Hydrogen vehicle

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Sequel, a fuel cell-powered vehicle from General Motors

Hydrogen vehicle refers to a personal transportation vehicle, such as an automobile, that

uses hydrogen as its on-board fuel for motive power, but can also refer to other vehicles,
such as an aircraft, that use hydrogen in a similar fashion. The power plants of such
vehicles convert the chemical energy of hydrogen to mechanical energy (torque) in one
of two methods: electrochemical conversion in a fuel-cell or combustion :

 In combustion, the hydrogen is burned in engines in fundamentally the same

method as traditional gasoline cars.
 In fuel-cell conversion, the hydrogen is reacted with oxygen to produce water and
electricity, the latter of which is used to power an electric traction motor.

The molecular hydrogen needed as an on-board fuel for hydrogen vehicles can be
obtained through various thermochemical methods utilizing natural gas, coal (by a
process known as coal gasification), liquefied petroleum gas, biomass (biomass
gasification), by a process called thermolysis, or as a microbial waste product called
biohydrogen or Biological hydrogen production. Hydrogen can also be produced from
water by electrolysis. If the electricity used for the electrolysis is produced using
renewable energy or nuclear power, the production of the hydrogen would (in principle)
result in no net carbon dioxide emissions.

Hydrogen is an energy carrier, not an energy source, so the energy the car uses would
ultimately need to be provided by a conventional power plant. A suggested benefit of
large-scale deployment of hydrogen vehicles is that it could lead to decreased emissions
of greenhouse gases and ozone precursors. [1] The pollution generated at the point of use
in the vehicle would be greatly reduced compared to conventional automobile engines.
Further, the conversion of fossil fuels would be moved from the vehicle, as in today's
automobiles, to centralized power plants in which the byproducts of combustion or
gasification can be better controlled than at the tailpipe. However, there are both
technical and economic challenges to implementing wide-scale use of hydrogen vehicles,
as well as better and less expensive alternatives. The timeframe in which challenges may
be overcome is likely to be at least several decades, and hydrogen vehicles may never
become broadly available. [2] [3] [4][5]
Contents
[hide]
 1 Research and prototypes
 2 Hydrogen fuel difficulties
o 2.1 Low volumetric energy
o 2.2 Fuel cell cost
o 2.3 Freezing conditions
o 2.4 Hydrogen production cost
o 2.5 Hydrogen infrastructure
o 2.6 Service life
o 2.7 Political considerations
o 2.8 Alternatives
 3 Hydrogen internal combustion
 4 Automobile and bus makers
 5 Fuel stations
 6 Planes
 7 References
 8 See also

 9 External links

[edit] Research and prototypes

Hydrogen powered Ford Focus

Hydrogen does not come as a pre-existing source of energy like fossil fuels, but rather as
a carrier, much like a battery. It can be made from both renewable and non-renewable
energy sources. A potential advantage of hydrogen is that it could be produced and
consumed continuously, using solar, water, wind and nuclear power for electrolysis.
Currently, however, hydrogen vehicles utilizing hydrogen produced using hydrocarbons,
produce more pollution than vehicles consuming gasoline, diesel, or methane in a modern
internal combustion engine, and far more than plug-in hybrid electric vehicles.[4] This is
because, although hydrogen fuel cells generate no CO2, production of the hydrogen
creates additional emissions.[6] While methods of hydrogen production that do not use
fossil fuel would be more sustainable,[7] currently such production is not economically
feasible, and diversion of renewable energy (which represents only 2% of energy
generated) to the production of hydrogen for transportation applications is inadvisable.[4]

The recorded number of hydrogen-powered public vehicles in the United States was 200
as of April 2007, mostly in California,[8] and a significant amount of research is underway
to try to make the technology viable. The common internal combustion engine, usually
fueled with gasoline (petrol) or diesel liquids, can be converted to run on gaseous
hydrogen. However, the more energy efficient use of hydrogen involves the use of fuel
cells and electric motors. Hydrogen reacts with oxygen inside the fuel cells, which
produces electricity to power the motors. One primary area of research is hydrogen
storage, to try to increase the range of hydrogen vehicles, while reducing the weight,
energy consumption, and complexity of the storage systems. Two primary methods of
storage are metal hydrides and compression.

High-speed cars, buses, submarines, airplanes and rockets already can run on hydrogen,
in various forms at great expense. NASA uses hydrogen to launch Space Shuttles into
space. There is even a working toy model car that runs on solar power, using a reversible
fuel cell to store energy in the form of hydrogen and oxygen gas. It can then convert the
fuel back into water to release the solar energy.[9]

[edit] Hydrogen fuel difficulties

For more details on this topic, see Fuel cell.

While fuel cells themselves are potentially highly energy efficient, and working
prototypes were made by Roger E. Billings in the 1960s, at least four technical obstacles
and other political considerations exist regarding the development and use of a fuel cell-
powered hydrogen car.

[edit] Low volumetric energy

Hydrogen has a very low volumetric energy density at ambient conditions, equal to about
one-third that of methane. Even when the fuel is stored as a liquid in a cryogenic tank or
in a pressurized tank, the volumetric energy density (megajoules per liter) is small
relative to that of gasoline. Because of the energy required to compress or liquefy the
hydrogen gas, the supply chain for hydrogen has lower well-to-tank efficiency compared
to gasoline. Some research has been done into using special crystalline materials to store
hydrogen at greater densities and at lower pressures.

Instead of storing molecular hydrogen on-board, some have suggested that using
hydrogen reformers to extract the hydrogen from more traditional fuels including
methane, gasoline, and ethanol, or using reformed gasoline or ethanol to power fuel cells.
[citation needed]
However, using gasoline for this purpose would promote continued
dependence on fossil fuels.

[edit] Fuel cell cost

Currently, hydrogen fuel cells are costly to produce and fragile. Scientists are studying
how to produce inexpensive fuel cells that are robust enough to survive the bumps and
vibrations that all automobiles experience. Also, many designs require rare substances
such as platinum as a catalyst in order to work properly. Such a catalyst can also become
contaminated by impurities in the hydrogen supply. In the past few years, however, a
nickel-tin catalyst has been under development which may lower the cost of cells.[10] Fuel
cells are generally priced in USD/kW, and data is scarce regarding costs. Producer
Ballard is virtually alone in publishing such data. Their 2005 figure was $73 USD/kW
(based on high volume manufacturing estimates), which they said was on track to achieve
the U.S. DoE's 2010 goal of $30 USD/kW. This would achieve closer parity with internal
combustion engines for automotive applications, allowing a 100 kW fuel cell to be
produced for $3000. 100 kW is about 134 hp.[11]

[edit] Freezing conditions

Freezing conditions are a major consideration because fuel cells produce water and utilize
moist air with varying water content. Most fuel cell designs are fragile and can't survive
in such environments at startup but since heat is a byproduct of the fuel cell process, the
major concern is startup capability. Ballard announced that it has already hit the U.S.
DoE's 2010 target for cold weather starting which was 50% power achieved in 30
seconds at -20 °C[12].

[edit] Hydrogen production cost

For more details on this topic, see Hydrogen production.

Molecular hydrogen can be derived chemically from a feed stock, such as methanol, but
can also be produced electrochemically from water. Current technologies for
manufacturing hydrogen use energy in various forms, totalling between 25 and 50
percent of the higher heating value of the hydrogen fuel, to produce, compress or liquefy,
and transmit the hydrogen by pipeline or truck. [13] Electrolysis, currently the most
inefficient method of producing hydrogen, uses 65 percent to 112 percent of the higher
heating value on a well-to-tank basis, owing to the comparatively inefficient conversion
of fuels to electric power, [14] a thermodynamic hurdle also faced by so-called plug-in
hydrid vehicles, which draw significant energy from the electricity grid to charge the
batteries. Environmental consequences of the production of hydrogen from fossil energy
resources include the emission of greenhouse gases, a consequence that would also
proceed from the on-board reforming of methanol into hydrogen. Studies comparing the
environmental consequences of hydrogen production and use in fuel cell vehicles to the
refining of petroleum and combustion in conventional automobile engines find a net
reduction of ozone and greenhouse gases in favor of hydrogen.[1] Development of
renewable sources faces barriers, and although the amount of energy produced from
renewable sources is increasing, as a percentage of worldwide energy production,
renewables decreased from 8.15% in 2000 to 7.64% of total energy production in 2004
due to the rapid increase in coal and natural gas production.[15] However, in some
countries, hydrogen is being produced using renewable sources. For example, Iceland is
using geothermal power to produce hydrogen,[16] and Denmark is using wind.[17]

In addition to the inherent losses of energy in the conversion of feed stock to produce
hydrogen which makes hydrogen less advantageous as an energy carrier, there are
economic and energy penalties associated with packaging, distribution, storage and
transfer of hydrogen. However, hydrogen fuel cells are theoretically (without auxiliary
devices to run the fuel cell) more efficient than internal combustion engines, achieving
efficiencies of 50-60%, making up much of what is lost in producing hydrogen, and
produce only water out the tailpipe, mostly in the form of water vapor.

[edit] Hydrogen infrastructure

In order to distribute hydrogen to cars, the current gasoline fueling system would need to
be replaced, or at least significantly supplemented with hydrogen fuel stations. Hydrogen
stations are being built in various places around the world.[18] Private and state initiatives
like California's "California Hydrogen Highway" are already starting the infrastructure
transition in advance of any manufacturers mass producing hydrogen cars.[19]
Replacement of the existing extensive gasoline fuel station infrastructure would cost a
half trillion U.S. dollars in the United States alone.[20]

[edit] Service life

Although service life is coupled to cost, fuel cells have to be compared to existing
machines with a service life in excess of 5000 hours. As of today, however, no medium
or low temperature fuel cells have been tested for more than two thousand hours.[21]

[edit] Political considerations

Most all of today's hydrogen is produced using fossil energy resources.[22] While some
advocate hydrogen produced from non-fossil resources, there could be public resistance
or technological barriers to the implementation of such methods. For example, the United
States Department of Energy currently supports research and development aimed at
producing hydrogen utilizing heat from generation IV reactors. Such nuclear power
plants could be configured to cogenerate hydrogen and electricity. Hydrogen produced in
this fashion would still incur the costs associated with transportation and compression or
liquefaction assuming direct (molecular) hydrogen is the on-board fuel. Recently,
alternative methods of creating hydrogen directly from sunlight and water through a
metallic catalyst have been announced. This may eventually provide an economical,
direct conversion of solar energy into hydrogen, a very clean solution for hydrogen
production.[23]

Some in Washington advocate schemes[24] other than hydrogen vehicles to replace the
petroleum-based internal combustion engine vehicles. Plug-in hydrids, for example,
would augment today's hybrid gasoline-electric vehicles with greater battery capacity to
enable increased use of the vehicle's electric traction motor and reduced reliance on the
combustion engine. The batteries would be charged via the electric grid when the vehicle
is parked. Electric power transmission is about 95 percent efficient and the infrastructure
is already in place (though substantial grid expansion would be needed if a sizeable fleet
of plug-in hybrids were to be deployed.) Tackling the current drawbacks of electric cars
or plug-in hybrid electric vehicles is believed by some to be easier than developing a
whole new hydrogen infrastructure that mimics the obsolete model of oil distribution. A
plug-in hybrid transportation system would face the same thermodynamic hurdles as
would a system of hydrogen vehicles relying on electrolysis for its molecular hydrogen.
The current electric grid, which is dominated by fossil energy resources in the United
States, has a fuel-to-power efficiency of roughly 40 percent. Both the plug-in hybrids and
the electrolytic hydrogen system would be subject to these comparative inefficiencies.

United States President George W. Bush was optimistic that these problems could be
overcome with research. In his 2003 State of the Union address, he announced the U.S.
government's hydrogen fuel initiative,[25] which complements the President's existing
FreedomCAR initiative for safe and cheap hydrogen fuel cell vehicles. Critics charge that
focus on the use of the hydrogen car is a dangerous detour from more readily available
solutions to reducing the use of fossil fuels in vehicles. K.G. Duleep speculates that "a
strong case exists for continuing fuel-efficiency improvements from conventional
technology at relatively low cost." [5] Challeging perspectives to many such critics of
hydrogen vehicles in particular and of a hydrogen economy in general were presented in
the contentious, 2006, documentary film, Who Killed the Electric Car?

President Bush's hydrogen car goals, in the opinion of some writers, are slipping away
because "there are quicker, cleaner, safer and cheaper ways to reduce the tail-pipe
emissions from cars and trucks that pollute the air and contribute to global warming."
According to physicist and former U.S. Department of Energy official Joseph Romm, "A
hydrogen car is one of the least efficient, most expensive ways to reduce greenhouse
gases." Asked when hydrogen cars will be broadly available, Romm replied: "Not in our
lifetime, and very possibly never."[5] General Motors disagrees with that sentiment and
has announced that it will start hydrogen vehicle production in 2010. However, GM's
chief engineer on the fuel cell project, Mohsen Shabana, said hydrogen infra-structure
would not be in place by then, and he noted that GM had produced only two test units of
the Sequel (pictured above) so far.[26] As an article published in the March/April 2007
issue of Technology Review argued,

In the context of the overall energy economy, a car like the BMW Hydrogen 7 would
probably produce far more carbon dioxide emissions than gasoline-powered cars
available today. And changing this calculation would take multiple breakthroughs--which
study after study has predicted will take decades, if they arrive at all. In fact, the
Hydrogen 7 and its hydrogen-fuel-cell cousins are, in many ways, simply flashy
distractions produced by automakers who should be taking stronger immediate action to
reduce the greenhouse-gas emissions of their cars.[4]

GM has announced that it plans to introduce more than 100 hydrogen powered Chevrolet
Equinox cars into the U.S. market beginning with the third quarter of 2007.[27]
[edit] Alternatives

A 2006 article, "Hybrid Vehicles Gain Traction", in Scientific American (April 2006),
co-authored by Joseph J. Romm and Prof. Andrew A. Frank, argues that hybrid cars that
can be plugged into the electric grid (Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles), rather than
hydrogen fuel-cell vehicles, will soon become standard in the automobile industry.[28] To
achieve lower emission goals, the power grid re-charging these vehicles will need to
contribute significantly less emissions and wean themselves from fossil fuels for energy
conversion.

Battery electric vehicles, such as the General Motors EV1 typically have four times the
efficiency of hydrogen vehicles,[29] when the cost of producing hydrogen is included,
according to their manufacturers, and are gaining popularity, particularly with the
introduction of new models like the Tesla.[30]

[edit] Hydrogen internal combustion

Hydrogen internal combustion engine cars are different from hydrogen fuel cell cars. The
hydrogen internal combustion car is a slightly modified version of the traditional gasoline
internal combustion engine car. These hydrogen engines burn fuel in the same manner
that gasoline engines do. As in hydrogen fuel cell vehicles, the volume of the vehicle that
the tank occupies is significant. Research is underway to increase the amount of hydrogen
that can be stored onboard, be it through high pressure hydrogen, cryogenic liquid
hydrogen, or metal hydrides.
In 1807, François Isaac de Rivaz built the first hydrogen-fueled internal combustion
vehicle. However, the design was very unsuccessful. It is estimated that more than a
thousand hydrogen-powered vehicles were produced in Germany before the end of the
World War II prompted by the acute shortage of oil.[verification needed]

BMW's CleanEnergy internal combustion hydrogen car has more power and is faster than
hydrogen fuel cell electric cars. A BMW hydrogen car (BMW H2R) broke the speed
record for hydrogen cars at 186 mi/h (300 km/h), and BMW has an even newer Hydrogen
7 model. Mazda has developed Wankel engines to burn hydrogen. The Wankel engine
uses a rotary principle of operation, so the hydrogen burns in a different part of the
engine from the intake. This reduces intake backfiring, a risk with hydrogen-fueled piston
engines. However the major car companies such as DaimlerChrysler and General Motors
Corp, are investing in the more efficient hydrogen fuel cells instead [31]. Ford Motor
Company is investing in both fuel cell and hydrogen internal combustion engine research.
Because of the large heat exchanger necessary for fuel cells and their limited load change
and cold start capability, they are certainly first choice as range extender for battery
electric vehicles. The Wall Street Journal, reviewing BMW's new internal combustion
hydrogen vehicle concluded: A more efficient route for car makers would be to focus on
high-mileage gasoline-powered vehicles. They are far simpler and less sexy than
hydrogen cars... but for now they stack up as the cleaner option.[32]

Outside of specialty and small-scale uses, the primary target for the widespread
application of fuel cells (hydrogen, zinc, other) is the transportation sector; however, to
be economically and environmentally feasible, any fuel cell based engine would need to
be more efficient from wellhead-to-wheel, than what currently exists.

[edit] Automobile and bus makers

For more details on this topic, see List of fuel cell vehicles.

Many companies are currently researching the feasibility of building hydrogen cars.
Funding has come from both private and government sources. In addition to the BMW
and Mazda examples cited above, many automobile manufacturers have begun
developing cars. These include:

Hyundai Tucson FCEV in the background (on the left) and Toyota Highlander FCHV in
the foreground (on the right) during UC Davis's Picnic Day activities
  BMW — The BMW Hydrogen 7 is powered by a dual-fuel Internal Combustion
Engine and with an Auxiliary power based on UTC Power fuel cell technology.
The BMW H2R speed record car is also powered by an ICE. Both models use
Liquid Hydrogen as fuel.
 DaimlerChrysler — F-Cell, a hydrogen fuel cell vehicle based on the Mercedes-
Benz A-Class.
 Ford Motor – Focus FCV, a hydrogen fuel cell modification of the Ford Focus,
and E-350 buses, which began being leased in late 2006.
 General Motors — multiple models of fuel cell vehicles[33] including the Hy-wire
and the HydroGen3
 Honda – currently experimenting with a variety of alternative fuels and fuel cells
with experimental vehicles based on the Honda EV Plus, most notable the Honda
FCX, powered by a front-mounted 80 kW AC electric motor, with 20 kW pancake
motors providing supplemental power to the rear wheels. Electrical energy is
provided by a 100 kW hydrogen fuel cell, with regenerative braking energy stored
in ultracapacitors. Production versions of the FCX are expected to arrive in 2009.
 Hyundai — Tucson FCEV, based on UTC Power fuel cell technology
 Mazda - RX-8, with a dual-fuel (hydrogen or gasoline) rotary-engine [34]
 Nissan — X-TRAIL FCV, based on UTC Power fuel cell technology.
 Morgan Motor Company – LIFEcar, a performance-oriented hydrogen fuel cell
vehicle with the aid of several other British companies
 Toyota – The Toyota Highlander FCHV and FCHV-BUS[35] are currently under
development and in active testing.
 Volkswagen also has hydrogen fuel cell cars in development.

A few bus companies are also conducting hydrogen fuel cell research. These include:
[[Image:Fuel-cell bus London.jpg|thumb|Mercedes-Benz (DaimlerChrysler) Citaro fuel-
cell bus in Aldwych, London, on 19 October 2005

 DaimlerChrysler, with thirty-six experimental units powered by Ballard Power

Systems fuel cells completing a successful three-year trial, in eleven cities, in
January 2007.[36][37]
 Thor Industries (the largest maker of buses in the U.S.), based on UTC Power fuel
cell technology
 Irisbus, based on UTC Power fuel cell technology
 Fuel Cell Bus Club

Supporting these automobile and bus manufacturers are fuel cell and hydrogen engine
research and manufacturing companies. The largest of these is UTC Power, a division of
United Technologies Corporation, currently in joint development with Hyundai, Nissan,
and BMW, among other auto companies. Another major supplier is Ballard Power
Systems. The Hydrogen Engine Center is a supplier of hydrogen-fueled engines.

Most, but not all, of these vehicles are currently only available in demonstration models
and cost a large amount of money to make and run. They are not yet ready for general
public use and are unlikely to be as feasible as plug in biodiesel hybrids.
There are, however, fuel cell powered buses currently active or in production, such as a
fleet of Thor buses with UTC Power fuel cells in California, operated by SunLine Transit
Agency.[38] Perth, Australia is also participating in the trial with three fuel cell powered
buses now operating between Perth and the port city of Fremantle. The trial is to be
extended to other Australian cities over the next three years.

Mazda leased two dual-fuel RX-8s to commercial customers in Japan in early 2006,
becoming the first manufacturer to put a hydrogen vehicle in customer hands. Ford began
leasing E-350 shuttle buses in late 2006. BMW also plans to release its first publicly
available hydrogen vehicle in 2008, as does Honda.

[edit] Fuel stations

For more details on this topic, see Hydrogen station.

Since the turn of the millennium, filling stations offering hydrogen have been opening
worldwide.[39] However, this does not begin to replace the existing extensive gasoline fuel
station infrastructure, which would cost a half trillion U.S. dollars in the United States
alone.[40]

[edit] Planes
For more details on this topic, see Hydrogen planes.

Many companies such as Boeing and Smartfish are pursuing hydrogen as fuel for planes.
Unmanned hydrogen planes have been tested and Boeing is currently planning a manned
flight for 2008.

[edit] References
1. ^ a b Schultz, M.G., Thomas Diehl, Guy P. Brasseur, and Werner Zittel. Air
Pollution and Climate-Forcing Impacts of a Global Hydrogen Economy. Science
24 October 2003 302: 624-627[1]
2. ^ EDS, MIT's Engineering Systems Division: MIT Laboratory for Energy and the
Environment [2]
3. ^
http://www7.nationalacademies.org/bees/John_Heywood_Reducing_Oil_Demand
.pdf
4. ^ a b c d From TechnologyReview.com
5. ^ a b c article dated May 15, 2007
6. ^ See Novelli, P.C., P.M. Lang, K.A. Masarie, D.F. Hurst, R. Myers, and J.W.
Elkins. (1999). "Molecular Hydrogen in the troposphere: Global distribution and
budget". J. Geophys. Res. 104(30): 427-30.
7. ^ F. Kreith, "Fallacies of a Hydrogen Economy: A Critical Analysis of Hydrogen
Production and Utilization" in Journal of Energy Resources Technology (2004),
126: 249–257.
8. ^ GaleGroup.com info
9. ^ Thames & Kosmos kit, Other educational materials, and many more
demonstration car kits.
10. ^ http://www.engr.wisc.edu/alumni/perspective/30.1/Article08_hydrogen.html
11. ^ Ballard "2006 achievements" press release
12. ^ From the Ballard website
13. ^ F. Kreith (2004). "Fallacies of a Hydrogen Economy: A Critical Analysis of
Hydrogen Production and Utilization". Journal of Energy Resources Technology
126: 249–257.
14. ^ Ulf Bossel,Energy and the Hydrogen Economy
15. ^
16. ^ Iceland's hydrogen buses zip toward oil-free economy accessed 17-July-2007
17. ^ First Danish Hydrogen Energy Plant Is Operational accessed 17-July-2007
18. ^ Information from Fuelcells.org
19. ^ See this information from hydrogenhighway.ca.gov and this information from
rps.psu.edu
20. ^ Romm, Joseph (2004). The Hype about Hydrogen, Fact and Fiction in the Race
to Save the Climate. New York: Island Press.  (ISBN 1-55963-703-X), Chapter 5
21. ^ Ballard "2006 achievements" press release
22. ^ Air Products and Chemicals website
23. ^ Information from rps.psu.edu
24. ^ Plug-in Hybrid Advocacy Group
25. ^ [3]
26. ^ Article from German Press Agency
27. ^
http://www.gm.com/company/gmability/adv_tech/100_news/fc_fleet_launch_091
806.html
28. ^ "Hybrid Vehicles Gain Traction"
29. ^ Energy efficiency comparison article
30. ^ Information from cta.ornl.gov
31. ^ Fuel Cell Vehicles:Status 2007 (March 20, 2007). Retrieved on 2007-05-23.
32. ^ Wall Street Journal article on the Hydrogen 7, dated April 4, 2007
33. ^ Fuel Cell Vehicles:Status 2007 (March 20, 2007). Retrieved on 2007-05-23.
34. ^ NEWS FROM MAZDA. Retrieved on December 4, 2005.
35. ^ http://www.toyota.co.jp/en/news/06/0718.html
36. ^ European Fuel Cell Bus Project Extended by One Year. DaimlerChrysler.
Retrieved on 2007-03-31.
37. ^ Fuel cell buses. Transport for London. Retrieved on 2007-04-01.
38. ^ UTC Power - Fuel Cell Fleet Vehicles.
39. ^ From the Honda corporate webiste
40. ^ Romm, Joseph (2004). The Hype about Hydrogen, Fact and Fiction in the Race
to Save the Climate. New York: Island Press.  (ISBN 1-55963-703-X), Chapter 5