CHAPTER 2 Chemical Bonding ‘YLLABUS ~ SCOPE OF SYLLABUS - in and after MARCH 2023 - CHEMICAL BONDING>\ ELECTROVALENT, COVALENT & CO-ORDIN; STRUCTURES OF VARIOUS COMPOUNDS, HiECr NE NS: ELECTRON DOT STRUCTURE. [a] Electrovalent bonding: 7a - Electron dot structure _ - Characteristic properties icity], dissociation in solution & it is it i a yh : Solution & in molten state to be linked with electrolysis. = Electron dot structure - of covalent molecules on t [example: hydrogen, chlorine, nitrogen, ammonia, carbon tetrachloride, m ; : , methane]. - Polar Covalent compounds - based on difference in electronegativity: " Examples - HCI & HO including structures, + Characteristic properties of Covalent compounds - state of existence, melting & boiling points, conductivity [heat & electricity], ionisation in solution. Comparison of Electrovalent & Covalent compounds. [e] Coordinate Bonding: - Definition - The lone pair effect — of the oxygen atom of the water molecule & the nitrogen atom of the ammonia molecule to explain the formation of H,0* & OH ions in water & NH,* ion. - The meaning of lone pair; the formation of hydronium ion & ammonium ion must be explained with help of electron dot diagrams. A. INTRODUCTION = of Electrovalent compounds - NaCl, M , MgCl, Cad, of electrovalent cor 2 e, meltir ing poi rol mpounds - state of existence, melting & boiling points, the basis of duplet & octet of electrons é <2 3 1 Chemical bondis the force which ds two or more atoms together in a stable molecule. AN ATOM An atom is the smallest unit of matter taking part in a chemical reaction. It is built up of sub-atomic particles - protons, neutrons and electrons. Two or more atoms [metallic or non-metallic] combine to form a molecule. The force which holds the atoms together asa stable molecule is the chemical bond. Sub-atomic particle | Charge | Mass [C-12 standard] *PROTON 1p +1 lam.u. * NEUTRON | jn Jamu. * ELECTRON Se negligible [Elements are pure substances made up of one kind of atoms - having the same atomic number. TYPES OF ELEMENTS - involved in chemical combination. * Metallic elements - have 1, 2 or 3 electrons in valence [outer] shell. They lose 1, 2 or 3 electrons and become positively charged ions [cations]. Non-metallic elements - have 4, 5, 6 or 7 electrons in valence [outer] shell. They gain (4), 3, 2, or 1 electrons and become negatively charged ions [anions]. (CHEMICAL COMBINATION - Atoms combine to form a molecule by two means- © Transfer of valence electrons from ~ a metallic atom to a non-metallic atom. * Sharing of valence electrons between - two atoms [generally both non-metallic]. 2oO eee poe ona |vews yee sa) Ge Uae =O" |"oe'= eet = woldtv> wnissylOd © @) : 6L [ s's'z yuoo De(a] 7's'z yuo ~9a/3| ¥'8'Z yuoo “2913 “yuoo *9813| Z8'2 ‘yuo V9'Z yuoo “29/3| weu'gp=d | gp=u'= 1s ed heute cralueyt ase | ‘SNYOHASOHd WoINIWA TY WnisaNovW wnidos 6) © i | Ts 7m 94 St €1 zh Wb |8'Z 4u0d “9813 | L'Z -Juod *9913]9'z yuos “99/3 /5'Z “JUOD *99/9) ¥'Z “JU0D “90/3 |E'Z JUoD “2013 @'Z “yuoo -0913] 1'Z “yuod “9913 \ob=4‘or=4/opsu‘gad|g=u'g=d | youd} gz-u'g-d | gzu'ged g=u'p= yeu'ead g | 6b 9b vb LL 6 2 anrdoni4 N39OULIN Nowoa wondadas | woHLN z | | © | 6 ¢| | | 1 yuos “2913 | | {suojord jo ou + suonau jo ou =] -—p Ol ae = | [sseur orwoye aanejas] zaqunu SSO anon N390NGAH [suojoid jo ‘ou = suonpayajo-ou =] | OH L equmu onmoyy-|— 52 2 | z le | oO VIIA VIA VA VAI Vill Vil VI [SL dNOWDIZE dNOUDI|9L dNOUD|SsT dNOUD| FE ANOUD/ er ANOAD ¢ dNOWS|T dNOUD 3718Vvi OIdOld¥Sd SHL AO SGOIWAd ASYHL 1SHI4 SH1 4O SLN3W374 AHL : re JB, CHEMICAL BONDING CHEMICAL BOND & TYPES OF BONDING - Electrovalent & Covalent CHEMICAL BONDING * Chemical bond - The linkage or force which acts between two or more atoms to hold them together as a stable molecule. The concept - chemical bonding, NOBLE GAS SYMBOL | AT ner ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION K L M N fe} Pr HELIUM He 2 2) NEON Ne 10 2 8 ARGON Ar 18 2 8 8 KRYPTON kr 36 2 8), 018) fsa) XENON Xe 54 2 8 3 618) (B) RADON Rn 86 2 8 it ep NOBLE GASES «Have stable electronic configuration. ie. their outermost [valence] shell is complete. + They have 2 electrons in outermost shell [He] or 8 electrons in outermost shell. + They do not - lose, gain or share electrons and are inert or unreactive ATOMS OF ELEMENTS - OTHER THAN NOBLE GASES © Have unstable electronic configuration. i.e, their outermost shell is incomplete. + They can - lose, gain or share electrons and are chemically reactive. REASONS FOR CHEMICAL BONDING BETWEEN ATOMS - TO FORM A MOLECULE + The driving force for atoms to combine is related to the tendency of each atom- to attain stable electronic configuration of the nearest noble gas. For an atom to achieve stable electronic configuration it must have - + Two electrons - in outermost shell [nearest noble gas - He] ~ Duplet rule + Eight electrons - in outermost shell [all noble gases other than - He] ~ Octet rule METHODS FOR ACHIEVING CHEMICAL BONDING * Astable electronic configuration in two combining atoms ~ resulting in chemical bonding between them is achieved by: Electron transfer - of valence electrons from one atom to another ~ + leading to electrovalent bonding & formation of an electrovalent or ionic compound. Electron sharing ~ of pairs of electrons between two reacting atoms ~ + leading to covalent bonding and formation of a covalent compound. PERIODIC PROPERTIES WHICH AFFECT CHEMICAL BOND FORMATION FOR FORMATION OF - IONIC COMPOUND. fonisation potential =] Lower - the value of LP. of a metallic atom. greater the ease of formation of the - cation. Electronaffinity - __| Higher - the value of E.A. of a non-metallic atom. greater the ease of formation of the - anion. Electronegativity - _| Larger - the electronegativity difference between combining atoms, electron transfer takes place easily. FOR FORMATION OF - COVALENT COMPOUND. ‘& clectronegativity — High between both atoms or elements, Electronegativity difference - Should be negligible - between the two combining atoms. 23C. ELECTROVALENT BONDING - Electrovalent compounds FORMATION OF - Electrovalent compounds + Formation of electrovalent compounds ~ involves transfer of valence electron,» from one atom ~ generally metallic to another atom - generally non-metallic . = Metallic atom - loses electrons ; to attain stable electronic configuration and becomes a- cane ; ‘Metallic atom X felec. config, 2,81] X - 1e- 7x Cation [positive ion 2) - Non-metallic atom - gains electrons to attain stable electronic configuratio: Non-metallic atom ¥ (elec. config. 28,7] Y + les n and becomes an - anion Y¥I- Anion [negative ion 24) - Ions - cations and anions ~ are oppositely charged particles, which attract one another to form an. electrovalent bond leading to formation of an -electrovalent compound. Bond formation is due to- Electrostatic force of attraction between t1v0 oppositely charged ions > xt yl- > XY Tonic bond Anion Electrovalent or lonic Compound + Electrovalent or ionic bond ‘Thechemical bond formed between two: atoms by transfer of oneormore electrons from the. atom of a metallic- electropositive element to an - atom of a non-metallic - electronegative element b + Electrovalent or ionic compound - The chemical compound formed as a result of transfer of one or more electrons from the- atom of a metalic -electropositive element to an —atom of a non-metallic- electronegative elemen, + Electrovalency The number of electrons donated or accepted by the valence shell of anatom of anelement- 80 as to achieve stable electronic configuration is called - electrovalency. _~ a [Mg (28,2) loses 2electrons - valency +2]; [0 (26) gains 2electrons- valency -2] ATOMS -‘X’ or“Y’ IONS - X!* or Y1- * Electrically - neutral particles * Electrically — charged particles [cations, anions} + May or may not exist - independently. * Exist - independently in solution. * Outermost shell - may or nay not have _* Outermost shell - have complete duplet or octet. duplet or octet. OXIDATION - a process when - REDUCTION -a process when — * An atom or ion — loses electrons *X—1e-> X!+ or A?¥—Te-> A+ [Le X> X14 1e-or A2+> A+ + Ie] Na — le > Nalt+ Zn, = 26e > Zn Fe — te > Feit >st - 2e 35 Oxidation - Reduction i.e, Redox reactions ae Ch > 2FeCl, Zn + CuSOy> ZnSO,+ Cu Be _ 2 “> (2Fes*'+ 2Cl- Zn + Cw > Zn 4 a 2Fe** [oxidation] [-2e-] Zn > Zn [oxidation] [-2e7] z Cz > 2Cl [reduction] [+2e-] Cut* > Cu [reduction] [+2e]p. STRUCTURE — Of Electrovalent compound — Sodium chloride |. SODIUM CHLORIDE - Formation * SODIUM CHLORIDE - is formed as a result of - transfer of one valence electron - From metallic sodium atom ee a - electronic configuration - 2, 8, 1 SE no. - Tonon-metallic chlorine atom *» C1 - electronic configuration - 2, 8, 7 ATTAINMENT OF - Stable Electronic Configuration * SODIUM ATOM - attains stable electronic configuration of the nearest noble gas - Neon. - _ by losing one electron from its valence shell and becomes a positively charged sodium ion [cation] — Nal*. * CHLORINE ATOM - attains stable electronic configuration of the nearest noble gas — Argon. - _ by accepting one electron in its valence shell and becomes a negatively charged chloride ion [anion] — Cl1— « THETWO OPPOSITELY CHARGED IONS - attract each other resulting in formation of the - electrovalent compound i.e. sodium chloride - with an ionic bond. a Electronic | Nearest noble) To attain stable electronic tom sabe eee configuration, __gas configuration of nearest noble gas SODIUM [metallic] _ |?3,;Na [28,1]] Neon [2,8] | Atomlosesoneelectron fromits valenceshell, | CHLORINE {non-metallic} >9,7C! [28,7] | Argon{2,8,8]] Atom gains one electron in its valence shell, 99, gK & 99,7Cl form KCI and 9, ;Na &92,¢S form Na,S-both of whichare electrovalent compounds -} with an electrovalent or ionic bond. | FORMATION OF SODIUM CHLORIDE — Represented by electron dot structure : Ionic equation ELECTRON DOT STRUCTURE Na —le > Na!* [oxidation] [atom] [cation] + [281] (28) i [Na] “+ Cl + le > Cl— freduction]} [281] [28,7] [atom] [287] Na + Cl > Nal*cl Sodium Chlorine Sodium atom atom chloride > Nacl REFERENCE - Orbit structure [Recap of std. IX] Na-atom C-atom Before combination Sodium atom [Na] Chlorine atom [ Cl] 281 28,7 28STRUCTURE — * CALCIUM OXIDE - From metallic calcium atom To non-metallic oxygen atom * CALCIUM ATOM - attains calcium ion [cation] — Ca2*, oxide ion [anion] — O2~, Of Electrovalent compound — NN. CALCIUM OxIDE - Formation is formed as a result of = trans > _ by losing two electrons from its valence * OXYGEN ATOM - attains stable electronic configuration of the nearest noble - _ by accepting two electrons in its valence shell * THETWO OPPOSITELY CHARGED IONS - 7 __ electrovalent compound ie. calcium oxide with an ionic bond. a ' Calcium oxide (Con, of two valence electrons i - electro configuration -2,g 4 8,7 ~ electronic configuration -2 ATTAINMENT OF - Stable Electronic Configuration able electronic configuration of the nearest noble gas ~ Argp shell and becomes a positively chatgay BS ~ Neon, and becomes a negatively charg attract each other resulting in formation of the Alaa Electronic |Nearest noble] To attain stable electronic lconfiguration| gas configuration of nearest noble gas CALCIUM [metallic] 409Ca [2882] Argon [2,8,8]] Atom loses two electrons from: its valence she] OXYGEN [non-metallic] 16,0 [2,6] Neon [2,8] _ | Atom gains twoelectrons in its valence she|| FORMATION OF CALCIUM OXIDE= Represented by electron dot structure : Tonic equation ELECTRON DOT STRUCTURE Ca — 2e°> Ca2* foxidation] [atom] io y ese Bea foeay M9 [Cal + (20:17 4 cao © + 2e> O2- reduction} 2882) [26] [atom] [anion] Calcium Oxygen Calcium. (2,6) [28] atom atom oxide Ca + 0 9G2*025 Cad a [REFERENCE - Orbit structure [Recap of std IX] —7 Before combination Calcium atom [Ca] Oxygen atom 28,82 2,6 After combination [CaO compound] Calcium ion [ Ca2*} Oxide ion [02] 28,8 28 [0] 26Ae) trom), MAGNESIUM CHLORIDE - Formation on. 34, an as. 'y Wyo, SK Y cha ton, 10 ee 3TRUCTURE-Of Electrovalentcompound— Magnesium chloride[Contd.] «MAGNESIUM CHLORIDE - is formed as a result of — transfer of two valence electrons From one metallic magnesium atom 74,,Mg - electronic configuration - 2, 8,2 To two non-metallic chlorine atoms *°,,Cl__ - electronic configuration - 2,8, 7. ATTAINMENT OF - Stable Electronic Configuration MAGNESIUM ATOM - attains stable electronic configuration of the nearest noble gas ~ Neon. tively charged {by losing two electrons from its valence shell and becomes a posi | magnesium ion [cation] — Mg?* CHLORINE ATOM - attains stable electronic configuration of the nearest noble gas - Argon. by gaining one electron in its valence shell and becomes a negatively charged chloride ion [anion] — Cl-. TRANSFER OF ELECTRONS - Magnesium atom donates two electrons [is oxidised], hlorine ion. whereas chlorine atom accepts only one electron [is reduced] to give ¢ Thus to accept the other electron donated by ‘Mg’ atom, there must be another ‘Cl’ atom. * FORMATION OF COMPOUND - Therefore one magnesium atom will combine with - two chlorine atoms forming the electrovalent compound ~ magnesium chloride. FORMATION OF MAGNESIUM CHLORIDE-— Represented by electron dot structure : ELECTRON DOT STRUCTURE ] Tonic equation Mg —2e > Mg2* [oxidation] [atom] [cation] 8,2 2 a2] Pa] en. 3 [Mg]7"+ 2(:Ci:]" > MgCl et De > 2c [reduction] [atom] [anion] - 2871 288) poe ee i ignesium Chlorine Magnesium Mg + 2Cl> Mg? 2Cl > MgCly atom —_ atoms“ “ chloride [REFERENCE - Orbit structure [Recap of std. IX] Mg-atom a- Mg** me Before combination ‘After combination [MgCl, compound] 27E. COVALENT BONDING - Covalent compounds FORMATION OF — Covalent Compounds F. S1 * Formation of covalent com pounds ~ dng ltes sharing of electoou rales . I. stallic & another atom - a -mela between one atom - generally non-metallic zs N- ia Electrons in valence shell are mutually shared - by the atom of each element— such that each atom acquires a stable electronic configuration. Non-metallic atoms — having 7 valence electrons [or 1] -share - one pair of electrgp) RY Covalent compound Non-metallic atom — Non-metallicatom One shared a [single - covalent bond] (27) 7) 2,8] (2.8) Non-metallic atoms - having 6 valence electrons - share - two pairs of electrons Si Covalent compound Non-nielallicatom Non-metallicatom Two shared pairs [double - covalent bond} (26) [2,6] (28) (28) Non-metallic atoms - having 5 valence electrons - share - three pairs of electrons = v Covalent compound Non-metallicatom Non-metallic atom Three shared pairs [triple - covalent bond] [2.5] (2,5) [2,8] [2.8] Dissimilar non-metallic atoms - form Covalent molecules - by sharing electron pain, @ 2 ¥ &) re Covalent compound 1] (36) ty [2] [28] (2) {two single — covalent bonds} * Covalent bond — The chemical bond - formed due to mutual sharing of electrons — between the given pairs of atoms of rion-metallic elements. Bond formed by a shared pair of electrons, each bonding atom contributing one electron to the pz [depending on no. of electron pairs shared: bond is single [-], double [=], or triple [=] covalen| Covalent compound — The chemical compound - formed due to mutual sharing ofelectrons. between the given pairs of atoms thereby forming a covalent bond between them. * Covalency The number of electron pairs ~ which an atom shares with one or more atoms - of the same or different kind to achieve stable electronic configuration is called covalency, INON-POLAR COVALENT COMPOUNDS POLAR COVALENT COMPOUNDS * Covalent compounds are said tobe- | + Covalent compounds are said to be - non-polar when shared pair of electrons are -| polar when shared pair of electrons are - equally distributed between the two atoms. | _tmequally distributed between the two atoms. * No charge separation - takes place. * Charge separation - takes place. The covalent molecule is symmetrical and The atom which attracts electrons more = electrically neutral. strongly develops a - slight negative charge. 8 on Obs €.8; Hp, Cly, On, No, CHy CCI e.g, H,O, NHy, HCI The covalent bond in which electrons are shared. equally between the combining atoms is non polar covalent bond & when shared unequally is a polar covalent bon 28) atoms s mot ath H-C! WW Bales . STRUCTURE — Of Covalent compounds — Hydrogen, Chlorine HYDROGEN — Non-polar covalent compound Arai Electronic | Nearest To attain stable electronic configuration| noble gas configuration of nearest noble gas HYDROGEN | 1,H Helium [2] | Hydrogen needs - one electron to attain stable - duplet structure of nearest noble gas - Helium [2]. Each of the two ’H’ atoms contributes one electron soas tohave one shared pair of electrons between them. Both atoms attain stable - duplet structure, resulting in the - formation of a - single covalent bond [H-H] between them. FORMATION OF ~ HYDROGEN MOLECULE - Represented by electron dot structure: ELECTRON DOT STRUCTURE Before combination [H-atoms] After combination [Hy — molecule] H- + “HOO H: H or [H-H] > Hy H-atom H-atom One shared pair of electrons ~ Single covalent bond REFERENCE - Orbit structure [Recap of std. IX] | Oe) » S® Hatom Hatom Hydrogen molecule - CHLORINE — Non-polar covalent compound a Electronic | Nearest To attain stable electronic tom as " “5 ‘onfiguration| noble gas configuration of nearest noble gas CHLORINE | *,7Cl Argon Chlorine needs - one electron to attain stable — 28,7] 288] octetstructure ofnearestnoblegas- Argon|2,8,8] Each of the two ‘Cl’ atoms contributes one electron so as to have one shared pair of electrons between them. Both atoms attain stable - octet structure, resulting in the - formation of a - single covalent bond [ Cl- Cl] between them. FORMATION OF - CHLORINE MOLECULE - Represented by electron dot structure: ELECTRON DOT STRUCTURE Before combination [Cl - atoms] ‘After combination [Cl, - molecule] Cleese “cl > il: cli > © [cl-cl] > Ch Cl-atom Cl-atom One shared pair of electrons - Single covalent bond| REFERENCE - Orbit structure [Recap of std. IX] (oF : 49} zs Clatom Clatom Chlorine molecule 29STRUCTURE ~ of Covalent compounds — Ml Oxygen, Nitrogen [Cory OXYGEN - Non-polar covalent compound ss ST Atoin E rctronic Nearest To attain stable electronic v. configuration| noble gas configuration of nearest noble gas OXYGEN 16,0 Neon Oxygen needs ~ two electrons to attain Stak = 126) [28] Octet structure of nearest noble gas—Neon 2, * Eachofthetwo’O’ atomscontributes two electrons soas tohave two shared pairs Of elect, between them. Both atoms attain stable ~ octet structure, resulting in the - ‘ formation of a - double covalent bond. [O=O] between them, FORMATION OF - OXYGEN MOLECULE - Represented by electron dot structure ELECTRON DOT STRUCTURE Before combination [O-atoms] After combination (0, — molecule] 10: + : > 1:0: > [0-0] > g O-atom O-atom Two shared pair of electrons — Double covalent’ bong REFERENCE ~ Orbit structure [Recap of std. IX] OO — Oatom Oatom ‘Oxygen molecule - NITROGEN — Non-polar covalent compound noe Electronic | Nearest To attain stable electronic nfiguration| noble gas configuration of nearest noble gas Vi. NITROGEN | 14,N Neon Nitrogen needs - three electrons to attain stable (25) (28) Octet structure of nearest noble gas ~ Neon [2.8] * Eachof the two’N’ atoms contributes3 electrons soastohave three shared pair of electron; between them. Both atoms attain stable - octet structure, resulting in the - formation of a - triple covalent bond. [N=N] between them. FORMATION OF - NITROGEN MOLECULE - Represented by electron dot structure: ELECTRON DOT STRUCTURE Before combination [N - atoms] | After combination [No - molecule] | IN: + iN: > IN! iN: > [NEN] > Ny : Ne ‘Three shared pair of electrons -Triple covalent bond Nistoo stom, estan hens shell of each nitrogen atom ~ fare not involved in sharing, during formation of N> molecule) REFERENCE - Orbit structure [Recap of std. IX] Nitrogen mofeculeSTRUCTURE - Of Covalent compounds -— Carbon tetrachloride, Methane v. CARBON TETRACHLORIDE ~ Non-polar covalent compound Atom Electronic | Nearest To attain stable electronic configuration _noble gas configuration of nearest noble gas CARBON |12,C [2,4] |Neon [2,8] | Carbonneeds- fourelectronstoattain- stable octet. CHLORINE _|9°y7Cl [2,8,7]| Argon [28,8] Chlorineneeds-oneclectron toattain-stable octet. + One atom of carbon - shares four electron pairs — one with each of the four atoms of chlorine. FORMATION OF - CARBON TETRACHLORIDE MOLECULE - Represented by electron dot structure: ELECTRON DOT STRUCTURE Before combination [ 4 [Cl] and 1 [C] atom] ‘After combination [CCly - molecule] ; a T Cl-C-Cl > CCly are —a aie Four single - = eae covalent bonds REFERENCE - Orbit structure __ [Recap of std. IX] Clatom Clatom OOO Clatom =<, (©) craton Carbon tetrachloride molecule VI. METHANE — Non-polar covalent compound a Electronic | Nearest To attain stable electronic configuration| noble gas configuration of nearest noble gas CARBON |12,C — [2,4]| Neon [2,8] | Carbonneeds -fourelectronsto attain - stable octet. HYDROGEN |1,H___[1] | Helium [2] | Hydrogenneeds-oneelectrontoattain-stableduplet. * One atom of carbon - shares four electron pairs — one with each of the four atoms of hydrogen. FORMATION OF - METHANE MOLECULE - Represented by electron dot structure: ELECTRON DOT STRUCTURE Before combination [ 4 [H] and 1 [C] atom] | After combination [CH - methane molecule] Ee H a i : H-C-H He +x Cx +eH > HexCx*H or nf if ey Four single ~ covalent bondsI STRUCTURE - Of Covalent compounds ~ Water, Ammonia [Co, Vil. WATER — Polar covalent compound * Aten Electronic | Nearest To attain stable electronic @1Co configuration| noble g configuration of nearest noble yay THE HYDROGEN | 1,4 [1] Helium [2] Hydrogenneeds-oneeleetrontoattain—stabjage . ra 6.0 12 u OXYGEN | "6,0 [2,6] | Neon [2,8] Oxygy Needs - Kuo electrons toattain - stably, Each of the two hydrogen atoms shares an el such that hydrogen acquires a - duplet configuration and oxygen an octet configuration resulting in formation of- tivo single covalent bonds [H-O-H) in the molecule ae Water. FORMATION OF - WATER MOLECULE - Represented by electron dot ELECTRON DO’ UCTURE Before combinal lectron pair with the oxygen atom ~ ~ [ ictury ter combination [Water molecaly Hx + OH > HIQTH or — H-O-H_ 5 Hg H-atom O-atom H-atom Two single ~ covalent bong c REFERENCE - Orbit structure [Recap of std. IX] =e {@}@) = ‘€Lone pair of electrery Hatom Oatom Hatom Water molecule VIIl_ AMMONIA — Polar covalent compound ie Electronic | Nearest To attain stable electronic om _|configuration, noble gas configuration of nearest noble gas NITROGEN |™5N [2,5] [Neon [28] Nitrogenneeds- threeelectronstoattain-stableoca HYDROGEN |1,H__[1]__| Helium [2] | Hydrogen needs-oneelectron toattain-stabledupl, * One atom of nitrogen shares three electron pairs one with each of the Hiree atoms of hydroga FORMATION OF - AMMONIA MOLECULE - Represented by electron dot structure: ELECTRON DOT STRUCTURE Before combination [3 [H] and 1 [N] atom] | After combination [NH - ammonia molecu] H H + x H+ xNx eH or He+ xNx ++H —> xx eae [lone pair} @) (© fe) € Lone pair of electro REFERENCE ~ Orbit structure [Recap of std. IX] 32G. COORDINATE BOND — Formation of H30* & NH4* ion THE LONE PAIR EFFECT - Of oxygen atom of Water & nitrogen atom of Ammonia + FORMATION - Of Water Molecule ~ Lone pair effect of the oxygen atom of water molecule IN THE MOLECULE OF WATER ~ H y, WATER Oxygen atom has - + xH > H x03 MOLECULE mye ee « Two lone pairs of electrons. « FORMATION- Of Ammonia Molecile-Lone pair effect of the nitrogenatom ofammonia molecule ie IN THE MOLECULE OF AMMONIA ~ + H AMMONIA _ Nitrogen atom has- : Xe Hx + ‘N’ + xH > HxNSH Lone pair of electrons ~ are a pair of electrons not shared with any other atom. |. FORMATION ~ Of Hydronium ion [H,0]* & Hydroxyl [OH] ions - In water MOLECULE + One lone pair of electrons. | \ oa =a cara Xe me Hx0@ + H* 5) Hx. & I (- ld sh} or |H-O5H} | yxog > {1x83} + Ht 2 lone pair lone pair ‘Water molecule Hydrogen ion HYDRONIUM ION. Water molecule HYDROXYL ION H,0 + Hit > H,0+ H,O > OH’ +HIt From acid Hydronium ion [stable positive fon] Hydroxyl ion “Addition of acid [HC - polar covalent] to water [polar solvent] results in release of hydrogen ion [H1™] from the acid M = He = Cla Hydrogen CHloride QE) Water(QP) Hydrogen ion Chloride ion + Inwater- the ‘O’ atom contains two lone pairs of electrons after completing its octet. + The hydrogen ion ~ accepts one lone pair of electrons of the oxygen atom of water mol- ecule leading to formation of a coordinate covalent bond. [- oon) ) Ne « FORMATION - Of Ammonium ion -NH4y* H H ic H if d x ux No + Hit > | HeNeH | or | H-NOH | + onf H i H Ammonia molecule ‘Hydrogen ion AMMONIUM ION NH + Hit > NHJ+ + OH! = NH,OH Ammonia gas From water molecule Ammoniumion Hydroxyl ion + Ammonia - dissolves in water [polar solvent] leading to formation of - ammonium ion. + Inammonia-the‘N’ atom contains one lone pair of electrons after completing its octet. + The hydrogen ion - from water - accepts the lone pair of electrons of the nitrogen atom ofammonia molecule, leading to formation of a coordinate covalent bond. byoH] COORDINATE BOND [= Typeofcovalency which involves oneofthecombiningatoms contributing both of theshared electrons. = ie.abond formed by a shared pair of electrons with both electrons coming from the same atom. {Ithas properties of both ionic & covalent bonds & is also called as - dative or co-ionic bond.] Compounds containing -Electrovalent & Covalent bond: Na[O-H], CaCO; : Covalent & Coordinate bond: C=O, [H-O-N=O] NaOH) Ht co] unos t Tonic, covalent & coordinate bond- NHClie.JH-NH} Cl, Ky [Fe(CN)gl H 33H. PROPERTIES & COMPA ELECTROVALENT [IONIC] CO! 1. STATE - Bonding ~ electrovalent + Existence - Crystalline hand: solids = Los [rnetalic, normnetallic) « Constituent Units + Force of attraction ~ Strong Electrostatic forces exist between ~ ions. ‘ J particles which attract RISON-~Electrovalent &C POUNDS _| fan] COVALENT COMPOUNDS ~ Bonding, - covalent once - Gases, liquids or soft soliq, * Constituent Units = Molecules * Force of attraction = Weak Van der Waal’s forces exist between -molecyl. REASON: Molecules have weak forces 4 ion between them & hence covale, REASON: Ions [ars a ie fone another to form electrovalent compounds) =) 4 areclosel packed withstrong force of attraction, compounds are gaseous [if molecules are by hence ionic compounds are - hard solids. & liquid or soft solids [if molecules are ren 2. VOLATILITY 2. VOLATILITY + Volatile * Non-volatile | “"! 3. MELTING & BOILING POINT {gh melting point and Hrigh boiling point. (REASON: Strong clectrostaticforce of attraction) between ions. Large amount of energy ~ required to break the force of attraction, 4. CONDUCTION OF HEAT * Good ~ conductors of heat 5, CONDUCTION OF ELECTRICITY * Solid state - Non-conductors + Molten or aq. soln. state ~ Good conductors REASON: Strong electrostatic force keeps ions in fixed position in the - solid state,, The force is weakened in the molten state &| disappears insoln. state, hence freeions formed migrate to - oppositely charged electrodes, 6. ELECTROLYSIS * Can-be electrolysed in molten/aq, soln. state. On electrolysis the ions being charged are attracted towards the respective electrodes. 7. SOLUBILITY * Soluble - in water * Insoluble - in organic solvents. REASON: Water [polar solvent] has a high dielectric constant i.e. capacity to weaken the| force of attraction, thus resulting in free ions. Organicsolvents [non-polar] havelow dielectric} constants and do not cause dissolution. 3. MELTING & BOILING POINT * Low melting point and low boiling poirg REASON: Weak Vander Waals force of attractcg, between molecules. Less amount of energy. required to break the force of attraction. 4, CONDUCTION OF HEAT * Bad or non-conductors of heat 5. CONDUCTION OF ELECTRICITY = Gaseous or liquid state - Non-conducton * Soft solid state - Non-conductors REASON: Non-polar covalent compounds eg CCI, contain molecules & not free ions, henge are non-conductors. Polar covalen, compounds e.g. HCl, NH3 show: charge separation & dissociate in HO [polar solvent, 6. ELECTROLYSIS * Cannot - be electrolysed in normal state In soln, state, polar covalent compounds | undergo electrolysis. e.g. HCl & NH gas. 7. SOLUBILITY x * Soluble - in organic solvents [non-polar] + Insoluble - in water [polar] REASON: Organic solvents [non-polar]| e.g. benzene, alcohol, dissolve non-polar covalent compounds [like dissolves like]. | Water[polarsolvent}cannotdissolvenon-polar covalent compounds, but dissolves polar. | 8, REACTIONS + Undergo - high speed ionic reactions. REASON : Free ions easily formed in solution, - = rapidly regroup in solution. 9. DISSOCIATION ~~~ + Undergoes electrolytic dissociation - on passage of electric current. Process involves ~ separation of ions already present in the ionic compound. e.g, NaCl == Na!+ + Cl!- [in molten state) 34 8. REACTIONS * Undergo - slow speed molecular reactions, REASON: Covalent molecules are first broken & new bonds are — slowly established. 9. IONISATION + Undergoes ionisation - insolutionstate on passage of electriccurrent. Process involves - formation of ions from molecules which are not in ionic state. e.g. HCl —> H}* + Cl) [in solution state] ovalent compoun,a SUMMARY CHART — Structure of Electrovalent & Covalent Compounds 7, Blectrovalent - Sodium Chloride 2. Electrovalent - Calcium Oxide ELECTRON DOT STRUCTURE ELECTRON DOT STRUCTURE _| oN che 5 2 pean ae Na“ +8 > NaCl CaGXO: > [Cal” + [50:1 > C20 87] psa) 2871 l288.2} (206) sodium Chlorine Sodium! Calcium Oxygen Cale atom atom chloride| ‘atom atom oxide J Blecrovalent ~ Magnesium chloride Mg: ci: 1282] [287] Magnesium Chlorine atom ELECTRON DOT STRUCTURE \@. Covalent - Hydrogen Covalent - Chlorine 6. Covalent - Nitrogen H+ cH ier OCI Bg. G8 H-atom H-atom Glatom=S”, Cl-atom N-atom Neato H:H_ or [H-H] ! Cli > [cl-cl] : INI > [NEN] L { 2 Ch Np ) 7, Covalent - Carbon tetrachloride 8, Covalent - Methane H H etre eT S 5 nbn $x Cx Ch 9: Cx OCLC-C19CCUl] He +xCxtH > Hex GxeH or 8 x ie x * H E Four single at Four single ~ covalent bonds covalent bonds { H*6*H or H-O-H| H 9,_ Covalent - Water fio. Covalent-Ammonia __|[11. Covalent - HCl He + -O- + oH e Hx + H-atom = O-atom H-atom H-atom | Cl-atom < : H x \ 10 Hs «Nx +H of H-N-H [vo lone pairs} Two single|| [One lone pair] Three single One single Inwater covalent bonds in.ammonia covalent bonds covalent bond Hx-Ci: or H-Cl 3595 ——————— QUESTIONS —______—- aud. A: Hight mp. D: Conducts electricity when ine itis ot a aracteritic electron ve posh onpoaniy changed one Ds vat in Water Bat why CCI arent etal py 2 Sitetheltrne defined ineach ease A bund! formed by =a] a shared pai of electrons tach bonding ator coe Rerum to Ue fulr bashed puirof electrons with bot electrons coming, from the sarrwealorn. [py one 2009 ye one which is composed of all the three kinds of bond [ionic, covalent and corodinate bond) is ease a it anide Bf Ammonia Cc] Carbon tetrachi aT coonlum chloride j 2. Draw the structural formula of carbon tetrachloride & state the type of bond present in it 201 : 1. Select the correct answer from A, B, C & D-Metals lose electrons during ionization - this change A: Oxidation B: Reduction “C:Redox _D: Displacement ff 2 Siccttheitht answer trom the choices ~ covalent bond/ ionic bond /covalent é& coordinate eRe ann on i] Sodium chlorife hi Ammonuan ion i Carbon tetrachloride. [pg Incovakento nds thebondisformed dueto__ [sharing transfer] of electrons i] Blectrovalent compounds a usftatgpt Armee cian fuer ane | oe mt [Peay [peas Damour cocinn ch dangnete showing the lone pairelfet for formation of = NH,}*ion from NE pas fet Give reasons - Hydrogen chionde can be termed as a polar covalent compound. 2 *: ‘ van electron dot diagram ofthe structure of - hydronium ion, State the type of bonding present in it. [pp-x Draw an electron dot diagrams of te th ateanic numbers 19,8 & 17 respectively, Givethe molecular heed of the compound formed between E & G & state the type of chemical bond in this compound. [pg 3 ‘A dhemiaal term for: A bond formed by a shared pair of electrons with both electrons coming from the same atom. [py > ‘Among the Compounds identify he compound that has all three bonds (late covalent & coordinate fr A: Ammonia ib Ammonium chloride C: Sodium hydroxide D: Calcium chloride : pets State which isnot a typical property of an onic compound. A: High mp, B: Conducts electricity in molten fe, theag. soln state. C: Are insoluble in water. D: Exist as op; charged ions even in the solid state. [pss Compare carbon ietrachlonde & sodium chloride with regard to solubility in water & electrical conductivity. {pe Compound ‘X’ consists of only molecules. *X’ will have= A: Crystalline hard structure [ps3 Alow mp. &low b.p. C: Anionic bond D: A strong force of attraction between its molecules. >) ‘The molecule which contains a triple covalent bond is: A’ ammonia B: methane C: water D: nitrogen fe 24 Reg PPger Hg pe > 8 2 ry Give word/phrase for: Formation of ions from molecales, = Give a reason why covalent compounds exist as gases, liquids or soft solids. 5 Bonding in which — _A:CCly_B: Hy; C:HCl;_D: NH,Cl — involves coordinate bonding. [pg.33, 23) Give scientific rea: ‘arbon tetrachforide does not condi pe 34, (31) lai in methane molecule using electron dot structure. 331) ‘Aftelement L consists of molecules i] What type 6f bonding is present in the particles that make up L[pz34| ii] When Lis heated with iron metal, it forms a compound FeL. What chemical term would you teen describe the change undergone by L. Ipg.24, 61 13)) Fill in the blanks from the choices given: Electrovalent compounds have __[higi/low] melting points. [pe34) Flementec WY BeZ have check onic cond eon a ex Lyon melting points [ps3 i), What type of bond is formed between: ] W 4 X by &Z ii] What is the formula of the compound formed between: a] X & Z__b] W& X bs Iraw an electron dot diagram to show the formation of ammonium ion [N=7, H=1] Filin te Hank— The: that des not hae alone pir ofectronsis_, [water, ammonia carbon tetra chloride] State which of the following is a common eimai of. age conpouid. A. High male neg RE Re eta B. Consists of molecules C. Always soluble in water D. Condi itis in the molten state Blate the type of bonding in the following molecules — i] Water; ii] Calcium oxide [pg 3225) Draw an électron dot diagram to show the formation of each of the following compounds — Methane i] Magnesium chloride [H=1, C= 6, Mg = 12, Cl = 17] [pg31.2] Phrase for - Process of formation of ions from molecules which are not in the ionic state. [p23 Give a reason for Tonic compounds havea high melting, pointe 3 the blank with the correct choice given in the bracket ~ Ionic or electrovalent compounds dere conduct electricity in their state. [fused/solid) | Sine thememiig of “lone pairof electrons’ Draw Ines dt diag of Hydronium ion. (H1=1; 0-434 Give th fate term for: The in whic rT te {Se epi Tee oir hens opal been trecoing ams 20 i] Nitrogen molecule [N=7]; ii] Sodium chloride (Na=11, Cl=17]; iii] Ammonium ion IN=7, H=1) [pg.30, 25, 33]| + Choose the correct answer from the options given: A compound with low boilin, rint, is: [pg A Sodluex chlonde Be Coleen: 4 compoun ' iden 2. Give one word ora phrase for: The chemical bond formed by s shared pair of sean Sek oS ata contributing one el to the pair. 3. Fiilin the biks rome choles dens The i ie thed fe ge The polar cvalentcompoundlin eousstatethat doesnot oxi elect Ips. ESS HST TE ae A ac na np ae Se Pepe Png mom Si ie i gADDITIONAL QUESTIONS——————__) State the force which holds two or more atoms together as a stable molecule, Draw the geometrical atomic structure representing the electronic configuration of atoms of elements of a] Period-2 i} group 14[IVA]-carbon [at.no. 6) _ ii] group 15[VA] -nitrogen [at.no.7] iii] group 16[VIA] - oxygen at. no. 8] b) Period-3__i] group 1[IA] - sodium [at.no. 11] ii) group 2{IIA] - magnesium fat. no. 12) iii] group 17[VIIA] - chlorine fat. no. 17] ¢} Period-4 group 2{I1A] - calcium [at. no. 20). What is meant by the term ‘chemical bond’ and ‘chemical bonding’ State why noble gases are unreactive while atoms of elements other than noble gases are chemically reactive. State the reasons for chemical bonding between two atoms and the methods involved for achieving the same. State how ‘duplet and octet’ rules are involved for an atom to achieve stable electronic config State the type of compounds formed by transfer of valence electrons from one atom to another, and explain the method of formation of the same. State the role of ‘cations’ and ‘anions’ in their formation. Define the terms i] Electrovalent or ionic bond ii] Electrovalent or ionic compound. What is meant by the term ‘electrovalency’. State why Na [at. no. 11] has a electropositive valency of +1 and Cl [at. no. 17] an electronegative valency of -1 State three differences between ‘X’ and ‘X1*’ i.e, an atom and an ion. |. Explain the terms ‘oxidation’ and ‘reduction’ with reference to an atom or ion. State which of the following are oxidation reactions and which are reduction reactions: a} i] Cu> Cu +20" ii] Cu +2e-> Cu iii] Snf+ + 2e- > Sn? iv] 2G > Cy + 2 v] Fett > Fe3+ + le" vi] X + 2e- > X2 vii] Y - 1e- > YI viii] Z3+ + 1e~ 3 2 b] i) Zn Zn? ii] S> Se iii] Sn?* > Sn iv) Fe > Fe3+ Explain with the help of i] an ionic equation ii] electron dot structural diagram - the formation of the following: a] Sodium chloride b] Calcium oxide c] Magnesium chloride. fat. nos. Na=11, CI=17, Ca=20, . Fill in the blanks with the appropriate word/s from the brackets. i] _NaClanelectrovalent compounds is formed aé a result of transfer of. [one, two, three] valence electrons from metallic sodium to non-metallic chlorine atom. CaO is similarly formed as a result oftransfer of. {one, two, three] valence electron/s from metalliccalcium tonon-metallicoxygen and magnesium chloride by transfer of [one, two, three] valence electron/s from ——— , Mg=12]. [one, two] magnesium atom/s to one, two] chlorine atom/s. ii] Covalent compounds are formed by sharing electron pairs between non-melallic atoms, Non-metallic atoms having —, —, — valence electrons (4, 5, 6, 7] share one, two or three pairs of electrons respectively. . Define or explain the terms- i] covalent or molecular bond ii] covalent or molecular compound iii] Covalency iv] Shared pair of electrons 3. Give two differences between the covalent compounds ~ methane [non-polar] and HCI [polar]. Explain with the help of- electron dot diagrams ~ the formation of the following molecules, stating the valency of each element involved. a]Hydrogen b]Chlorine c]Oxygen dJNitrogen e]Water f]Methane g] Carbon tetrachloride h] Ammonia i] Carbon dioxide [at. nos. H=1, C=6, N=7, O=8, CI=17]. V: Give reasons for the following: i] Molecules of hydrogen and chlorine have single covalent bonds between their atoms while oxygen has a double covalent and nitrogen a triple covalent bond respectively. ii] A molecule of methane has four single covalent bonds. iii] Formation of ammonia involves: one atom of nitrogen sharing three electron pairs one with| each of the three atoms of hydrogen. Explain the terms a] Lone par of electors b] Coordinate bond, Explain diagrammatically the lone pir eet of a] The nitrogen atom of the ammonia molecule leading to the formation of ammonium ions b] The oxygen atom of the HO molecule leading to formation of hydronium [H0]* & hydroxyl ions [OH]- [45° Give reasons for the following: Electrovalent compounds are soluble in water, insoluble in organic solvents, good conductors of electricity in molten or aq, solution state, have high melting points and undergo electrolytic dissociation on of electric current, while covalent compounds are soluble in organic solvents, insoluble in water, non-conductors of electricity, have low melting points & undergo ionisation on passage of electric current. 37_——— UNIT TEST PAPER 2 - Chemical pare: Q.1 Give reasons for the following: ; 1. NH gasa covalent compound does not conduct. electricity but its aq. soln. NHjOH is a weak’ electroly| MgQh is soluble in water but insoluble in acetone, while methane is insoluble in water, but soluble in act Ds 3, Iron displaces copper from a solution of a copper salt. The reaction is deemed as a redox reaction | 4. Anon-metallic atom [at. no. 9] forms a molecule of the same, containing a single covalent bond, 5, Inthe formation of MgO the magnesium atom [at. no. 12] loses two electrons from its valence shey| }Q.2 With reference toa molecule of water, ill in the blanks with the correct word. [at.no. of H=1, O=8] jy Waterisa = [non-polar/ polar] covalent molecule in which the atom of ———— || [hydrogen/oxygen] attracts electrons more strongly towards itself. The water molecule shows the Pe [double/one single/tw9 single] covalent bond/s and __[one/tvg ence of lone pair of electrons present in the [hydrogen/oxygen] atom. Q3 Complete the table given below: 8 Element Element Type of bond likely in molecule of | Formula of compound A:At.no.=20 CQ) B:Atno.=8° | AandB Olodnduadam’ | COO A:At.no.=20;¢0| C:Atno.=1704) AandcC Obilxnglant oe D: At.no.=9 © D:At.no.=9F | DandD uatomk an E: At.no.=12"9 F:Atno.=16 S| Eand Foleo adam] Mons G:At.no.=1 }} FAtno.=16 5] GaniF couola a HS _| 1Q4 Fill in the blanks with the correct word from the brackets: 1. Thebond between two elements in group 17{VIIA] of the periodic table is likely to be ee 2. Inthe reaction of Cl, + 2KI>2KCI + the conversion of 2I to I, is deemed as___[oxidition/ reduction} 3. The covalent molecule containing three single covalent bonds is [water / methane / arttmonia]. e 4. The molecule of water combines with a hydrogen molecule] to form a hydronium ion. 5. For formation of an electrovalent bond between elements ‘X’ and ‘Y’ which are a metal and non! metal respectively, X should have a [high/10] ionization potential and ‘Y’ a [high/low] electron affinity. [hydrogen atom / prifon/ |Q.5 Electronic configuration of the following elements are given: 5 1, Sodium - Na = 281 2. Hydrogen - H = 1 3. Carbon - C = 24 4. Chlorine - Cl = 287 5. Lithium - Li = 21 State which of the compounds given below : a] have high/low boiling points, _b] _are soluble/insoluble in organic solvents. A: Hydrogen chloride. B: Sodium chloride. Sodium hydride, D: Lithium chloride. _E;_ Carbon tetrachloride. Q.6 A compound has a formula = “H,Y”. Y denotes a non-metal. State the following : 5) 1. The electronic configuration of Y. 2. The valency of Y. 3. The bonding present in HY’. jj 4. The bonding present in the compound formed between potassium [3%9K] and ‘Y’. | 5._ The formula of the compound formed between calcium [4y9Ca] and Y. ES) "' 38