Discharge relationships within

drainage basins

CONTINUES …
Catchment hydrology refers to the
movement, distribution and quality of water
within a drainage basin. Whilst drainage
basins vary in form there are common
principles that will shape the response of the
area to any given event.

Catchment hydrology
Infiltration
Infiltration is the flow of water (precipitation,
irrigation) through the soil surface into a
porous medium under gravity action and
pressure effects. The maximum rate of
infiltration for an event is the infiltration
capacity.

Several factors control the rate of infiltration

within the catchment/drainage basin.
Types of precipitation

Flooding most frequently occurs after prolonged periods

of rainfall when soil stores are full and there is less
drainage possible. The conditions preceding a rainfall
event can be referred to as antecedent conditions.

During cold conditions, water may be temporarily stored

as snow or ice. This means there is less water
circulating through the system. It also means that there
may be a sudden release of water during times of thaw.
Annual flooding in Bangladesh is largely attributed to the
combined effects of monsoonal rain and seasonal
snow-melt from the Himalayas to the north.
Relief
The size and shape of the land affects the rate
at which water can flow down

it. Slopes with an angle of less than 5o will

have significantly greater rates of infiltration.
The greater the gradient, the greater the rate of
surface runoff as there is less opportunity for
infiltration. Higher in the catchment, rivers may
cut steep incised valleys acting under the
influence of gravity (as they seek to reach the
lowest point). As they travel downstream this
influence is lessened and rivers erode laterally
creating flat, wide floodplains.
Parent material
The parent material refers to the underlying
geology of an area and the origins of the
formed soil. The characteristics of the geology
will determine the permeability and ultimately
how well the ground will drain.
ROCK TYPES
Sedimentary
rocks
Are formed through the deposition of
sediment and the

subsequent compression as additional

layers are deposited above. They often are
porous (with air spaces), such as
sandstone, or pervious (with cracks and
bedding planes), such as limestone. This
means that water can pass through
sedimentary rocks. Rocks that allow water
to pass through them are termed
permeable.
Metamorphic rocks
Are sediments and rocks that have been
transformed by heat and pressure. The
permeability of metamorphic rocks will
depend on the nature of the
transformation.
Igneous rocks
Are formed by extreme heat and pressure
in magmatic environments and are more
simply referred to as volcanic rocks.
Examples include basalt, usually formed in
ocean environments, and granite, more
commonly found on land. Rocks such as
these do not let water pass through them
and are called impermeable.
Soil type, structure Soil is composed of rock fragments, organic matter,
water, air, organic material and organisms in varying
and density proportions. The greater the clay content, the more
water retentive the soil is as clay particles bond together
tightly restricting the flow of water. A sandy soil is free
draining as the larger sand particles provide gaps and
spaces for water to pass through. Most soils contain a
mix but soils become saturated easily when there are
greater proportions of clay. Compare the waves draining
on a beach to boggy areas surrounding a river, for
example. Often floodplains contain a lot of small
particles deposited by floods known as alluvium.
Beaches are almost exclusively sand.
 Drainage density
The drainage density refers to the number of rivers and streams in an area.
The greater the number of rivers, the more easily the catchment will be
able to drain. This may produce a quick rise in the hydrograph and a
greater probability of flooding.
Antecedent conditions
These relate to the previous conditions that have affected an area such as
precipitation rates. An area that has experienced a high amount of
precipitation may have partially or fully saturated soil, increasing the rate of
surface runoff. Dry conditions would allow for greater water storage but
too dry may mean the ground has a baked impermeable crust, which
makes infiltration difficult. In this scenario water may run off the land
creating a flashy response hydrograph.
Land use
The land use of an area may be
hugely influential in determining
catchment response. ‘Land use’
simply refers to how the land is used
or managed.
 Urbanisation
Settlements are often heavily concreted spaces
very different to those on open moorland or
arable farms. World urban populations are
growing, resulting

in greater urbanisation and an increase in the risk

of flooding. Water cannot infiltrate through
tarmac and concrete and, combined with gutters
and drains that channel and direct runoff, water
can be carried at great speed to the nearest
waterways. Often runoff from roads and urban
landscapes contains pollutants and waste that
are unnatural to a river environment and this
causes damage to the freshwater ecosystem.
Vegetation
Vegetated areas have a greater capacity to
intercept precipitation and absorb soil
moisture. The type, nature and extent of
vegetation will determine its ability to retain
moisture. Estimates suggest that tropical
rainforests intercept up to 80 per cent of
rainfall (30 per cent of which may later
evaporate) whereas arable land may only
intercept 10 per cent.
Deforestation is an activity widely associated
with flooding. The removal of vegetation
whether for the clearance of land for
development or harvesting of a cash crop
often has negative consequences and
widespread implications on a river regime.
Flows can be considerably faster.

In addition, the stability of soil profiles can be

compromised by logging trails and disturbed
ground with further areas vulnerable to
erosion by the fast flowing surface flows. The
resultant runoff is often heavily silted, which
makes rivers thick and dirty with sediment.
Areas heavily reliant on rivers for washing
and drinking are the first to suffer.
 The daily rise and fall of the tides affects the relative base
Tides and storm level to which a river flows. High spring tides may prevent
surges water from discharging into the sea, increasing the potential
for flooding. Low pressure systems such as depressions
and tropical storms reduce the amount of air pressure
acting on sea level

leading to a slight rise in water level at these times. This

coupled with strong winds create further pressure on
low-lying coastal areas. Storm surges occur when strong
wind conditions affect a coastline, forcing waves landward
and inland through estuaries.