Bahir Dar Institute of Technology

Faculty o Mechanical and Industrial Engineering

Manufacturing Engineering II
Mechanical Engineering 4th Year, 1st Semester,
2014 (2021/22)
05/08/2022 BDU-BiT-FMIE Manuf. Eng. I By Gessessew L 1
 Principles of Metal Forming
• The deformation processes which has a significant shape change in metal
parts whose initial form is bulk rather than sheet.
• The starting forms include cylindrical bars and billets, rectangular billets and
slabs, and similar elementary geometries.
• The bulk deformation processes refine the starting shapes, sometimes
improving mechanical properties, and always adding commercial value.
• Deformation processes work by stressing the metal sufficiently to cause it to
plastically flow into the desired shape.
 Principles of Metal Forming
Bulk deformation processes are performed as cold, warm, and hot working
operations.
Cold and warm working is appropriate when the shape change is less severe,
and there is a need to improve mechanical properties and achieve good finish on
the part.
Hot working is generally required when massive deformation of large work
parts is involved.
 Principles of Metal Forming
The commercial and technological importance of bulk Deformation processes
derives from the following:
 When performed as hot working operations, they can achieve significant change
in the shape of the work part.
 When performed as cold working operations, they can be used not only to shape
the product, but also to increase its strength through strain hardening.
 These processes produce little or no waste as a byproduct of the operation.
 Some bulk deformation operations are near net shape or net shape processes;
 Principles of Metal Forming
Bulk Deformation Processes
Rolling
Extrusion
Drawing
Forging
Rolling :

• Rolling is a deformation process in

which the thickness of the work is
reduced by compressive forces exerted
by two opposing rolls.
• The rolls rotate to pull and
simultaneously squeeze the work
between them.
• Rolling is the most widely used forming • The rotating rolls perform two main
process, which provides high production
and close control of final product. functions:
 Pull the work into the gap
• The metal is subjected to high
compressive stresses as a result of the
between them by friction
friction between the rolls and the metal between work part and rolls
surface.  Simultaneously squeeze the
work to reduce its cross section
Rolling Types :

1. By geometric considerations :
Flat rolling - used to reduce thickness of
a rectangular cross-section
Shape rolling - Products made by
shape rolling include construction shapes
such as I-beams, L-beams, and U-channels;
rails for railroad tracks; and round and
square bars and rods.
The process is accomplished by passing the
work through rolls that have the reverse of
the desired shape
Flat and Shape
Rolling Types:

Continues Casting/Ingot
 Rolling Types :

2. By the temperature of work:

• Hot Rolling –is a rolling operation carried out at a
temperature just below the metal melting point(above
the recrystallization temperature), permitting large
amount of deformation.
• Cold rolling – is a rolling operation carried out below
recrystallization temperature. Cold rolling is
commonly conducted after hot rolling when good
surface quality and low thickness tolerance are
needed.
Cold rolling enhances material strengthening.
 Terminology for flat and shape rolling
Bloom: is the product of first breakdown of ingot (150x150 to
150x300mm) rolled into structural shapes (I-beams, rails).
Billet: is the product obtained from a further reduction ingot by
hot rolling (50x50 to 125x125mm) rolled into bars, rods, pipes,
wires.
Slab: is the hot rolled ingot (600 to 1500mm wide to 150mm
thick) rolled into sheets, plates,& welded pipes.
Plate: is the product with a thickness > 6 mm.
Sheet: is the product with a thickness < 6 mm and width > 600
mm.
Strip: is the product with a thickness < 6 mm and width < 600
mm.
 Rolling mills

• Rolling mill is a machine or a factory for shaping

metal by passing it through rolls

A rolling mill basically consists of

• Rolls

• Bearings

• a housing for containing these parts

• a drive (motor) for applying power to the rolls

and controlling the speed

11
Types of rolling mills
A. Two - high rolling mill: The rolls in these mills
have diameters in the range of 0.6 to 1.4 m.
• Configuration can be either reversing or non
reversing.
• In the non reversing mill, the rolls always rotate in
the same direction, and the work always passes
through from the same side.
• The reversing mill allows the direction of roll
rotation to be reversed, so that the work can be
passed through in either direction. 12
Types of rolling mills
Two - high rolling mill

It permits a series of reductions to be made through the same set of

rolls, simply by passing through the work from opposite directions
multiple times.

The disadvantage of the reversing configuration is the significant

angular momentum possessed by large rotating rolls and the
associated technical problems involved in reversing the direction.

13
Types of rolling mills

B. Three- high rolling mill: there are three rolls

in a vertical column, and the direction of
rotation of each roll remains unchanged.
• To achieve a series of reductions, the work can
be passed through from either side by raising or
lowering the strip after each pass.

• Equipment in a three-high rolling mill becomes more complicated,

because an elevator mechanism is needed to raise and lower the
work.

14
 Types of rolling mills
C. Four- high rolling mill: The four-high rolling
mill uses two smaller-diameter rolls to contact
the work and two backing rolls behind them.

Roll-work contact length is reduced with a lower roll radius,

and this leads to lower forces, torque, and power.

15
Types of rolling mills
D. Cluster mill
• The thinner the strip to be rolled, the smaller is
the required roll diameter.
• If a four-high rolling mill is used with working rolls of very small
diameter and too large backup rolls (say more than twice the
diameter of the working rolls), the working rolls may start to deflect
horizontally.
• To prevent the horizontal deflection the cluster, rolling mills were
introduced, using working rolls of very small diameter with a train
of supporting rolls of progressively increasing diameter.

16
 Types of rolling mills
E. Tandem rolling mill (Continuos)
This configuration consists of a series of
rolling stands, 3 to 8 stands arranged as
shown in the fig.

• For efficient production the strip is rolled on a continuous production line, passing from
one mill station to another at high speed without stopping or reeling between stations.

• Use a series of rolling mill and each set is called a stand.

• The strip will be moving at different velocities at each stage in the mill

• The speed of each set of rolls is synchronized so that the input speed of each stand is
equal to the output speed of preceding stand.
17
 Types of rolling mills
F. Planetary mill
• Consist of a pair of heavy backing rolls
surrounded by a large number of planetary
rolls.

• Each planetary roll gives an almost constant reduction to the slab as it

sweeps out a circular path between the backing rolls and the slab.
• As each pair of planetary rolls ceases to have contact with the work
piece, another pair of rolls makes contact and repeat that reduction.

18
 Types of rolling mills
The overall reduction is the summation of a series of
small reductions by each pair of rolls. Therefore, the
planetary mill can hot reduces a slab directly to strip in
one pass through the mill.
The operation requires feed rolls to introduce the slab
into the mill, and a pair of planishing rolls on the exit to
improve the surface finish.

19
 Other Rolling processes
Thread Rolling:
• Thread rolling is used to form threads on cylindrical
parts by rolling them between two dies.
• For mass producing external threaded components
(e.g., bolts and screws).
• Performed by cold working in thread rolling
machines, with two dies.
• Flat dies, which reciprocate relative to each other
and Round dies, which rotate relative to each other
to accomplish the rolling action.
• Production rates in thread rolling can be high,
ranging up to eight parts per second for small bolts
and screws.
20
 Other Rolling processes
Ring Rolling
 A deformation process in which a thick-walled ring of smaller
diameter is rolled into a thin-walled ring of larger diameter.
 As the thick-walled ring is compressed, the deformed
material elongates, causing the diameter of the ring to be enlarged.
 Performed as a hot-working process for large rings and as a
cold-working process for smaller rings.

Applications: ball and roller bearing races, steel tires for

railroad wheels, and rings for pipes, pressure vessels, and rotating
machinery.

21
Flat Rolling Analysis
Basic Concepts of metal rolling
Arc of contact: The arc along which the roll is in contact
with the strip is called the arc of contact.

Angle of bite:(Ө) The angle subtended by the arc of

contact at the center is called the angle of bite.

Draft (d): The reduction in thickness in one single pass

(initial thickness final thickness) is called draft . Draft, d (mm)
Neutral point: The point where the strip velocity becomes
d=to-tf
equal to the roll peripheral velocity. Or no-slip point. Where:
To –Starting thickness, mm
tf -Final thickness, mm
22
Flat Rolling Analysis
Basic Concepts of metal rolling
Coefficient of friction: is constant in theory, but in
reality varies along the arc of contact.
The metal is considered to be deformed plastically
during rolling.
The volume of metal: is constant before and after
rolling. In practical the volume might decrease a
little bit due to close-up of pores.
Reduction: r
The velocity of the rolls is assumed to be constant.
Where,
The metal only extends in the rolling direction and
no extension in the width of the material. d – draft, mm
to –Starting thickness, mm
23
Flat Rolling Analysis

Volume Conservation:
Votowo =Vftfwf

Where:
Vo and Vf -Entry and Exist velocity of the rolled
material; m/sec
to and tf –Initial and final thickness of the
material, mm
Wo =wf -width of material and assumed that there
is no spreading

24
Flat Rolling Analysis
Forward Slip, S

𝑉 𝑓 −𝑉 𝑟
𝑆= Average flow stress,
𝑉𝑟

True Strain:
Where:
-Average Flow Stress, n/mm2 (MPa)
K-Strength Coefficient, N/mm2 (MPA)
n –Strain Hardening Exponent

- True Strain 25
Flat Rolling Analysis
Maximum draft, dmax
2
𝑑 𝑚𝑎𝑥 =𝜇 𝑅

Where:
dmax -Maximum draft, mm
μ-Coefficient of Friction, 0.1 for cold working; 0.2-for
warm working and 0.4- hot working
R- Roll Radius

26
 Flat Rolling Analysis
𝐿
Rolling force, F
F=W ∫ 𝑝𝑑𝐿
0
Where:
F=Roll force, N
W-Width of rolled work piece, mm
p-Roll pressure, Mpa
L-Length of arc contact between rolls and work
piece, mm
,N
;

27
 Flat Rolling Analysis
Torque, T

, (N.mm)

Power, Watt

PπNT= πNFL-Total Power

Where:
N-Rotational Speed, RPM

28
Flat Rolling Analysis
Problems:
1. A continuous hot rolling mill has two stands. Thickness of the
starting plate =25 mm and width=300mm. Final thickness is to be 13
mm. Roll radius at each stand= 250mm. Rotational speed at the first
stand=20 rev/min. Equal drafts of 6 mm are to be taken at each stand.
The plate is wide enough relative to its thickness that no increase in
width occurs. Under the assumption that the forward slip is equal at
each stand, determine (a) speed Vr at each stand, and (b) forward slip s.
(c) Also, determine the exiting speeds at each rolling stand, if the
entering speed at the first stand =26 m/min. (your calculation should be in 3
decimal places)

29
Flat Rolling Analysis
Problems:
2. A 350-mm-wide strip 30-mm thick is fed through a rolling mill
with two powered rolls each of radius =300 mm. The work
thickness is to be reduced to 27 mm in one pass at a roll speed of
60 rev/min. The work material has a flow curve defined by K =
280 MPa and n =0.16, and the coefficient of friction between the
rolls and the work is assumed to be 0.13. Check if the friction is
sufficient to permit the rolling operation to be accomplished and
determine the roll fore, torque and power. (your calculation should
be in 3 decimal places)

30
Extrusion:
Introduction:
• Extrusion is a compression process in which the work
metal is forced to flow through a die opening to produce a
desired cross-sectional shape.
Advantages of the modern process:
1. A variety of shapes are possible, especially with hot
extrusion;
2. Grain structure and strength properties are enhanced in
cold and warm extrusion;
3. Fairly close tolerances are possible, especially in cold
extrusion; and
4. In some extrusion operations, little or no wasted
material is created.
Extrusion:
Limitation is that the cross section of the extruded part
must be uniform throughout its length.
Extrusion Types:
1. Based on extrusion direction:
Direct extrusion and
Indirect extrusion.
2. By working temperature:
Cold, Warm, or
Hot extrusion.
3. Process types:
Continuous process or
Discrete process.
Extrusion:
Direct Extrusion (Forward Extrusion)
• A metal billet is loaded into a container, and a ram
compresses the material, forcing it to flow through
one or more openings in a die at the opposite end
of the container.
• As the ram approaches the die, a small portion of
the billet remains that cannot be forced through the
die opening, called butt.
• This extra portion, called the butt, is separated
from the product by cutting it just beyond the exit
of the die.
• One of the problems in direct extrusion is the
significant friction that exists between the work
surface and the walls of the container as the billet
is forced to slide toward the die opening.
• This friction causes a substantial increase of ram force
required
• In hot extrusion, the friction problem is aggravated by the
presence of an oxide layer on the surface of the billet.
• This oxide layer can cause defects in the extruded product.
• To address these problems, a dummy block is often used
between the ram and the billet.
• The diameter of the dummy block is slightly smaller than the
billet diameter, so that a narrow ring of work metal (mostly
the oxide layer) is left in the container, leaving the final
product free of oxides.
• Hollow sections (e.g., tubes) are possible in direct extrusion
by the process setup in Figure below.
 Extrusion:
Indirect extrusion (backward extrusion)
• The die is mounted to the ram rather than at the opposite end
of the container.
• As the ram penetrates into the work, the metal is forced to
flow through the clearance in a direction opposite to the
motion of the ram.
• Limitations of indirect extrusion are imposed by the lower
rigidity of the hollow ram and the difficulty in supporting the
extruded product as it exits the die.
• There are practical limitations on the length of the extruded
part that can be made by this method.
• Support of the ram becomes a problem as work length
increases
 Extrusion:
Hot versus Cold Extrusion
• Hot extrusion involves prior heating of the billet to a temperature above
its recrystallization temperature.
• This reduces strength and increases ductility of the metal, permitting
more extreme size reductions and more complex shapes to be achieved in
the process.
• Additional advantages include reduction of ram force, increased ram
speed, and reduction of grain flow characteristics in the final product.
• Cooling of the billet as it contacts the container walls is a problem
Extrusion:
• Lubrication is critical in hot extrusion for certain metals (e.g.,
steels), and special lubricants have been developed that are
effective under the harsh conditions in hot extrusion.
• Cold extrusion and warm extrusion are generally used to
produce discrete parts, often in finished (or near finished) form.
• Some important advantages of cold extrusion include increased
strength due to strain hardening, close tolerances, improved
surface finish, and absence of oxide layers.
Extrusion:
• Metals that are typically extruded hot include aluminum,
copper, magnesium, zinc, tin, and their alloys.
• Steel alloys are usually extruded hot, although the softer,
more ductile grades are sometimes cold extruded (e.g., low
carbon steels and stainless steel).
• Aluminum is probably the most ideal metal for extrusion (hot
and cold), and many commercial aluminum products are
made by this process (structural shapes, door and window
frames, etc.).
 Other Extrusion Process
1. Impact extrusion
Impact extrusion is performed at higher
speeds and shorter strokes than conventional
extrusion.
It is used to make individual components.
As the name suggests, the punch impacts the
work part rather than simply applying
pressure to it.
Impacting can be carried out as forward
extrusion, backward extrusion, or
combinations of these.
 Other Extrusion Process
2. Hydrostatic extrusion
• Hydrostatic extrusion process the billet is
completely surrounded by a pressurized fluid
and pressurizing the fluid by the forward motion
of the ram,
• There is no friction inside the container, and friction at the die opening is reduced.

• Consequently, ram force is significantly lower than in direct extrusion.

• It can be carried out at room temperature or at elevated temperatures but special fluids
and procedures must be used at elevated temperatures.
• Hydrostatic extrusion is an adaptation of direct extrusion.
Diffect in Extrusion
1. Center burst: This defect is an internal crack that
develops as a result of tensile stresses along the
centerline of the work part during extrusion. If
stresses are great enough, bursting occurs. Conditions
that promote center burst are high die angles, low
extrusion ratios, and impurities in the work metal that
serve as starting points for crack defects. The difficult
aspect of center burst is its detection. It is an internal
defect that is usually not noticeable by visual
observation. Other names sometimes used for this
defect include arrowhead fracture, center cracking,
and chevron cracking.
Diffect in Extrusion
2. Piping: Piping is a defect associated with direct extrusion.
It is the formation of a sink hole in the end of the billet.
The use of a dummy block whose diameter is slightly less
than that of the billet helps to avoid piping. Other names
given to this defect include tailpipe and fishtailing.

3. Surface cracking: This defect results from high work part

temperatures that cause cracks to develop at the surface. They
often occur when extrusion speed is too high, leading to high
strain rates and associated heat generation. Other factors
contributing to surface cracking are high friction and surface
chilling of high temperature billets in hot extrusion.
 Extrusion Analysis

• Assumes that both billet and extrudate

are round in cross section.

Extrusion ratio (reduction), rx

Where:
rx = extrusion ratio;
Ao = cross-sectional area of the
starting billet, mm2; and
Af = final cross-sectional area of the
extruded section, mm2
Extrusion Analysis
True Strain,

Under the assumption of ideal deformation

(no friction and no redundant work), the
pressure applied by the ram to compress the
billet through the die opening depicted can
be computed as follows:

𝑝=𝑌 𝑓 𝑙𝑛𝑟 𝑥 Where:

= average flow stress during
deformation, Mpa and can be
calculated
Extrusion Analysis
• In fact, extrusion is not a frictionless process, and the
previous equations grossly underestimate the strain and
pressure in an extrusion operation.
• However, Friction exists between the die and the work as the
billet squeezes down and passes through the die opening.
• In direct extrusion, friction also exists between the container
wall and the billet surface.
• The effect of friction is to increase the strain experienced by
the metal. Thus, the actual pressure is greater than the ideal Where:
one. a and b constants
given as per die
angle. a=0.8,
The actual true strain associated with ram b=1.2-1.5
pressure (extrusion strain); єx
 Extrusion Analysis 𝐾 ∈𝑛
𝑌 𝑓=
The ram pressure to perform indirect extrusion can be
1+𝑛
estimated based on Johnson’s extrusion strain formula as 𝑝=𝑌 𝑓 𝑙𝑛𝑟 𝑥
follows:
𝑝=𝑌 𝑓 ∈ 𝑥
In direct extrusion, the effect of friction
between the container walls and the billet Where: pf = additional pressure
causes the ram pressure to be greater than for required to overcome friction, MPa;
indirect extrusion. πD2o/4=billet cross-sectional
area,mm2;
𝑝 𝑓 𝜋 𝐷𝑜2 μ= coefficient of friction at the
=𝜇𝑝 𝑐 𝜋 𝐷 𝑜 𝐿
4 container wall; pc=pressure of the
billet against the container wall,
Additional force to MPa; and πDoL = area of the
overcome friction Billet-Container
Frictional force interface between billet and
container wall,mm2
 Extrusion Analysis 𝐾∈ 𝑛
𝑌 𝑓=
In the worst case, sticking occurs at the container wall so that 1+𝑛
friction stress equals shear yield strength of the work metal:

𝜇𝑝 𝑠 𝐷 𝑜 𝐿=𝑌 𝑠 𝜋 𝐷𝑜 𝐿 𝑝=𝑌 𝑓 𝑙𝑛𝑟 𝑥

where Ys = shear yield strength, MPa. If we assume
that Ys = Yf /2, then pf reduces to the following:

2𝐿
𝑝 𝑓 =𝑌 𝑓
𝐷𝑜
Extrusion Analysis 𝐾∈ 𝑛
𝑌 𝑓=
Ram pressure in direct extrusion: 1+𝑛
Where: the term 2L/Do accounts for the 𝑝=𝑌 𝑓 𝑙𝑛𝑟 𝑥
p=𝑌 𝑓 ¿ additional pressure due to friction at the
container–billet interface.
 Extrusion Analysis 𝐾∈ 𝑛
𝑌 𝑓=
Ram force in indirect or direct extrusion 1+𝑛
𝐹 =𝑝 𝐴𝑜 𝑝=𝑌 𝑓 𝑙𝑛𝑟 𝑥

Power required to carry out the extrusion

operation is simply

𝑃=𝐹𝑉
where : P= power, J/s; F= ram force,
N ; and v = ram velocity, m/s.
Extrusion Analysis
Other than circular shape
• Important factors in an extrusion die are die
angle and orifice shape. Die angle, more
precisely die half-angle.
• For low angles, surface area of the die is large,
leading to increased friction at the die–billet
interface. Higher friction results in larger ram
force.
• On the other hand, a large die angle causes
more turbulence in the metal flow during
reduction, increasing the ram force required.
Extrusion Analysis
Other than circular shape
• The effect of die angle on ram force is a U-
shaped function, as shown in the graph.
• An optimum die angle exists, as suggested by
our hypothetical plot.
• The optimum angle depends on various
factors (e.g., work material, billet
temperature, and lubrication) and is therefore
difficult to determine for a given extrusion
job.
• Die designers rely on rules of thumb and
judgment to decide the appropriate angle.
Extrusion Analysis
Other than circular shape
• The previous extrusion analysis applied to a circular die
• orifice.
• The shape of the die orifice affects the ram pressure required
to perform an extrusion operation.
• A complex cross section, such as the one shown in requires a
higher pressure and greater force than a circular shape.
• The effect of the die orifice shape can be assessed by the die
shape factor, defined as the ratio of the pressure required to
extrude a cross section of a given shape relative to the
extrusion pressure for a round cross section of the same area.
• It can be expressed the shape factor as follows:
 Extrusion Analysis and for direct extrusion,
Other than circular shape 𝐶 𝑥 2.25
𝐾𝑠=0.98+ 0.02( )
𝐶𝑐
Where
For shape factor other
Kx=die shape factor in extrusion;
than round , the
Cx=Perimeter of the extruded cross section, mm; Cc
corresponding
=Perimeter of a circle of the same area as the extruded
expression for direct
shape, mm
extrusion:
For shapes other than round, the corresponding
expression for indirect extrusion is: (

Where:
P-Extrusion pressure;
Kx-Shape factor,
 Extrusion Problems

1. A cylindrical billet that is 100 mm long and 50 mm in diameter is reduced by

indirect (backward) extrusion to a 20 mm diameter. The die angle is 90o. The
Johnson equation has a= 0.8 and b=1.4, and the flow curve for the work metal has
a strength coefficient of 800 MPa and strain-hardening exponent of 0.13.
Determine (a) extrusion ratio, (b) true strain (homogeneous deformation), (c)
extrusion strain, (d) ram pressure, and (e) ram force.

2. A billet that is 75 mm long with diameter ¼ 35 mm is direct extruded to a

diameter of 20 mm. The extrusion die has a die angle=75o. For the work metal,
K=600 MPa and n=0.25. In the Johnson extrusion strain equation, a=0.8 and
b=1.4. Determine: (a) extrusion ratio, (b) true strain (homogeneous deformation),
(c) extrusion strain, and (d) ram pressure and force at L=70, 60, 50, 40, 30, 20,
and 10 mm.
 Drawing-Wire and Bar
Drawing is an operation in
which the cross section of a
bar, rod, or wire is reduced
by pulling it through a die
opening,

• The presence of tensile stresses is obvious in drawing, compression also

plays a significant role because the metal is squeezed down as it passes
through the die opening.
• For this reason, the deformation that occurs in drawing is sometimes
referred to as indirect compression.
 Drawing-Wire and Bar
The difference with that of extrusion
is that the work is pulled through the
die in drawing, whereas it is pushed
through the die in extrusion.

The basic difference between bar drawing and wire drawing is the stock size that is
processed.

Wire drawing applies to small diameter stock sizes down to 0.03 mm are
possible in wire drawing.
Drawing-Wire and Bar Bar drawing is the term used for large
diameter bar and rod stock.
It is generally accomplished as a single-
draft operation—the stock is pulled
through one die opening. Because the
beginning stock has a large diameter, it
is in the form of a strait cylindrical
piece, limits the size of the stock drawn.

Wire is drawn from coils consisting of several hundred (or even several thousand)
meter length of wire and is passed through a series of draw dies.
The number of dies varies typically between 4 and 12, so that it is called continuous.
Tube Drawing
Drawing can be used to reduce the diameter or wall
thickness of seamless tubes and pipes, after the initial
tubing has been produced by some other process such as
extrusion.

Tube drawing can be carried out either with or

without a mandrel. The simplest method uses no
mandrel and is used for diameter reduction

The problem with tube drawing in which no mandrel is used, is

that it lacks control over the inside diameter and wall thickness of
the tube.
 Tube Drawing
This is why mandrels of various types are used,
two of which are illustrated in the fig.
a. Fixed mandrel attached to a long support bar to establish inside
diameter and wall thickness during the operation. Practical
limitations on the length of the support bar in this method
restrict the length of the tube that can be drawn.

b. Floating plug whose shape is designed so that it finds a

‘‘natural’’ position in the reduction zone of the die.
This method removes the limitations on work length
present with the fixed mandrel.
Applications of Drawing:
• Drawing is usually performed as
a cold working operation. It is
most frequently used to produce
round cross sections, but squares
and other shapes are also drawn.

• Wire drawing is an important industrial process, providing commercial products such as

electrical wire and cable; wire stock for fences, coat hangers, and shopping carts; and
rod stock to produce nails, screws, rivets, springs, and other hardware items.
• Bar drawing is used to produce metal bars for machining, forging, and other processes.
Analysis of Drawing
Advantages of Drawing:

1. Close dimensional control,

2. Good surface finish,
3. Improved mechanical properties
such as strength and hardness,
and

4. Adaptability to economical batch or mass production.

Analysis of Drawing
Draw Dies

Features of Drawing Dies:

1. Entry,
2. Approach angle,
3. Bearing surface (land), and
4. Back relief.
Analysis of Drawing
The entry region is usually a bell-shaped
mouth that does not contact the work. Its
purpose is to funnel the lubricant into the
die and prevent scoring of work and die
surfaces.

The approach is where the drawing process occurs. It is cone-shaped with an angle (half
angle) normally ranging from about 6o to 20o. The proper angle varies according to work
material
The bearing surface, or land, determines the size of the final drawn stock. Finally, the
back relief is the exit zone. It is provided with a back relief angle (half-angle) of about
30o.
Draw dies are made of tool steels or cemented carbides. Dies for high-speed wire
drawing operations frequently use inserts made of diamond (both synthetic and natural)
for the wear surfaces
Analysis of Drawing
Preparation of the Work for Drawing
Prior to drawing, the beginning stock must
be properly prepared. This involves three
steps:
1. Annealing, 2. Cleaning, and 3. Pointing.
The purpose of annealing is to increase the ductility of the stock to
accept deformation during drawing. Annealing is sometimes needed
between steps in continuous drawing.
Cleaning of the stock is required to prevent damage of the work surface and draw die. It
involves removal of surface contaminants (e.g., scale and rust) by means of chemical
pickling or shot blasting. In some cases, pre lubrication of the work surface is accomplished
subsequent to cleaning.
Analysis of Drawing

Pointing involves the reduction in

diameter of the starting end of the stock
so that it can be inserted through the draw
die to start the process.

This is usually accomplished by swaging, rolling, or turning.

The pointed end of the stock is then gripped by the carriage jaws or other device to
initiate the drawing process.
Analysis of Drawing
1. Area Reduction, r:

𝐴𝑜 − 𝐴 𝑓
𝑟=
𝐴𝑜
Where:
Ao-Original cross sectional area, mm2
3. True strain (without friction)
Af-Final cross sectional area, mm2
2. Draft, d(mm): 𝐴𝑜 1
𝜀=𝑙𝑛 =ln ⁡
dDo-Df 𝐴𝑓 (1− 𝑟)
Where:
Do-Original diameter f stock/work, mm
Df-Final stock/work diameter, mm
Analysis of Drawing
4. True stress (drawing), neglecting effect of
friction in the deformation process

𝐴𝑜
𝜎 =𝑌 𝜀=𝑌 𝑙𝑛
Where: 𝐴𝑓
-True Stress
-Average flow stress, MPa
– True Strain
In actual case, effect of fiction present in the
drawing process and makes the stress larger
than the ideal one and also die angle has also
effect. To find the actual drawing stress
equation suggested by Schey:
Analysis of Drawing
In actual case, effect of fiction present
in the drawing process and makes the
stress larger than the ideal one and also
die angle has also effect. To find the
actual drawing stress equation Where:
suggested by Schey: -Draw stress, Mpa
-Die-Work coefficient of friction
-Die angle (half)
-is a factor that accounts for inhomogeneous
𝜇 deformation.
𝜎 𝑑=𝑌 (1+ )∅ 𝜀
tan 𝛼
Analysis of Drawing
The factor for a circular shape can
be calculated as follows:

𝐷
∅ =0.88+0.12
𝐿𝑐
Where:
D=Average diameter, mm
Lc-Contact length of the work with the draw die, mm

𝐷𝑜+ 𝐷𝑓 𝐷𝑜 − 𝐷 𝑓
𝐷= 𝐿𝑐 =
2 2 sin 𝛼
Analysis of Drawing
5. Draw force

=
Maximum possible reduction:
For wire drawing to be successful, maximum draw stress must be less than the yield
strength of the exiting metal.
It is a straight forward matter to determine this maximum draw stress and the
resulting maximum possible reduction that can be made in one pass, under certain
assumptions.
Let us assume a perfectly plastic metal (n=0), no friction, and no redundant work.
In this ideal case, the maximum possible draw stress is equal to the yield strength of
the work material.
Analysis of Drawing
In the ideal condition,

𝑌 𝑓 =𝑌
Where:
Y=Yield stress of work material, i.e. n=0

= The possible maximum

reduction rmax

𝑒− 1
𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = =0.632
𝑒
Analysis of Drawing
The value given by the above eqn. is
often used as the theoretical maximum
reduction possible in a single draw

In actual case
1. The effects of friction and redundant work, which would reduce the maximum possible
value, and
2. Strain hardening, which would increase the maximum possible reduction because the
exiting wire would be stronger than the starting metal.
In practice, draw reductions per pass are quite below the theoretical limit. Reductions of
0.50 for single-draft bar drawing and 0.30 for multiple-draft wire drawing seem to be the
upper limits in industrial operations.
Problems

1. A spool of wire has a starting diameter of 2.5 mm. It is drawn through a die with an
opening that is to 2.1 mm. The entrance angle of the die is 18o. Coefficient of
friction at the work–die interface is 0.08. The work metal has a strength coefficient
of 450 MPa and a strain-hardening coefficient of 0.26. The drawing is performed at
room temperature. Determine :
a. Area reduction,
b. Draw stress,
c. Draw force required for the operation.
Problems
2. Bar stock of initial diameter=90mmis drawn with a draft=15mm.The draw die has
an entrance angle=18o, and the coefficient of friction at the work–die interface =
0.08. The metal behaves as a perfectly plastic material with yield stress= 105 MPa.
Determine:
a. Area reduction,
b. Draw stress,
c. Draw force required for the operation, and
d. Power to perform the operation if exit velocity = 1.0 m/min.