RJNR Unit- 4

Techniques of Radio Production: Studio and Location, Hardware and Software Requirements

Depending on the magnitude and sophistication of a radio station's infrastructure, now-a-days we

have varieties of radio stations ranging from single-person operated, single-studio, multi-studio etc.
The details of the broadcast chain accordingly differ from station to station.

Radio program production is a complex technical process which requires the interconnected
operation of electronic equipment and system such as microphones, mixers, amplifiers, transmitters
etc. The total system consisting of all these equipment which are required for achieving of this task is
known as 'Broadcast Chain

'Broadcast Chain' is a sequential process. The program which we generate at source travels from one
electronic device (or equipment) to another in a serial fashion till it is finally received by the listener
through his/her radio set. The sequence of these equipments comprises the chain. Any malfunction,
defect or failure in one or the other equipment causes a disruption or defect in the whole process of
broadcasting, much like the breakage of a single link causing the whole chain to be broken.

Radio broadcasting system can be understood as consisting of the following major sub-systems:

a) The studio centre

b) Studio-to-Transmitter Link (STL)

c) The transmitting centre

d) Radio propagation medium, and

e) Reception system (radio set).

The studio centre is the place where the programmes are recorded, edited, produced, and
played back at the time of transmission. In the case of live broadcasts, the studio centre is again
the origin of the programs with the concerned artistes/performers/announcers/news-readers
operating from one or the other studio of the studio centre. Even in the case of OBs (outside
broadcasts), the events being broadcast from the OB spot are invariably routed through the
studio centre for convenience of switching and other technical reasons. Thus the studio centre
becomes the eventual outlet for all programmes.

The studio centre is the source of all programming. This is the place where all recordings, editing,
dubbing, mixing, live broadcasts and announcements during transmissions take place.

In the case of outside broadcasts, the feeds from the OB (outdoor broadcasting) spot are invariably
routed through the studio centre; so the studio centre becomes the focal point of all programme
generation and distribution.
• A studio centre may have just one studio or many studios designed for recording different
kinds of programmes.

• Apart from studios, the centre will also have facilities such as editing rooms, a control room
and other related technical facilities.
• Noise Level: Commonsense tells us that the noise level (that is, unwanted ambient noise)
inside a studio should be as low as possible. The sources of noise in a studio are the noise
caused by airflow through AC ducts, leakage of external noise from adjoining corridors and
rooms, and noise travelling through the building structure itself (vibrational noise). The
acoustic design of studios should be such that all these noises are screened out as much as
possible to make the studio sound-proof.

Reverberation Time: Sound produced inside a studio travels outward, gets reflected from the
studio walls, travels in a reverse direction, again gets reflected and so on.

• The net result of these multiple reflections prolongs the life of a sound signal a little while,
even after the cessation of the original sound. The phenomenon is called 'reverberation' and
is measured in seconds.

• Reverberation adds 'lustre' and 'bulk' to the sound and adds to its richness. This is
considered very desirable for music programmes up to a point. Too much reverberation,
however, causes boominess, overlapping of individual sounds and loss of intelligibility.
Hence reverberation is a definitedrawback for spoken-word programmes.

• The generally accepted reverberation time for a talk studio is 0.3 seconds, while for a music
studio it can be around 0.7 seconds to 1.8 seconds.

• The required amount of noise isolation and reverberation are achieved in studio by double
door entry (sound lock area)

• Covering the studio walls with acoustic material, and the flooring with linoleum or thick
carpet
• Designing the door seals and observation windows in such a way as to prevent leakage of
sound

• Reducing air velocity through air-conditioning ducts and lining the ducts with sound
absorbent material
• Constructing the studio walls in a non-parallel fashion (unlike normal rooms) to prevent
multiple reflections

• Constructing the studio shell itself have a separate foundation, isolated from rest of the
building structure (to prevent vibrational noises).

• Smaller production houses cannot afford to create separate studios for individual purposes
like talks, drama, music etc. In their case, a single multi-purpose studio is the answer.

• The reverberation time of a multi-purpose studio can be designed to be as low as possible to

make it suitable for talks.

• When it has to be used for music or drama, reverberation can be added electronically in the
right magnitude.

• This is for the purpose of playing back pre-recorded tapes interspersed by live
announcements etc. in a pre-determined sequence.

• The number of transmission studios (also called as playback studios) would depend upon the
number of broadcast channels that the station handles.
• An Announcer Booth is attached with the production studios. While the actual programme
(talk/ discussion/ drama/ music concert etc.) takes place inside the studio

• The Announcer Booth serves various related works like keeping continuity with programmes
from other studios, linking announcements, playing filler music and pre-recorded material,
playback of pre-recorded music into the studio etc.

• Control Room is the focal area at which all the technical activities in a studio centre
converge.

• Sound recording technicians in the control room have overall responsibility for the technical
operations in the studio set up at large, for switching of broadcast feeds to the transmitting
centre and incoming feeds from external sources.

• Control Room is the focal area at which all the technical activities in a studio centre
converge.

Sound recording technicians in the control room have overall responsibility for the technical
operations in the studio set up at large, for switching of broadcast feeds to the transmitting
centre and incoming feeds from external sources.

• Control room requires a different kind of microphones, speaker and head phones & talkback
microphone; audio mixer; computer having sound recording software and playback facilities
for pre-recorded materials (CDs/ DVDs, Hard disks, tape deck, cassette deck, etc). Nuendo,
Audacity, Sound forge, Cool Edit Pro, are a few names of software which are commonly used
by professional sound recording studios.

• Signaling Lamp

• Synchronized Clock

• Microphones

• Audio Mixer or Console

• Monitoring System

• Recording System (Digital)

• Sound recording is a simple process of using a recorder to record music or spokenword.

Sound recording is a technique involving sound pick-up, signal processing, recording
including control of levels

• Sound Pick-Up- Sound pick-up is the most important factor in achieving quality recording
because any deterioration in quality at this point cannot be rectified at later stages. Hence,
great care needs to be taken in assessing the quality of environment, choice of microphones
and placement/use of microphones.
• A wide and flat frequency response is an important requirement in a microphone, but care
must be taken to see that bass response is not too far beyond that required for a particular
sound source. Sometimes this can be very troublesome because a very slight air movement
can cause undesired rumble.
• A microphone with roll-off at about 40Hz should suffice for most requirements. An extended
high frequency response is far more important. The response can also be equalised in the
mixer channel.

• The polar pattern indicates the response of a microphone to sounds coming from different
directions. Directional microphones have maximum output for sounds coming from the front
of the microphones with varying level for sounds coming from the sides (90 degree) or back
(180 degree). Direction of minimum output also varies for different types of polar patterns.

For example, an ornni-directional microphone could be useful for interviewing a group of people
in an open space in the absence of much environmental noise but a cardioid microphone would
be needed if there is a noise source at 180 degrees to the desired sound source. Similarly, gun
microphones are useful in picking up remote sounds like effects in sports events/questions in a
press conference.

• The acoustic noise remains the dominant source of noise. It is needless to add that, for
programmes with higher peak sound levels like music, a higher dynamic range is possible
from the studio.

Placement of Microphone

A few useful tips are:

• Microphone should not be placed very close to reflecting surfaces such as, bare walls, hard
table top etc. because a hard reflecting surface gives rise to strong reflections which disturb
the acoustic quality near the microphone.

• Directional microphones should not be placed too close to a sound source to avoid boosting
of low frequencies due to a phenomenon called 'Proximity effect'. A working distance of 30-
45 cms is considered safe in this respect. Some of the microphones (like two-way Cardioid
AKG type D-222) are however, free from this effect.

• For spoken-word recordings, the microphone should not be placed directly in line with the
mouth. It will result in 'P' blasting, a term commonly used to describe the resulting noise
when words containing letter 'P' are spoken. A position slightly to the side of the mouth
should eliminate this problem.

• The talker should not hold the script between his/her face and the microphone to avoid
shadowing effect. Where necessary, the script may be held in the dead zone of the
microphone, i.e., the zone where it cannot pick up sounds to avoid paper noise.

• While recording various instruments, the direction of its maximum output and wind blasts, if
any, should be ascertained for choosing the right location of the microphone. For a few
instruments, the following guidelines should be helpful: In stringed instruments like sitar,
violins etc., on-axis of microphone kept normal to the front face of the instrument. For
instruments with large output, like tabla, drums and other bass instruments, the
microphone should be placed facing the diaphragm and well away from them. For wood-
wind instruments like flute, the microphone should be placed such that the instrument does
not face the wind blast directly.
• The working distance of a microphone is also guided by the ambience. Close microphone
placement reduces the effect of reverberation and vice-versa. In a lively environment,
 another way of reducing the effect of reverberation is to place the microphone with its dead
axis facing the live area.

• In outdoor performances, the stage floors are subject to intense low frequency vibrations. In
such situations, whenever microphones are mounted on floor stands, some sort of
mechanical resilience should be placed under the base of the stand to reduce bumps and
rumble.

• The working distance of a microphone is also guided by the ambience. Close microphone
placement reduces the effect of reverberation and vice-versa. In a lively environment,
another way of reducing the effect of reverberation is to place the microphone with its dead
axis facing the live area.

• In outdoor performances, the stage floors are subject to intense low frequency vibrations. In
such situations, whenever microphones are mounted on floor stands, some sort of
mechanical resilience should be placed under the base of the stand to reduce bumps and
rumble.

• Two basic techniques of recording have evolved over the years. These are: Direct Recording
and Multi-Track Recording.

• Single Track Recording: In this system, all the sound sources are premixed into one/two
channels for mono/stereo recording. Balancing of various sources has to be well rehearsed
because balance once recorded cannot be altered later. Direct recording is quite useful as
long as the complement of participants is small. However, when the number of microphones
being used becomes large (say 6 or more), direct recording becomes a difficult task. The
direct recording system is in use by many broadcasting and recording studios all over the
world.

• Multi Track Recording: In this system, each microphone or a group of microphones may feed
an individual track on the multi-track recording medium. Up to 16 tracks are quite common
in such recorders and machines with many more tracks have already become available. The
multi-track recording gives following advantages:

a) Flexibility of building a recording piece by piece. The tracks can be recorded at different
timings or even at different locations depending upon availability of the artistes.

b) Better control to create the desired balance in the end product.

c) More economical as it is possible to record a musician separately when his particular track has
not come off well without bothering to re-record the other tracks.

• However, it has the following limitations:

a) There is higher noise due to mixing of many narrow tracks.

b) It requires close coordination between the musicians, sound recordist and the programme
producer. To create good separation between instruments, the musicians are separated
from each other physically and acoustically.
 • Despite the limitations, the multi-tracks recording is in vogue for popular music recordings.
However, of late there is a tendency to prefer direct recording with fewer microphones by
many people as it is supposed to give more spontaneous recordings

• The process of multi-track recording may be broadly divided into two activities: Separation
Recording, and Mix-down and Master Recording.

• Separation Recording- This sphere of activity comprises microphone selection, microphone

placement and recording of individual channels on a multi-track recorder. As long as the
number of microphones does not exceed the number of input channels of the recorder,
each microphone can be allotted an independent track. On many occasions, however, a
large number of microphones may have to be catered for. In such cases, a certain amount of
mixing before separation recording is unavoidable. A few microphones are judiciously mixed
and assigned to different sub-groups. Each sub-group output is routed to a specific track of
the multi-track recorder.

Recording Process

Separation between the sound picked up by various microphones will depend upon

• Closeness of each microphone to its source

• Directivity of microphones

• Distance between the sources

• Relative output level of various sources

Mix-down and Master Recording - The maximum signal processing occurs during mix-down.
Flexibility of the mixing console comes into play during this process.

The Sound Recordist and the Music Producer, however, must have the mix-down in mind from the
beginning. The way the instruments are arranged, the way the microphones are placed, all must be
carried out according to a logical plan.

Al though the mix-down offers flexibility of repeated 'cut-and-try

It is necessary to have a well-set mental image of the finished product right from the
beginning.

• Level Control: There are three possible locations for level control in a normal sound mixer.

These are the sensitivity control in the microphone channels, channels fader and the master
fader. The sensitivity control is used to equalise sensitivity of different types of microphone
used. This is done by manipulating the sensitivity control keeping the master and channel
fader at 0 dB position to equalise the loudness level of different microphones

• The channel fader is used to adjust the level of the individual microphone and the master
fader for adjustment of the overall level of the recording. Most mixers are provided with
peak level indicators in each channel.
 • At times there is overload before the channel fader which will not disappear even by
recording gain at the channel fader. In such situations, sensitivity control has to be reduced
to ensure that the signal does not get distorted before reaching the channel fader.

• There are basically two types of programme level meters in audio mixers. These are VU
meters or PPM meters. Volume Unit Meter indicates broadly the loudness level of the signal
being recorded and does not respond adequately to fast programme peaks.

• The PPM or Peak Programme Meter on the other hand responds virtually to the peaks of the
programme and thus does not give an indication of the average or loudness level .

• Recording Medium: As a producer, it is not necessary to know the recording medium in

great technical detail. It is desirable to know its broad characteristics.

• The recording media currently popular are analog tape, digital tape, digital optical discs and
the computer hard disc

SOUND EFFECTS IN RADIO PROGRAMMES

Sound effects are the backbone of any radio programme. These create the ambience and help us
locate the programme in a particular mood and place. For example, to create the feel of a road
journey we shall use the sounds of a moving car, horn and other such ambient sound effects. These
can be used for such things as setting and place, conveying action, solving certain narrative problems
and evoking characteristics. Effects should sound as though they are being heard by the character.
Dubbing adds extra sound effects or brings disparate sounds together. However, care should also be
taken that the sound effects do not dominate the narration/ dialogue, if any. Sound effects can be
categorised as:
a) Natural sound or Nat sound, is not created but is present naturally while the recording is
happening. These are usually present during recording in outdoor locations. However, during such
recordings it should be carefully monitored that the Nat sounds do not create noise and thereby
reduce the quality of the recording. Nowadays, very sophisticated microphones are also available to
catch Nat sound without creating noise.
b) Recorded sound effects: These come from the sound effects bank of any radio station. Once upon
a time radio professionals used to travel to different locales to collect varieties of sound effects.
Certain sound effects were also created during the recording process. For example if the scene in a
radio drama requires that a character is drinking tea then the clinking sound of a cup being lifted and
put down on the plate was created in the studio using a cup and a plate as that gives it an authentic
feel. In fact old drama studios always had a sound room attached to it to make the recording process
smooth. Nowadays stock sound effects are easily available free of cost on the Internet.

Created sound effects can be of many verities:

a) Ambience: It creates the sense of place, ‘where’ the action is happening and even ‘when’ or which
time of the day or night. It is a very subtle form of effect which needs much nuanced editing.

b) Discreet or spot effects: Indicates the range of usual action of a particular event. Say there is a
meeting going on; the sound of paper moving, something being written on the paper, or even
coughing or muttering will all be discreet or spot sound effects.
c) Crowds: These sounds do not carry any meaning except locating the event in a particular space.
For example the market space crowd sound will be different from the crowd sound in a meeting or a
wedding or in a cricket match. Hence a lot of care is required to create suitable sound of crowds.

MUSIC IN RADIO PROGRAMMES

Music is the mainstay of radio. The ideal ratio of spoken word to music programmes is regarded as
30:70. Film songs, folk songs and classical music both vocal and instrumental are various types of
music which we hear on radio. Radio programmes also use short pieces of music as signature tunes
or theme music for various programmes to give the programme an identity as well as to differentiate
one programme from the other. Signature tune is also used to attract the attention of listener to the
programme. Stations also have musical identification tunes. All India radio transmission’s opening
signature tune, composed in Raag Shivaranjini, was the creation of a Jewish refugee named Walter
Kaufmann. A Czech national, he had fled to India from the Nazis and was the director of music
programmes at AIR from 1937-46.

Music augments the quality of programmes in the following ways:

a) It adds vibrancy to any spoken word programme and helps in the flow of the programme to keep
the listeners glued to it.

b) It helps in breaking the monotony of any programme. As radio is only appealing to the auditory
organ of a person, sometimes a programme can feel monotonous. This is more so in the case of talks
and discussions and sometimes in the case of news too. However, it needs to be kept in mind that
usage of music should be appropriate to the tone and tenor of the programme.

c) It is used to create effects of happy or unhappy feelings, fear or joy in the programme. In other
words, music is used in radio to create and communicate emotions, for example sad music for sad
emotions, bright music for happy emotions and sombre music for serious emotions.

d) Music can suggest scenes and locations. For example, if you have to create the ambience of a
bright early morning situation, this can be done by playing a pleasing note on the sitar/flute/piano
along with the sound of chirping birds or maybe a devotional song.

e) It can express actions too. A fast music can suggest fast movement of a character or situation.

LOOKING AT THE FUTURE

Invention of radio was a scientific and technological marvel and the evolution of radio over the past
century has seen wonderful new strides in broadcast technology. From the days of amplitude
modulation to frequency modulation, radio has consistently made use of and benefitted from
technological advancements. From the bulky and heavy radio sets of yore to adoption of mobile
telephony for reception, radio has seen and successfully met many challenges.

New platforms for Radio

It has been reported extensively in India that the number of transistor sets being bought has come
down drastically. Now people are increasingly using Radio in cars and on mobile phones. Satellite
Radio, direct to home (DTH) radio through set-top boxes have been there for a while. All India Radio
has many channels on Doordarshan’s DTH platform.
The latest avenue that has come up in a very big way is broadcasting through Internet. Many
listeners around the world have started using internet radio. In India too, All India Radio has adopted
it in a big way with live streaming of many of its channels which can be heard on computers as well
as mobile apps. Radio content is also becoming available through podcasting or ‘audio on demand’
which provides listeners the facility to listen to their favourite programmes at a time of their own
convenience. Even on website of All India Radio and some other popular broadcasting organisations
audio versions of the news and certain other programmes are available (along with texts to make
these accessible to the hearing impaired also). Though it is not the radio that we have known
traditionally but it is radio in its new avatar. Similarly websites like Pandora, Spotify and many others
have added podcasting to the world of radio in a big way and this has become an important space
now.

Changing Audience Profile

Radio has seen massive changes in its audience profile through the ages. When radio started in India
in 1920s, it was a costly gadget. The receiving sets were expensive and people had to pay a regular
licence fee. It was a box like apparatus and needed electricity to run. Initially the programmes were
meant for people who were urban, well off and educated. However, with radio coming under the
government ambit and particularly after India attained independence in 1947, the programmes were
created for the entire population including the socio-economically disadvantaged sections. The most
democratic change in radio programming came when it became mobile through transistor. It
liberated radio from having to sit in one corner of the house and made it possible for it to move
around. Moreover, the dependence on electricity was eradicated. Next liberation in radio in India
happened when government lifted the provision of licence fee and made it free for all. In
independent India, the government regarded radio as the medium for development communication
and that led to further democratisation of the audience profile.

Next change came with the proliferation of the private FM channels. These stations are targeted
towards the comparatively younger and urban, upwardly mobile audience with substantial
purchasing power. Community radio movement has now taken strong roots in our country and that
means micro-level programming for specific communities. Thus we can see the progressive change
of the audience profile through the times.

Increasing Interactivity
Some of the increasingly common two-way interactive radio features include: Digital Displays:
Information such as date, time, network, battery status, and menu options are presented on digital
displays that make important information stand out at a quick glance. Some two-way radio sets also
feature LCD colour displays for enhanced readability.
Bluetooth Technology: With Bluetooth-equipped handsets, your two-way radio can communicate
wirelessly with many types of wireless earpieces. This provides hands-free communication abilities,
which can be especially useful for first responders.

Text Messaging: Combining audio and messaging communications in one portable device means
twice the communication power for two-way radio users.
Phone-in programmes: Increase in the popularity of phone in programmes has made it more
interactive and intimate. The responses have also become immediate.