ROLLING

Four-High Rolling Mills

Bulk Deformation Processes It uses two smaller diameter rolls to contact the work
- accomplish significant shape change in metal and two backing rolls behind them
parts; Initial Form: Bulk
- work by stressing metal sufficiently.
- performed as cold or hot working operations.
- intended to:
- refine the starting shapes
- improve mechanical properties
Cluster Rolling Mills
- add commercial value
The larger number of backup rolls provided becomes
necessary as the backup rolls cannot exceed the diameter
Rolling
of working rolls by more than 2-3 times.
- metal-forming operation.
- consists of passing a piece of metal between two
rolls.
- a reduction in thickness results from
compressive stresses exerted by the rolls.
- most widely used deformation process.
- can be carried out in hot or cold condition Tandem Rolling Mills
Consists of a number of non-reversing two-high rolling
Two Types: mills one after another so that the material can be passed
Hot rolling - above recrystallization temp. through them all in order.
Cold Rolling- below recrystallization temp.

Working Principle
1. Starting Raw Material Ingot.
2. Cross-section decreases Length gets elongated
HOT ROLLING
VTot remains the same.
- roll pressing the metal at a very high
temperature.
Rolling Mills
- Above the recrystallization temperature –
- Rolling mills are used to perform rolling
usually over 1700°F or 926.6667°C.
processes. These machines are available in
- Consequently, the metal becomes workable and
different shapes and sizes according to the
ductile.
requirements of the process.
- Starting Metal: steel billets or slabs
- Steps:
Two-High Rolling Mills
1. Metal heated above the recrystallization temp.
Reversing- It allows the direction of roll rotation to be
2. Feeding metal to the rolling machinery.
reversed, so that the work can be passed through in
either direction.
Initially, the metal is:
Non-reversing- The rolls always rotate in the same
NON-UNIFORM GRAIN STRUCTURE
direction, and the work always passes through from the
● Brittle
same side.
● Shrinkage cavities
● Porosity caused by gases
Three-High Rolling Mills
To achieve a series of reductions, the work can be passed
through from either side by raising or lowering the strip
after each pass.
→
After rolling:
Uniform Grain Structure
● toughness and strength
● ductility
● formability
IDENTIFY A HOT ROLLED METAL:
● Scaly Surface Finish
● Rounded Edge
● Non-oily Surface
Adv:
● It requires less processing.
● It accommodates a wider range of sizes and
shapes.
Disadv:
● Poor finish and poor dimensional accuracy.
Hot Rolling Use
Where:
● Specific dimensions aren’t crucial.
● Surface finish isn’t a key concern.
Applications
● Guard Rails
● RailRoad Tracks
● I-Beams
COLD ROLLING
- Below the recrystallization temperature at 25°C
or above)
- Further flattening of hot-rolled products
- Low C steel, Titanium, Aluminum, and Nickel
alloys
- Accompanied by Strain Hardening
Process:
1. From sheet metal or strip coil
2. Compressed down and squeezed it under high
pressure just below its ultimate tensile strength.
3. Annealed for Manufacturing other products.
Incoming coil → Roll → Anneal → Slit → Package
Further thickness reduction is accompanied by enhanced
mechanical properties and hardness properties.
Cold Rolling Use
Where:
● Specific dimensions are crucial
● Surface finish is a key concern
● Enhanced mechanical properties are needed
Applications:
● Machine Parts
● Automotive Components
● Axles
Adv:
1. Easier to Handle and economical for smaller sizes
2. No oxide formation
3. Good Surface Finish
4. Better Dimensional accuracy
5. Increases strength and hardness by strain hardening
Disadv:
1. Relies on capability of rollers used
2. Strain hardening limits the maximum deformation
3. Brittle materials cannot be cold worked
CLASSIFICATION OF ROLLING PROCESS
Flat Rolling
Used to reduce the thickness of a rectangular cross
section.
Shape Rolling
The work is deformed into a contoured cross section.
Two very common examples of continuous shape rolled
product are the I-beam and rail for railroad track.

Thread Rolling
Thread rolling is used to form threads on cylindrical
parts by rolling them between two dies.
IDENTIFY A COLD ROLLED STEEL:
● Smooth Surface
● Sharp Edges
● Oily and Greasy Finish

Ring Rolling
Ring rolling is a deformation process in which a
thick-walled ring of smaller diameter is rolled into a
thinner-walled ring of larger diameter.
Gear Rolling
Gear rolling is a cold working process to produce gears.
Roll Piercing
Roll piercing is a specialized hot working process for
making seamless thick-walled tubes.
ROLLING DEFECTS
Two Types
1. Surface Rolling Defects
Provided from impurities and inclusion in the material
surface.
Provided from impurities and inclusion in the material
surface.
2. Internal Structural Rolling Defects
Types:
1. Wavy- The occurrence of fibers at the edge, which are
longer than those at the center. This occurs when
concave rolls bend leading to elastic deformations.
Certain cases:
1. For the imperfection of the roll gaps, variation occurs
on the rolling sheets.
2. If the thickness varies and along with that volume and
width are constant, then the center is shorter than the
edges. But the body is continuous.
3. Then the edges portions are in the compression and
the center portion is the tension.
Remedies:
1. Hydraulic jacks
2. Small diameter rolls
2. Zipper Cracks (Center of Strip - occur due to the
bending of rolls under the high rolling pressure. It causes
compressive stress in the edges and tensile stress in the
center.
Remedy:
1. Provide a camber to the rolls
2. Camber - They are made slightly convex in the central
portion to offset the effect of deflection under rolling
loads.
3. Edge Crack- This phenomenon occurs from
secondary tensile stresses induced at the workpiece
surfaces. These cracks result from factors such as
uneven heating, uneven rolling, or excess quenching.
Origin defects are:
● Strip edges are cooled with excess water.
● Un-flatness leading to water carryover.
Remedies:
● Trimming operation.
● Roller leveling or stretch leveling under tension
using edge rolls.

4. Alligator Crack- Is a type of cracking where the
metal has any inclusions or weakness of metallurgy that
causes a factor in the strip. Majorly due to the
nonhomogeneous flow of materials across the sheet
thickness.
Remedy:
Cambering of rolls is one of the most common solutions
to alligator cracking.
OTHER DEFECTS:
1. Center Buckling - occurs due to the self-equilibrating
residual stresses. Sideways deflection of a structural
member perfectly explains center buckling.
Remedy: crowned rolls is a solution to center buckling
2. Bad leveling- Length of the fibers increase from one
edge to the other.
3. Hydrogen Crack- Due to the presence of hydrogen in
excess, internal cracks appear through the cross section
during rolling and cannot be used. It is a major problem
with alloy steels especially.
4. Non-metallic Inclusion- During the preparation of
the molten metal non-metallic like oxides, nitrides,
silicates enter the melt and remain as such in the solid
metal.
- are discontinuities in the metal and reduce the
properties of the metal. On rolling they may result in
cracks which may reach a critical value and make the
product rejectable.
FORGING
Forging
- The act of shaping metal by hammering or
pressing.
- These compressive forces are delivered with a
hammer or die. It is often categorized according
to the temperature at which it is
performed—cold or hot forging.
- Forging is done in special molds called “dies”.
- The forging process can produce parts with
superb mechanical properties (giving it higher
fatigue resistance and strength ) with minimum
waste.
- It is one of the oldest known metalworking
processes. Traditionally, forging was performed
by using a hammer and anvil.
Forging Processes
Upsetting (MAJOR PROCESS
- manufacturing process that plastically deforms
metal under great pressure into high strength
components of varying sizes. This forging
process is ideal for longer shapes where only
one end of a part needs to be forged.
Edging
- Use the ends of the bars to shape the metal.
- The metal flow is in horizontal direction to fill
the die.
- Ends of the bar are shaped to requirement using
edging dies.
Fullering
- Cross sectional area of the work is reduced.
- The metal flow is outward and away from the
center of the fuller.

Drawing (MAJOR PROCESS)
- Cross sectional area of the work piece is reduced
with a corresponding increase of its length.
- It is done using convex dies.
Piercing and Punching
- Metal flows around the die cavity as a moving
die pierces the metal.
- It is a cutting operation in which a required hole
is produced using a punching die
PIERCE:
PUNCH:
Swaging
- Cross sectional area of the bar is reduced using
concave dies.
- A special type of forging in which metal is
formed by a succession of rapid hammer blows.
Die Material
- alloyed steels (with Cr, Mo, W, V , tool steels,
cast steels or cast iron.
1. Carbon steels with 0.7-0.85 C are appropriate for
small tools and flat impressions.
2. Medium-alloyed tool steels for hammer dies.
3. Highly alloyed steels for high temperature resistant
dies used in presses and horizontal forging machines.
Thermal shock resistance Thermal fatigue resistance
High temperature strength High wear resistance
High toughness and ductility High hardenability
High dimensional stability during hardening
High machinability
CLASSIFICATION BY TEMPERATURE
Cold forging
- A forging type process performed at room
temperature or near room temp.
- No use of furnace to heat the workpiece
- Less Costly
- Carbon and standard alloy steels are most
commonly cold forged.
- Cold forging is also less susceptible to
contamination problems, and the final
component features a better overall surface.
Adv: Production rates are very high with exceptional die
life, Improves mechanical properties, Less friction
between die surface and work piece, Lubrication is easy,
No oxidation.
Disadv: Residual stress may occur, Heavier and more
powerful equipment is needed, stronger tooling is
required, Tool design and manufacturing are critical.
Hot Forging
- performed at extremely high temperature up to
1150 °C for steel 360-520 °C for al-alloys
700-800 °C for CU-alloys
- presence of strain hardening problem while
deforming the workpiece
Adv: High strain rates and hence easy flow of the metal,
recrystallization and recovery are possible, forces
required are less.
Disadv: Lubrication is difficult at high temperatures,
oxidation and scaling occur on the work piece, poor
surface finish, less precise tolerances, possible warping
of the material during the cooling process
CLASSIFICATION BY PROCESS CLASSIFICATION BY EQUIPMENT
Open-Die Forging Forging Hammers/Drop Hammer
- is carried out between flat dies or dies of very
simple shape. Drop hammer
- The process is used for mostly large objects or • Load rating: 12,250 kN
when the number of parts produced is small. • Energy per blow: 1.6 kJ
- Open-die forging is often used to preform the
workpiece for closed-die forging. Screw Press
- Skill-dependent, lesser accuracy but less • Load rating: 12,250 kN
expensive and simple tooling. • Energy per blow: 8 kJ
- Upsetting, Cogging, Fullering, Edging, Swaging
Adv: Reduced chance of voids Better fatigue resistance Crank Press
Improved microstructure Continuous grain flow Finer • Load rating: 12,250 kN
grain size Greater strength. • Energy per blow: 20 kJ

Closed-die forging Hydraulic Press

- The workpiece is deformed between two die
halves which carry the impressions of the
desired final shape.
- performed with dies that contain the inverse of
the desired shape of the part.
- The workpiece is deformed under high pressure
in a closed cavity.
- The process provides precision forging with
close dimensional tolerance.
- Closed dies are expensive.
Types:
Conventional
- With flash: Acts as a ‘safety value’ for excess
metal. Builds up high pressure to ensure that the
metal fills all recesses of the die cavity.
• Load rating: 12,250 kN
• Energy per blow: 200 kJ
Board Hammer
- The blow energy supplied is equal to the
potential energy due to the weight and the
height of the fall.
- This energy will be delivered to the metal
workpiece to produce plastic deformation.
- Provide rapid impact to the surface of the
metal.
- Energy is absorbed onto the metal, in which the
maximum impact on the metal surface.
- Dies: Expensive, accurately machined
Power Hammer
- The total energy supplied to the blow in a power
drop hammer is given by:
𝑊=1/2 𝑚𝑣2+𝑝𝐴H

Flashless Forging
- true closed-die forging
- imposes requirements on process control that are
more demanding than impression- die forging.
- best to part geometries that are simple and
symmetrical
Press vs Hammer
Press - No heavy blows, intense presses. Squeezed
slowly to penetrate deeply.
Press forging can change the shape and interior of the
workpiece simultaneously, whereas hammer forging
changes the surface only.
Press forging has greater control over the workpiece.
Hydraulic Presses
- load-restricted machines in which hydraulic
pressure moves a piston in a cylinder.
- The full press load is available at any point
during the full stroke of the ram. Therefore,
hydraulic presses are ideally suited for
extrusion-type forging operation.
- Due to slow speed, contact time is longer at the
die-metal interface which causes problems such
 as heat lost from workpiece and die
deterioration.
- Provide close-tolerance forging.
- Hydraulic presses are more expensive than
mechanical presses and hammers

Mechanical Press Forging

- Crank press translates rotary motion into
reciprocating linear motion of the press slide.
- Ram stroke shorter than in hammer/hydraulic.
- Blow press = more like squeeze; dies = less
massive and has longer life span
Typical values of velocity for different forging
equipment
FORGING DEFECTS
Unfilled Sections
- This type of forging defects left some portions
unfilled.
Cause: poor design of die, less raw material,
poor forging techniques and poor heating.
Remedy: proper care must be taken on the die
design, heating, and there should be enough raw
materials.
Cold Shut
- occurs as small cracks at the corners of the
object.
Cause: improper design of the forging die,
sharp corners of the object and excessive
chilling of the forge product.
Remedy: fillet radius of the die is increased.

Scale Pits
- It causes irregular deputations on the forging
EFFECTS OF FORGING ON
surfaces.
MICROSTRUCTURE
Cause: improper cleaning of the forged surface
and usual forging carried out in an open
environment.
Remedy: adequate cleaning of forged surface.

● The workpiece often undergoes

recrystallisation, therefore, providing finer
grains = improved mechanical properties.
Die Shift
● The formation of a grain structure in forged
- improper dimensions of the product.
parts is elongated in the direction of the
Cause: upper and lower dies are not aligned
deformation.
with each other.
● The metal flow during forging provides fibrous
Remedy: die is properly aligned.
microstructure (revealed by etching = better
mechanical).
● The microstructure after forging was more
uniform and finer as compared to that of as-cast
steel samples.
Flakes
- Internal Cracks = reduces the strength.
Cause: improper cooling of the forged product.
(quick-cooling .
Remedy: proper cooling is performed.
Surface Cracking
- occurrence of cracks on the work pieces.
Cause: operation is performed at low
temperature.
Remedy: working on a proper temperature.
Incomplete forging Penetration
- incomplete forging.
Cause: light or rapid hammer blow.
Remedy: proper usage or control of forging
press.
General Advantages of Forging:
• Strength of materials
• Range of steels
• Significant savings
• Wide range of shapes and sizes
EXTRUSION
History
Joseph Bramah - he patented the first extrusion process
for making pipe (1797) & Developed the first hydraulic
press for Thomas Burr (1820).
Extrusion
- compression process in which the work
material is forced to flow through a die
opening.
- compression process in which the work material
is forced to flow through a die opening.
- Create complex cross-sections and will be
uniform over the entire length.
- Produce a favorable elongated grain structure
in the direction of the material.
- Can be hot or cold, yes or no, in or out.
- Reduced Raw material wastage = More cost
effective.
- Brittle material can be deformed without a
tear as it only exerts compressive and shear
forces in the stock part.
Factors that affect quality:
- Type of material
- Die design
- Extrusion ratio
- Temperature of work
- Type of metal extrusion process
- Lubrication
- Extrusion speed.
Typical Products
- Railings for sliding doors
- Window frames
- Tubing having various cross sections
- Aluminum ladder frames
- Numerous structural
- Architectural shapes
EXTRUSION PROCESS
● Feed Metal Preparation
● The working metal (Billets/Ingots is put into the
extrusion equipment.
● A specific load is applied to the working metal
with the use of a ram.
● A dummy block is placed at the end of the ram
to aid the load distribution.
● When the load is applied the working metal is
forced into a die opening taking its shape.
● Heat treatment is done after extrusion to remove
residual stress and improve the mechanical
properties.

Metal Flow
- The metal is deformed and forced to flow
together as it progresses towards, and through,
the die.
- As the work travels through the die, the outer
layers are deformed more than the ones closer to
the middle.
- The outer sections, further from the central axis,
will experience greater material displacement
and will have more turbulent metal flow
characteristics.
- The material closer to the center will move
faster through the mold = it will have the higher
velocity relative to the die.
Extrusion Ratio = Area of Billet / Area of Extrusion(die)
- Low Extrusion ratio: portions of the shape of the
metal little mechanical work performed.
- High Extrusion ratio: greater pressure is
required to force metal through the smaller
openings.
- Normal E-Ratio:
Hard: 10:1 to 35:1, Soft Alloys: 10:1 to 100:1
Extrusion Shape Factor
- ratio of the pressure required to extrude a cross
section of a given shape relative to the extrusion
pressure for a round cross section of the same
area.
- the more complex a shape, the more force that
will be needed to extrude.
- The lower the shape factor, the lower the
relative pressure needed to extrude.
- a completely round circle profile has a shape
factor of 1, the shape factor increases as the part
becomes more complex.
Extrusion Die
Tool steels are a common type of material for metal
extrusion molds.
Carbides are sometimes used for a mold material,
carbides do not wear easy and can provide accurate part
dimensions.
Extruding dies may be coated to increase wear
resistance.
Diamond dies are used for fine wire.
Cast-steel dies are used for hot drawing.
Die Design Consideration
Simple shapes: simple shape = more cost effective.
Symmetrical: More accurate.
Sharp or rounded corners: Avoid sharp corners
Size to weight ratio
Tolerances: Added to allow some distortion.
Die Angle
- Important: large determinant in the flow of
material.
- Lower Angle: More friction at work-die
interface.
- High Angle: more material movement,
particularly in the outer regions.
- Great metal displacement = greater turbulence =
increases the amount of force needed
- Exact optimum = difficult to determine; bec of
temp and lubrication.
Lubrication
- to assist in metal flow.
- Usually soaps, oils, and graphite immersed in
oil.
- particularly in high temperature processes,
molten glass is often employed (tougher
materials .
Deformation
a. Low container friction and a well-lubricated
billet– nearly homogeneous deformation.
b. Increased container wall friction.
c. For high friction at the container billet interface.
Ram/Extrusion Speed
tenfold increase in the ram speed = 50 increase in
extrusion temp.
- High strength alloys = High Extrusion Temp =
High extrusion speeds required
EXTRUSION EQUIPMENT
Major Characteristics
Press- position of the press.
Vertical Press
- ram acts vertically on the billet.
Force capa7: 3 MN to 20 MN.
Applications: Thin-walled tubing where uniform wall
thickness and concentricity are required.
+ Easier alignment between the press ram and tools.
+ Hence closer control on tolerances is possible.
+ High rates of production.
+ Requires less floor space.
+ Produces uniform cooling of billet in the container.
Limits: requires more head room to accommodate
vertical motion of ram & Floor pits are needed to
accommodate long extrusions.
- A metal billet is loaded into a container, and a
ram forces the material to flow through a die
opening at the opposite end of the container.
- direction of flow of metal = movement of ram.
- Problem: significant friction that exists between
the work surface and the walls of the container.
- In hot extrusion, the friction problem is
aggravated by the presence of an oxide layer on
the surface of the billet. This oxide layer can
cause defects in the extruded product.
- The starting billet is prepared with a hole
parallel to its axis and the resulting cross section
is tubular.

Horizontal Press
- ram that moves horizontally.
Force Capa7: 15 MN to 50 MN
Ram Speed: 0.4n/s to 0.6m/s
+ The head room required is less compared to
vertical press.
Limits:
• Alignment between press ram and tools is difficult.
• The bottom of the billet is more in contact with the Indirect Extrusion
container wall. - Aka backward extrusion.
• To overcome above difficulty, the container walls are - die is mounted to the ram; As the ram
internally heated to avoid differential cooling of the penetrates into the work, the metal is forced to
billet. flow through the clearance in a direction
opposite to the motion of the ram.
Drive- type of drive. - Produce hollow (tubular) cross sections.
Hydraulic Press - no friction at the container walls
- derive the energy they deliver through hydraulic
pressure.
+ can operate over a long distance and at a constant
speed.
- generally slower.

Mechanical Press Hot Extrusion

- transforms the rotational force of a motor into a used to produce long, extended products with a wide
translational force vector that performs the variety of constant cross sectional shapes.
pressing action. (Energy from motor) -- uses raw material at higher temperatures
+ Faster than Hydraulic -- pressure or force is usually applied horizontally.
-- usually produces parts up to 25 ft long (but in
Load- Type of Load applied situations can be up to 100 ft
- Conventional & Hydrostatic -- product is then cut into desired lengths and ends are
trimmed
Ram- Movement of the extrusion with relation to the -- can produce hollow shapes using special dies or insets
ram. -- cost can be competitive with roll forming
- Direct & Indirect -- moderate to high die and equipment cost
-- low to moderate labor cost
CLASSIFICATION OF EXTRUSION PROCESS -- low to moderate operator skill
Direct Extrusion -- commonly used for aluminum, copper, steel,
- Aka Forward extrusion. magnesium, and lead.
-- typical products include: railings, tubes, structural
shapes, frame materials.
 Metal ºC
- Product: Toothpaste tubes or Battery cases.
- large reductions + high production rates (good
commercially).
Lead 200-250
Hydrostatic Extrusion
- Ram force is significantly lower.
- fluid pressure acting on all surfaces of the billet
Aluminum and Aluminum alloys 375-475 to force through the die.
- Can be at room or elevated temp (but special
fluids use .
Copper and Copper alloys 650-975 - Adaptation of direct extrusion.
- +Ductility; used for too brittle metals for
conventional extrusion, but can also be used for
Steels 875-1300 ductile.

Refractory metals 975-2200
Cold Extrusion
Cold or Impact Extrusion is used to produce shorter
discrete finished parts where the residue of the billet
becomes part of the finished part.
-- uses raw material (billets or slugs) at temperatures
usually above room temperature.
-- material undergoes work hardening during the process
-- requires more lubrication
-- used to create a single piece at a time.
-- usually completed with a vertically applied load
-- commonly used for aluminum, copper, lead, tin,
magnesium, zinc, and steel.
Continuous Extrusion
- operates in steady state mode for an indefinite
period of time.
- producing very long sections in one cycle but
limited by the size of the starting billet.
Discrete Extrusion
- Single part produced in each cycle. i.e. Impact
extrusion
EXTRUSION DEFECTS
Surface Cracking
Cause: High- Extrusion temp, ram speed & friction.
In hot extrusion, it is usually intergranular and is
associated with hot shortness.
Internal Cracking
- developed in the center of extruded material.
- Hard to detect.
- Aka: Center Cracking, Center burst, Chevron
Cracking & Arrow head cracking.
Cause: low extrusion ratio due to low frictional
conditions on the zone of deformation
Remedy: Die angle, friction & Extrusion ratio.
Piping Defect
- Aka Tail pipe or Fish tailing
- Metal in contact with walls cools down rapidly
as compared to the center part.
Cause: presence of impurities and oxides.
Remedy: machining billet surface prior to extrusion &
modifying flow pattern by controlling temperature and
friction.

Impact Extrusion (Usually cold

- higher speeds and shorter strokes.
- used to make individual components.
- punch impacts the work part rather than
applying pressure to it.
- Can be backward or forward extrusion or combi.
DRAWING Rod and Bar Drawing
- Larger cross sections.
Drawing - Finite lengths of material than wire drawing.
- metal i s stretched and formed using tensile - Performed on a draw bench
force. - Needs heavier equipment.
- Can be Sheet metal & Wire, bar and Tube metal.
- Main diff with extrusion: application of force.

Tube Drawing
- Uses mandrel to reduce wall thickness and
cross section diameter of tube.
- Fixed Mandrel: attached to a long support bar.
limitations on the length of the support bar in
Cold Working Process this method restrict the length of the tube that
Accurate tolerances can be drawn .
Better grain structure and surface finish - Floating plug: shape is designed so that it finds a
Improved material properties “natural” position. This method removes the
limitations on work length
Common Materials
Steels, Copper Alloys, Aluminum alloys

DRAWING PROCESS

Preparation of the Metal Work Sheet Metal Drawing

- sheet metal blank is radially drawn into a
Annealing forming die by the mechanical action of a
- Workpiece should be ductile. punch.
- decreases the hardness of the metal work. - the process is considered "deep" drawing when
Cleaning the depth of the drawn part exceeds its diameter.
- To prevent damage of the work surface and
draw die. Involves removal of surface
contaminants.
- Pre-lubrication is done (in some cases).
Pointing
- Reduction in diameter of the starting end of the
DRAWING EQUIPMENT
stock. Usually by swaging, rolling or turning.

Bar Drawing
PROCESS CONSIDERATIONS
- accomplished on a machine called a draw
Die Angle - Amount Area Reduction
bench.
The Work Material - Speed at which the product is
Carriage: used to pull the stock through the draw die.
drawn
Powered by = hydraulic cylinders or motor-driven
chains.
CLASSIFICATION OF DRAWING PROCESS
Die Stand: designed to hold more than one die, several
bars can be pulled simultaneously.
Wire Drawing
- 2nd major category of metal drawing operations.
- For smaller cross sections (diameter < 0.03mm.)
- Diameter decreases = + speed of wire
Wire Drawing
- done on continuous drawing machines that
consist of multiple draw dies, separated by
drums.
- Drum (aka capstan motor-driven to provide the
proper pull force.
- Each die provides a certain amount of reduction
in the wire.
Draw Dies
Four regions of the die can be distinguished:
1. Entry
usually a bell-shaped mouth, doesn’t contact with work.
Purpose: funnel the lubricant into the die and prevent
scoring of work and die surfaces.
2. Approach
Where the drawing process occurs.
Cone-shaped. Angle: 6-20 (varies accdg to work
material)
3. Bearing surface/Land
Determines the size of final drawn stock.
4. Back Relief
Exit zone, with back relief angle (about 30 .
Tube Drawing
- Accomplished on a draw bench.
- Addtl equipment: Mandrel.
- No mandrel = simplest method = diameter
reduction. i.e. Tube Sinking.
Problem: lacks control over inside diameter &
wall thickness.
Sheet Metal Drawing
- Involves plastic deformation over a curved axis
and the sheet metal is flowed and stretched
using drawbenches or drawing machines.
DEFECTS AND RESIDUAL STRESSES
Center Burst
- Internal breakage in drawn parts (on centerline)
Cause; improper metal flow creating high internal
stresses, either high die angles or low friction.
Surface Defect
- Seams, scratches and crack
Cause: Excessive force on the surface of the work.
a. Wrinkling in the Flange
- consists of a series of ridges that form radially in
the undrawn flange of the work.
Cause: Compressive Buckling
b. Wrinkling in the Wall
- a wrinkled flange is drawn into the cup, these
ridges appear in the vertical wall.
c. Tearing
- open crack in the vertical wall, near the base.
Cause: high tensile stresses = thinning & failure
: occurs as the metal is pulled over a sharp die corner.
d. Earing
- formation of irregularities (called ears) in the
upper edge of a deep drawn cup.
Cause: anisotropy in the sheet metal. (if isotropic
material di ni mahitabo)
Residual Stresses
- locked-in stresses within a metal object.
- can arise when plastic deformation is nonuniform
through the cross-section of an item being deformed.
- 2 distinct types found in cold-drawn rod and wire.
Wire and Rod Drawing
Reductions per pass < about 1% :
Longitudinal residual stresses:
Surface: Compressive, Axis: Tensile
Larger Reductions of Commercial Significance
Longitudinal Residual Stresses:
Surface: Tensile, Axis: Compressive
Tube Drawing
Tube sinking (deformation is relatively uniform)
Longitudinal Residual Stresses:
Outer Surface: Tensile, Inner Surface: Compressive
Tubes produced by drawing over a plug and mandrel
showed the same distribution of residual stresses as
for tube sinking.
POWDER METALLURGY
Powder Metallurgy
• Usual PMs production sequence:
1. Pressing powders are compressed into desired shape
to produce a green compact.
• Accomplished In Press Using Punch and die
2. Sintering green compacts are heated to bond the
particle into a hard, rigid mass.
• Temperatures Are Below Melting Point
Importance:
• PM parts can be mass produced to net shape or near net
shape.
• PM process wastes very little material ; ~ 3
• PM parts can be made with a specified level of
porosity, to produce porous metal parts.
– Filters, oil-impregnated bearings and gears.
• Difficult to fabricate parts can be shaped by powder
metallurgy.
– Tungsten filaments for incandescent lamp bulbs are
made by the PM.
• Certain alloy combinations and cermets can only be
made by PM.
• PM production can be automated for economical
production.
Limitations and Disadvantages
• High tooling and equipment costs.
• Metallic powders are expensive.
• Problems in storing and handling metal powders.
– Degradation over time, fire hazards with certain metals
• Limitations on part geometry because metal powders
do not readily flow well.
• Variations in density may be a problem, especially for
complex geometries.
PRODUCTION OF METALLIC POWDERS
• Any metal can be made into powder form.
• Three principal methods by which metallic powders
are commercially produced.
1. Atomization
2. Chemical
3. Electrolytic
• In addition, mechanical milling is occasionally used to
reduce powder sizes.
Gas Atomization Method
- High velocity gas stream flows through an
expansion nozzle, siphoning molten metal and
spraying it into a container.
Conventional Press and Sinter Steps
1. Blending and mixing of powders
2. Compaction ; pressing into desired shape
3. Sintering ; heating to temperature below melting point
to cause solid;state bonding of particles and
strengthening of part.
Blending and Mixing of Powders
The starting powders must be homogenized
• Blending ; powders of the same chemistry but
possibly different particle sizes are intermingled
– Different particle sizes are often blended to reduce
porosity
• Mixing ; powders of different chemistries are
combined
Compaction
High pressure to form the powders into the required
shape
• Conventional compaction method is pressing, in which
opposing punches squeeze the powders contained in die.
• The workpart after pressing is called a green compact.
• The green strength of the part should be adequate for
handling.
Conventional Pressing in PM
Pressing in PM:
(1) filling die cavity with powder by automatic feeder;
(2) initial and (3) final positions of upper and lower
punches during pressing, (4) part ejection.
Sintering
Heat treatment to bond the metallic particles, thereby
increasing strength and hardness
• Usually carried out at 70% to 90% of the metal's
melting point (K).
• The primary driving force for sintering is reduction of
surface energy.
• Part shrinkage occurs during sintering due to pore size
reduction.
Sintering Sequence on a Microscopic Scale
(1) Particle bonding is initiated at contact points. (2)
contact points grow into "necks". (3) pores between
particles are reduced in size. (4) grain boundaries
develop between particles in place of necked regions.

Secondary Operations
performed on sintered part to increase density, improve
accuracy, or accomplish additional shaping.
– Repressing - pressing in closed die to increase
density and improve properties.
– Sizing - pressing to improve dimensional accuracy.
– Coining - pressing details into its surface.
– Machining - for geometric features that cannot be
formed by pressing, such as threads and side holes.
Impregnation & Infiltration
• Porosity is a unique and inherent characteristic of PM
technology.
• It can be exploited to create special products by filling
the available pore space with oils, polymers, or metals.
• Two categories: 1. Impregnation 2. Infiltration
Impregnation
The term used when oil or other fluid is permeated into
the pores of a sintered PM part.
• Common products are oil-impregnated, bearings, gears
and similar components.
• Alternative application is when parts are impregnated
with polymer resins that seep into the pore spaces in
liquid form and then solidify to create a pressure tight
part.
Infiltration
The pores of the PM part are filled with a molten metal
• The melting point of the filler metal must be below that
of the PM part.
• Heating the filler metal in contact with the sintered part
so capillary action draws the filler into the pores.
– Resulting structure is nonporous, and the infiltrated
part has a more uniform density, as well as improved
toughness and strength.
ALTERNATIVE PRESSING AND SINTERING
TECHNIQUES
Some additional methods for producing PM parts:
– Isostatic pressing - hydraulic pressure is applied from
all directions to achieve compaction.
– Powder injection molding (PIM) - starting polymer
has 50% to 85% powder content.
• Polymer is removed and the PM part is sintered.
– Hot pressing - combined pressing and sintering.
– Liquid phase sintering (LPS) is a key technique for
fabricating traditional as well as modern ceramic
materials and components.
POWDER METALLURGY MATERIALS
Elemental Powders
A pure metal in particulate form
• Common elemental powders: Iron, Aluminum, Copper
• Elemental powders can be mixed with other metal
powders to produce alloys that are difficult to formulate
by conventional methods. Example: tool steels.
Pre-Alloyed Powders
Each particle is an alloy comprised of the desired
chemical composition.
• Common pre-alloyed powders:
Stainless steels, Certain copper alloys, High speed steel
POWDER METALLURGY PRODUCTS
• Gears, bearings, sprockets, fasteners, electrical
contacts, cutting tools, and various machinery parts.
• Advantage of PM: parts can be made to near net shape
or net shape.
• When produced in large quantities, gears and bearings
are ideal for PM because:
– Their geometries are defined in two dimensions
– There is a need for porosity in the part to serve as a
reservoir for lubricant.
Part features to be avoided in PM: (a) side holes and (b)
side undercuts since part ejection is impossible
DESIGN GUIDELINES
• Screw threads cannot be fabricated by PM
– They must be machined into the part
• Chamfers and corner radii are possible in PM
– But problems occur in punch rigidity when angles
are too acute
• Wall thickness should be a minimum of 1.5
mm (0.060 in) between holes or a hole and
outside wall
• Minimum hole diameter ~ 1.5 mm (0.060 in)
(a) Avoid acute angles. (b) use larger angles for punch
rigidity. (c) inside radius is desirable. (d) avoid full
outside corner radius because punch is fragile at edge (e)
better to combine radius and chamfer.