its expertise in extrusion
equipment, Milacron used a variant of its
single-screw extruder to melt plastic and me-
ter it into the injection (second-stage) bar-
rel through a port in front. With extrusion
as a separate function, plasticizing rates are
sized to exact requirements. Injection control
is much more precise than with the nonreturn
valve in line with the injection screw plunger,
which has to seat before control of the shot
occurs. Its longer stroke of a smaller-diameter
injection piston is what enables, as an exam-
ple, the 150-oz (4250-g) two-stage IMM to do
shots down to 4 oz (110 g). This shot is far
smaller than would be possible with a 300-oz
(8500-g) reciprocating screw. The industry’s
generally accepted practice is to avoid shoot-
ing less than 10 vol% of shot capacity for a re-
ciprocating unit, since in such cases the screw
stroke becomes so short that it is difficult to
control.
The separate extruder allows molders to
perform tasks that would be more diffi-
cult or impossible with a reciprocating unit,
such as compounding glass fiber inline, chan-
ging the screw L / D , putting additives in the
melt phase, and venting. The melt from the
extruder is also more consistent and higher
in quality, because each pellet (etc.) passes
down the entire length of the screw, in con-
trast with a reciprocating screw, where some
of the screw feed end may be behind the
hopper.
While the two-stage IMM has its advan-
tages, it created challenges to the machine
designers. Most important was its handling of
the melt, which made color change difficult.
Also, heat-sensitive plastics could stick to the
plunger tip. The electrically driven ball screw
behind the injection piston (Milacron; patent
pending for tip design) allows a new way to
handle melt as it enters the shot chamber,
overcoming these challenges. A screw-type
tip is used on the injection piston. A one-way
clutch rotates the tip while building a shot and
retracting the piston, pushing melt forward
over the tip (Fig. 2-10). Its first-stage extruder
does not move melt directly into the front of
the shot chamber at the piston tip; instead,
the melt travels through the screw thread to
maximize the mixing and forward flow. De-
pending on the shot size, this tip gives first-
in-first-out, middle-in-last-out, or last-in-
middle-out handling. Even when the piston
tip is backed past the melt entry port, the ro-
tation of the tip continues to wipe the plunger
 2 Injection Molding Machines 37

Fig. 2-10 Close-up of Milacron’s two-stage machine with a special plasticating screw tip that allows
first-in-first-out melt handling and thus a longer stroke with a smaller-diametersecond-stagebarrel.

tip against the melt pool. With each shot, Machine Operating Systems
the tip starts by pushing new melt forward
over the front again, maintaining its cleaning There are basically three different types
action. of IMM operating systems: those with hy-
draulic, electrical, and hybrid drives. The hy-
brid system is a combination of hydraulic
Other Machine Types and electrical. At present the hybrid system
provides a technically effective and economi-
Other types include machines with plas- cally reasonable compromise. At the current
ticators in other positions than those de- pace of electrical-drive development, more
scribed, multiple clamping units, clamping economical and efficient electrical drives will
for different mold motions (shuttle, rotary, make them much more acceptable.
Ferris wheel, etc.), and ram-plunger plastica- The following three sections provide infor-
tors [Fig. l-l9(a), (b)] with one or more rams mation on the three types. In some cases tech-
instead of screw systems (so-called screwless niques described for one type are also appli-
machines). Another type of machine, with a cable to other types.
rotary platen system, is shown in Fig. 2-11.
Figure 2-12 shows Husky’s 660-T machine
with 96 cavities, using a three-position Hydraulic Operations
water-cooled takeoff plate mold; it molds 96
PET preforms per fast cycle, which are later In an IMM with an all-oil hydraulic sys-
injection-blown into carbonated-beverage tem, oil pressure provides the power to turn
bottles (Chap. 15). Husky’s multiinjection the screw to plasticate the plastic, inject the
rotary-platen machine using two plasticat- melt into the mold cavity or cavities, close the
ing (injection) units is shown in Fig. 2-13. mold clamp, hold the clamp tonnage, release
Multiclamp IMMs can be used with a the clamp, and eject the molded part(s) (Fig.
single injection unit as shown in Fig. 2-14. 1-7). A number of hydraulic components
There are also IMMs with three or more are required to provide this power, includ-
plasticators. ing motors, pumps, directional valves, fittings,
38 2 Injection Molding Machines
Fig. 2-11 Engel’s 200-T rotary-bridge-type machine.
tubings, and oil reservoirs or tanks. A single
central power source is used for supplyingthe
main and secondary functions of such IMMs
(7). Control pumps and hydraulic accumula-
tors are used to drive pumps.
The cycle of a hydraulic IMM may be sum-
marized as follows:
1. Oil is sent into the clamp ram, closing the
mold. Pressure builds up to develop enough
force to keep the mold closed during the in-
jection of melt into the mold cavities.
2. Previously temperature-controlled pla-
sticized material in front of the reciprocating
screw or two-stage ram is forced into the mold
cavity or cavities by the hydraulic injection
cylinder(s).
3. Controlled pressure is maintained on
the plastic melt to mold one or more parts
free of sink marks, flow marks, welds, frozen
stresses, and other defects. During this part of
the cycle the temperature in the mold is con-
trolled to eliminate of defects and assure de-
sired part performance (dimensional require-
ments and stability, surface finish, etc.).
4. At the end of this part of the molding
cycle, the reciprocating screw starts to turn,
plasticizing material for the next shot. For a
two-stage plasticator, the first-stage screw is
continuously turning, preparing melt to enter
the second stage for delivery into the mold.
Techniques andlor devices are used during
this phase of plasticizing to prevent drooling
from the nozzle in reciprocating systems.
5. While this plasticizing action is occur-
ring, the thermoplastic melt is cooling in
the mold and solidifies to a point where it
can be successfully and safely ejected. For
 2 Injection Molding Machines 39

Fig. 2-12 Husky’s 660-T machine.

Fig. 2-13 Husky’s multiinjection rotary-platen machine.

40 2 Injection Molding Machines
n
-
Fig. 2-14 Two-stage IMM with three clamping presses.
thermoplastics this cooling is accomplish-
ed by circulating a cooling medium, usually
water, through drilled holes or channels prop-
erly located around the cavity. Thermoset
plastics require heat, usually via electric cal-
rods, in the mold to complete their solidifica-
tion (chemical cross-linking).
6. The next step in the cycle is sending
oil under controlled pressure to the return
port(s) of the clamping ram, separating the
mold halves.
7. As the moving platen returns to its open
position, knockout or some type of ejection
system (usually mechanical) is activated, re-
moving the molded part(s) from the mold.
Examples of these hydraulic IMMs are
shown in Figs. 2-15 and 2-16.
An example of advanced hydraulic tech-
nology is shown in Fig. 2-17. Two of these
HPM 5,000-ton, 400-oz-injection-unit, two-
platen, hydromechanical NEXT WAVETM
series machines were installed (1999-2000) in
Hopper and accumulator
Shown Sideways for
GM’s Saturn plant (Spring Hill, TN) to mold
interior parts and body panels for the divi-
sion’s new midsize LS sedans. To date the
many existing IMMs at this 4-million-sq ft
plant have been large toggle-clamp machines.
The new IMMs include (1) parabolic platen
design, leaving mold mounting surfaces flat
and free of distortion, (2) retractable tiebars,
(3) platen movement using very little oil,
(4) G E Fanuc process control (similar to that
used throughout the plant), (5) improved en-
ergy efficiency, and (6) 20 to 30% reduc-
tion in floor space compared to their existing
machines.
Reservoirs
The reservoir (or tank) provides hydraulic
oil to the system for use in powering the
various IMM actions. The reservoir must
be sized to ensure that an adequate supply
of oil is available to the system and also
 2 Injection Molding Machines 41

Fig. 2-15 Example of a modular 220- to 4,000-ton hydraulic clamping IMM series (HPM).

allow sufficient capacity for the system to
return oil. In the past most oil reservoirs
had to be rather large to meet the require-
ments of the various operations, particularly
moving the platens. More recently, through
simplifying these motions, very little oil is
needed, so that oil leaks are practically elim-
inated and much less maintenance work is
needed.
Oil lines are located to meet oil delivery
and return requirements. As an example, suc-
tion lines are placed near the bottom of the
reservoir to ensure ample oil supply. Re-
turn lines from the system discharge beneath

Fig. 2-16 Example of a universal 60- to 560-ton toggle-clampingIMM series (HPM).

42 2 Injection Molding Machines

Fig. 2-17 Advanced HPM IMM technology: 5,000-ton, 400-oz injection unit, two-platen, hydrome-
chanical IMM.

the oil level to avoid spraying into the air
and foaming. Some type of antisiphon device
should be used to stop the back flow of oil
through the return lines in case of line break-
age or the removal of a hydraulic component
for service. A standard guideline for sizing a
reservoir is that it be three times the pump
output in one minute, but all system require-
ments should be carefully considered before
the final reservoir size is determined.
Hydraulic Controls
The objective of open and closed-loop con-
trols on injection molding machines is to ob-
tain the most reproducible molding process
possible. Because of their yes-no logic, digital
components are considerably less sensitive to
external disturbances than analog ones. How-
ever, closed-loop position control is accom-
plished much more readily at present using
analog technology (1,7), though digital tech-
niques are increasinglyused. In principle, any
process variable can be presented in digital
or analog form. The difference is shown in
Fig. 2-18. In practice, digital and analog com-
ponents are used together in control systems
for injection molding machines.
For linear movements in injection molding
machines, hydraulic cylinders are generally
employed. These cylinders are controlled by
either analog or digital valves.
The mold height adjustment in toggle-
clamp machines is a linear motion involving
an electric or hydraulic motor that drives a
chain or bull gear to turn the tie-bar nuts of
the clamping unit. Screw recovery is a rota-
tional motion for which a hydraulic motor is
usually employed.
A number of competing valve concepts
come into consideration for the control ele-
ment for all of these drives: on the one hand,
proportional valves or servovalves as contin-
uously acting valves, and on the other, digital
hydraulic components for pressure or volume
adjustment.
Proportional Valves
Proportional valves represent the link
between open- and closed-loop control tech-
nology. They provide continuously variable

Time - Time -
Fig. 2-18 Variation of a pressure signal with time: analog representation (left) and digital response
with 4-bit resolution (right).
 2 Injection Molding Machines
adjustment of pressures and speeds and are
employed primarily for open-loop control
functions. By means of an amplifier, the con-
trol signal (for example, 0 to 10 V) is con-
verted into a proportional current and fed to
a solenoid. The solenoid, in turn, generates
a proportional displacement or force in the
valve. The force or displacement is converted
by the valve into a pressure or volume flow.
Servovalves
Servovalves are employed for closed-loop
control. For the linear axes, pressure, speed
and position can be controlled; for the screw
drive, the screw speed. The flow characteristic
of a servovalve exhibits two operating ranges,
to which different tasks can be assigned. In
operation range A, pressure or position is
controlled; in operating range B, linear or ro-
tational speed.
For applications in operating range A, a
valve with zero or negative overlap must be
selected. Positive overlap cannot be used,
since signals within the range of overlap are
not transmitted and those outside the range
can become garbled. When the closed-loop
control of clamp functions is involved, the
achievability of position control is the de-
cisive criterion as to whether servovalves
should be employed. Such control permits
the positioning of a mold or ejector with a
variation of only a few tenths of a millimeter.
This is particularly desirable when inserts are
placed in the mold or parts must be removed
with precision.
Compared to digital hydraulic compo-
nents, continuously acting valves exhibit a
few weaknesses that must be taken into con-
sideration when selecting the valve concept:
The valves are driven by an analog sig-
nal. This requires more extensive shielding
than if the valves were driven by a digital
signal.
Oil filtration is more critical than for digital
hydraulics.
The valve characteristic around the zero
point is subject to a certain variability and
changes as the result of wear during con-
tinuous operation.
43
Digital Hydraulic Control
As an alternative to servovalves, hydraulic
logic elements can be driven by digital elec-
trical signals. In this case, the hydraulics per-
form the analog conversion. Separate control
manifolds are required for pressure and vol-
ume flow control. The number of logic ele-
ments (bit number) determines the resolu-
tion. With a 7-bit pressure manifold, 128steps
can be achieved, including the value zero. For
a system pressure of 160 bar, the resolution is
then 1.25 bar. This resolution is sufficient for
all requirements in injection molding.
Digital pressure controls operate without
hysteresis and perform reproducibly over a
long period of time. The effects of scating
appear during the first few actuations of the
valves under load, but diminish quickly. For
this reason, a recalibration is conducted after
the injection molding machine has completed
its test run. This procedure assures good long-
term reproducibility of the set pressures.
Along with their advantages, digital hy-
draulic control elements also exhibit limita-
tions. The electronic digital-to-analog con-
verters used to drive continuously acting
valves offer as a rule higher resolution than
digital hydraulics. With a ramped output,
steps are no longer visible. This high resolu-
tion, however, applies only to measurement
of the process variable and output of the ma-
nipulated variable. The accuracy of the pro-
cess variable being controlled is always less
than that of the measurement.
Digital hydraulic systems are built with a
maximum resolution of 8 bits. Their strength
is open-loop control of process variables.
Pressures and speeds are reproduced with
high accuracy. When switching the binary
stages of digital hydraulic control elements,
however, small pressure spikes and pressure
drops with a magnitude equal to that of the in-
cremental resolution occur. With the present
state of the art, the pressure spikes resulting
from actuation of the directional valves can-
not be reduced to the same extent that the
resolution can be increased.
For closed-loop control, the dynamic re-
sponse of the final control element is just as
important as the resolution. The restrictions
44 2 Injection Molding Machines

resulting from the design principle employed major areas of machine hydraulics, which in
for discrete output of the manipulated vari- turn affect the cost and/or performance of the
able mean that digital valves should not be molded plastic product(s): (1) hydraulic-fluid
employed as the final control element for life, (2) energy loss, (3) erratic operation of
closed-loop control of the process variables components, (4) formation and removal of
pressure and speed. Their use should be kept sludge and varnish, and ( 5 ) operating condi-
to open-loop control, where the advantages tions that cause overheating, which in turn
of this design predominate. causes leakage of check valves, relief valves,
For similar reasons, digital hydraulic con- and so on.
trol elements are not suitable for closed-loop
position control. The positioning of the mold
and ejector in digital hydraulic machines does Pumps
not achieve the accuracy of closed-loop posi-
tion control. As in the case with digital tem- The hydraulic pump provides hydraulic
perature control, the digital measurement of flow and pressure to the system. It receives
position is becoming more common in high- oil from the reservoir at low pressure and
quality injection molding machines. increases the pressure to that required by
There is still no standard approach for the system. Several different types are used.
open- or closed-loop control of hydraulic The most common are fixed- and variable-
functions. Nevertheless, it can be seen today displacement pumps. Different designs are
that there will eventually be two attractive available, the most common being vane, pis-
versions of digital systems: ton, and gear types.
Variable-volume and variable-pressure
Open-loop machine with digital hydraulics.
compensating pumps are being used more
This version will find its greatest use in
frequently in an attempt to conserve energy.
machines with sequential functions. It can
These pumps are capable of varying output
meet stringent requirements with regard to
to meet a particular flow requirement, or dis-
reliability, while offering simple operation
pensing only enough flow to develop a partic-
and needing minimal maintenance.
ular pressure requirement. There is no single
Digital closed-loop machine. This version
pump type that is perfect for every class and
will find its greatest use in machines with
size of IMM.
simultaneous functions and automated
Figures 2-19 and 2-20 show fixed and
equipment that requires closed-loop posi-
variable pumps. Fixed pumps can be single
tion control for high reliability and conve-
units or staged in multiple-pump configura-
nience of operation.
tions for powering large-clamp-tonage ma-
Both concepts represent good technical so- chines. Big machines theoretically could use
lutions for their areas of application. multiple variable-volume pumps, but such
systems would be rather expensive. Fixed-
volume balanced vane pumps are quite popu-
Hydraulic Fluids and Influence of Heat lar and generally operate at 2,000 to 3,000 psi
(13.8 to 20.7 MPa) with 90% volumetric
A hydraulic fluid is a liquid or mixture efficiencies.
of liquids designed to transfer pressure (and In vane pumps, a slotted rotor is splined to
thus power) from one point to another in a the driveshaft and turns inside the cam ring.
system on the basis of Pascal’s law: pressure Vanes are located in the rotor vane slots and
on a confined liquid is transmitted equally in follow the inner surface of the cam ring as
all directions throughout the liquid. the rotor turns. Centrifugal force and out-
The pressure due to excessive heat in the let pressure under the vanes hold them out
operation of machine-tool hydraulic systems, against the cam ring, and they are enclosed
such as that of an IMM, can degrade the op- by inlet and outlet support plates. The vary-
eration of the entire system. Heat affects five ing, continuous pressure under the vane area
 2 Injection Molding Machines 45

Outlet

on

Outlet

\ I Drive shah
Opposin pressure ports
cancel sije loads on shah
Fig. 2-19 Schematic of fixed-volume vane pump.

reduces wear and usually assures high pump piston shoes follow the swashplate, causing
efficiency. the pistons to reciprocate. The displacement
Vane-type fixed-volume pumps are not the is determined by the size and number of pis-
only types. For bigger-tonnage machines tons and piston stroke length, as well as the
(above 800 tons), use is made of multiple swashplate angle.
groupings of fixed-displacementinternal gear The swashplate is installed in a movable
pumps. They can be matched and sized to a yoke for variable displacement. Pivoting the
variable-volume-type range of outputs. Also, yoke changes the swashplate angle to in-
they are rugged and forgiving, so that they crease or decrease the piston stroke. The
are often used in heavy-duty industrial equip- yoke can be positioned manually,with a servo
ment such as earth-moving machinery. control or a pressure-compensation con-
Oil output based on machine-cycle status trol, or by other means. There are variable-
requirements is the key feature of variable- displacement pumps that provide at least
volume pumps, making them very popular. 96% volumetric efficiency. Most can operate
The cylinder block is turned by the drive above 3,000 psi (20.7 MPa). There are also
shaft. Pistons fitted to bores in the cylinder radial-piston variable-volume pumps for self-
are connected through piston shoes and a re- contained presses.
tracting ring so that the shoes bear against Generally, fixed-volume pumps are easier
an angled swashplate. As the block turns, the to maintain, and variable-volume pumps pro-
vide more energy efficiency. However, there
2. end ore torcal are pumps of each type that can match the
bod in 01 OVIIEI
Valve plate dot other’s benefits.
\ a\ ,Piston suha,rsmbly

Directional Valves

Directional valves are used to direct the

Fig. 2-20 Schematic of axial piston variable-
volume pump.
hydraulic oil from the pump to where it is
needed. Spool, check, and cartridge valves
are commonly used for this control.
The spool-type directional valve is com-
monly used on IMMs. Spool valves can be
46 2 Injection Molding Machines
Fig. 2-21 Schematic of a cartridge valve.
either two- or three-position. In a two-
position valve, a solenoid is energized for one
position, and normally a spring will return
the spool to the second position when the
solenoid is deenergized. The three-position
valve is obtained by adding a second solenoid.
Small valves can be directly operated by
the solenoid; on larger valves, solenoid-
operated pilot valves direct pilot flow to the
main spool for shifting.
A check valve is a single valve that allows
flow in only one direction.
An extension of the check valve that is be-
ginning to find greater use is the cartridge
valve. It is essentially a check valve that is
powered open normally by a small spool di-
rectional valve. Cartridge valves are grouped
to provide the same directional flow capa-
bility as spool valves. Figure 2-21 shows a
schematic of a cartridge valve; note that the
sleeve and its internal parts are mounted
within the manifold.
Servo and Proportional Valves
With the advent of more advanced micro-
processor systems for process control, greater
use is being made of proportional valves and
servovalves. These valves can be used to con-
trol flow and pressure. The main difference
in performance between the two is speed of
response, the servo being much faster.
Proportional valves substantially simplify
a machine’s hydraulics, as they circumvent
the need for separate flow and pressure reg-
ulators. Machine-cycle pressures and speeds
can be conveniently set directly on the ma-
chine’scontrol panel by decimal preselectors,
allowing as many as 99 different values to be
entered.
Electrical Operation
Completely electrical IMMs are availa-
ble from machine manufacturers worldwide,
including Battenfeld, Engel, Fanuc, JSW,
Milacron, Nissei, Sumitomo (543), Toshiba,
and UBE. However, at present they are less
used than hydraulic and electrohydraulic hy-
brid IMMs. The advantages of electrical de-
signs are energy efficiency, high power, vari-
able controlled power, and brushless motors
(331).
Electrical IMMs provide decentralized
power generation with individual electrical
drives for the main and secondary functions.
 2 Injection Molding Machines
They use servo drives and main-spindle
drives that are comparable with the drive
technology already used for many years in
machine tools (455).
Additional advantages include cleanliness
due to the elimination of oil, closed-loop liq-
uid cooling, avoidance of the need for exten-
sive air conditioning, use of dynamic brak-
ing resistors, quick startup and setup, high
molding quality, high productivity, repeata-
bility without operator attention, and low
noise (below 70 dB). The simpler solid-on-
solid power train (servomotors, pulleys, belts,
and ball screws) eliminates the major causes
of molding variations in hydraulic IMMs, with
their motors, couplings, pumps, hoses, filters,
valves, tubing, heat exchangers, and tanks.
Electric IMM designs offer various engi-
neering features. There are high-speed,
directly connected rack-and-pinion clamp
drive systems. Also in use are 64-bit mi-
croprocessor and digital communication be-
tween the ac servomotor and controller to
create a closed-loop feedback circuit for each
of the four axes of motion, namely clamp-
ing, injection, screw recovery, and ejection.
Repeatability accuracy of 50.004 in. is attai-
nable on both clamping and injection. The
four servomotors work independently, so that
control can overlap the motion of each axis
to shorten the cycle time. As an example,
the IMM need not wait for full screw recov-
ery prior to opening the mold. The JSW ma-
chines are designed to provide for injection-
compression molding (coining).
Electric Motors
Practically all basic and auxiliary process-
ing equipment uses electric drive motors. To
date the dc motors are the most popular. They
can be controlled through solid-state circuitry
that rectifies the ac supply. Apart from being
among the most efficient motors in the speed
range of 20 to 100% of maximum, dc mo-
tors give a wide range of controllable speeds,
better than 30 : 1. A major disadvantage is
the tendency of the speed to drift as the mo-
tor warms up, though this can be reduced by
feedback speed controls (293).
47
Variable-speed ac drive motors are also
used. The main’s frequency supply is recti-
fied to dc and then converted to a variable-
frequency waveform using solid-state switch-
ing devices. The resulting nonsinusoidal
waveform can cause power loss; use of more
silicon-controlled rectifiers (SCRs) can re-
duce it. However, this recourse increases the
cost of the motor, lessening its advantage
over the dc types. Two major advantages of
the variable-frequency ac drive motor are its
better power factor and lower maintenance.
Adjustable-Speed Drive Motors
A way to cut energy use dramatically is
through adjustable-speed drives (ASDs). At
the same time they can improve process effi-
ciency and minimize machine wear and tear.
The energy savings and efficiency stem from
ASDs’ precise electronic control of motor
speed. They provide soft starts, extending the
life of the components they drive, such as
hydraulic pumps, fans, and seals on rotating
shafts.
Servo Drives
A servoelectric drive can be used to pro-
vide screw rotation independent of other
machine functions, replacing the more con-
ventional hydraulic drive with significant
operating energy savings. This more expen-
sive drive allows screw recovery simultane-
ously with other machine functions. Three-
phase servo drives can be precisely controlled
and easily integrated into the machine con-
trol. Their high positioning accuracy and high
repeatability have met users’ increased de-
mands in this respect on the clamping unit
and ejector mechanism.
Microtechnology Moldings
To mold micron-scale precision parts with
shot weights of only 0.0022 g, all-electrical
IMMs are being used (see the section on
Micro Injection Molding in Chap. 15).