CRYSTAL LATTICES

A Project Report submitted for the fulfilment of the requirement

for
INSPIRE MENTORSHIP PROJECT

NAME OF SCHOLAR - PUSHKAR RAJPUT

IVR NUMBER - 201800012717

TITLE OF PROJECT – CRYSTAL LATTICES

Supervised By - Dr. Ashish Kumar

(Department of chemistry)
 Scholarship for Higher Education (SHE) Component under INSPIRE

Format for Project Completion Certificate

(T o be filled by the Supervisor of Research Project

1. IVR Number or Application Ref. No. : 201800012717

2. Name of INSPIRE Scholar: Pushkar

3. Name of College where Scholar is studying: Govt E Raghvendra Rao PG Science College Bilaspur CG

4. Name of University to which above College is affiliated: Atal Bihari Vajpayee University

5. Bank Account Number of Scholar: 38510015041

6. IFSC Code: SBIN0005776

7. Mobile No. and Email Address of Scholar:. 9399688466, pushkar24rajput@gmail.com

8. Title of Project: Crystal Lattices

9. Broad Subject Area of Research Project: Crystal Lattices

10. Project Duration (in weeks): 7 weeks

(Minimum 6 to 8 weeks)

11. Date of Start of Research Project: 20/06/2020

12. Date of Completion of Research Project: 09/08/2020

13. Supervis or Name: Dr. Ashish Kumar

14. Des ignation of Supervis or: Assistant Professor

15. Affiliation of Supervisor

(a) Department - Chemistry

(b) College -. H.N.B. Govt PG C ol lege, Khatima

(c) Universit y -. Kumaun Uni ve rsity, Nainital

(d) Address –. Khati ma, Uttarakhand
(e) Mobile no. and Email Address – 7906687312, ashish23@gmail.com

16. Major Specialization area of Supervisor: Metal Catalysed Organic Synthesis, Green Chemistry

Date: 09/08/2020
 Format for Research Pro ject Report

(To be filled by INSPIRE Scholar)

1. Cover Page (indicating title of project, name of scholar with IVR no):

2. Project Completion Certificate (in format as above):

3. Acknowledgement:

4. Title of Research Project:

5. Aim/Objectives:

6. Introduction of Research Topic:

7. Theoretical Framework of Topic:

8. Profile of Organization/Research Lab:

9. Methodology Followed:

10. Analysis and Interpretation of Research Project:

11. Conclusion & Suggestion of Research Project:

12. Res ult(s ) Achieved:

13. References:

14.Declaration by the Scholar: I ………………Pushkar…………..…………(Full name) hereby declare that the

details/facts mentioned above are true to the best of my knowledge and I solely be held responsible in case of any
discrepancies found in the details mentioned above.

Date: 09/08/2020 (Signature of Scholar)

Place: Khatima

Note: 1. Kindly upload the Research Project Report as single PDF file whose size should not exceed

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*******
Crystal Lattices

AC KN O WLE D G E M EN T

I express my sincere thanks to my Professor Dr. Ashish Kumar , on

the completion of my project on Crystal Lattices. I am immensely

obliged to my friends for their elevating inspiration, encouraging

guidance and kind supervision in the completion of my project.

Last but not least, our parents are also an important part of our

journey and an inspiration for us. So, with due regards, I express my

Gratitude to them.

Date:09/08/2020 Name: Pushkar

Place: Bareilly
 The p-Block Elements
Introduction
 Elements belonging to groups 13 to 18 of the periodic table are called p-block
elements.
 General electronic configuration: ns2 np1-6 (except for He).
 It includes solids, liquids and gases.
 The elements of this group are metal, non- metal and metalloids.
 If we move along period in periodic table, non-metallic character increases and
if we move down the group, the non-metallic character decreases.
 In this group: As we move down, the lower oxidation state becomes more
stable due to” Inert pair effect.”

Inert pair effect : It is “reluctance in the participation of s electrons in bond

formation due to poor shielding effect by d and f orbital .As a result, s electrons
are tightly bounded .

1st member is different from its congeners due to:

 Small size
 Highest ionization energy.
 High electro-negativity.
 No vacant d orbital.
 They show maximum co-valence of 4 because of no vacant d orbital.
 First member also has tendency to form multiple bonds because in them pi
bonds can take place (because of its small size).
Group 13 Elements: The Boron Family
The Boron Family:
 Boron is a typical non-metal, Aluminium is a metal but shows many chemical
similarities with born and gallium, indium and thallium are almost exclusively
metallic in character.
Outer Electronic Configuration: ns2np1
Occurrence:
 Boron is fairly rare element mainly occurs as orthoboric acid, borax and
kernite.
 The abundance of boron in the earth’ crust is less that 0.0001% by mass.
 Aluminium is the third most abundant metal found on the earth’s crust.
Atomic Radii: The atomic and ionic radii of group 13 elements are smaller
than the corresponding elements of alkali and alkaline earth metals.
 Reason: On moving from left to right in a period the effective nuclear charge
increases and the outer electrons are pulled more strongly towards the
nucleus. This results in decrease in atomic size. On moving down the group,
both atomic and ionic radii expected to increase due to the addition of a new
electron shell with each succeeding element.
 Exception: Atomic radius of Ga is less than that of Al due to the presence of
poor shedding 10d electrons in gallium.
 Ionization enthalpies: First ionization enthalpies of the elements of group-
13 are less than those of the elements present in group-2 in the same period.
 Reason: The removal of p-electron is much easier than the s-electron and
therefore, the first ionization enthalpies (∆ i H1) of the elements of group 13 are
lower as compared to the corresponding elements of group 2.
 On moving down the group 13 from B to Al the first-ionization enthalpies
(∆i H1) decrease due to an increase in atomic size and screening effect which
outweigh the effect of increased nuclear charge.
 There is discontinuity expected in the ionization enthalpy values between Al
and Ga and between In and Tl due to inability of d- and f-electrons which have
Low screening effect to compensate the increase in nuclear charge.

Electronegativity: Down the group, electronegativity first decreases from B

to Al and then increases. This is due to discrepancies in the atomic size of the
elements.

Physical Properties:
 Metallic Character:
 Boron is extremely hard, black colour solid and non-metallic in nature. It exists
in many allotropes.
 Due to strong crystalline lattice boron has high melting point.
 Other members of this family are soft metals with low melting point and high
electrical conductivity.
 Ga has very low melting point that when kept it in palm it would melt.
 It increases down the group. This is because even though the volume is not
increasing steadily due to atomic radius, but the density increases steadily. As
the mass increases steadily down the group and volume is inversely
proportional to density. It doesn’t affect much.
 Chemical Properties
 Oxidation states:
 It depends on electronic configuration. As their electronic configuration is ns 2
np1. So, oxidation states shown by them are +3, +1.
 Boron shows exceptional behaviour because of its small size and high
ionization energy. It actually faces difficulty in loosing electrons. Therefore, it
forms covalent bond.

B Al Ga In Tl
(+3) (+3) (+3, +1) (+3, +1) (+1)

 This is basically due to inert pair effect.

 Out of all elements of this group, Boron is non-reactive. This is because of its
small size as it has high ionization energy .So, reactivity increases down the
group. B<Al<Ga<In<Tl
 In this Boron is least reactive because of its small size and high ionization
energy and Thallium is most reactive because of its low ionization energy.
 In case of Aluminium, when react initially, it keeps reacting .But after some
time, a layer of its oxide is formed over its surface. This layer prevent it from
further reacting .So, it becomes passive after some time.
 Acidic character:
 Most of the compounds of this group are electron deficient that is their octet
is not complete. So, they behave as Lewis acids.

Example: BX3 (only 6 electrons in valence shell of Boron).Therefore, it forms

coordinate bond.

Eq: BX3 + NH3--> [NH3-->BF3] coordinate bond

Boron halide Ammonia
Example: AlCl3 achieves stability by forming a dimer

 They have tendency to take electrons. They are Lewis acids. But down the
group, acidic character decreases (that is tendency to attract incoming
electron decreases).

BX3> AlX3 > GaX3 > InX3 > TlX3

Boron halide Aluminium halide Gallium halide Indium halide Thallium halide

 Lewis acid strength decreases because size increases .As a result, attraction
towards incoming electron decreases.
 In trivalent state most of compounds being covalent are hydrolysed in water.

Example: The trichlorides on hydrolysis in water form tetrahedral [M(OH)4]-

species; the hybridization state of element M is sp3.

Example: Aluminium chloride in acidified aqueous solution forms octahedral

[Al(H2O)6]3+ ion. In this complex ion, the 3d orbitals of Al are involved and the
hybridization state of Al is sp3d2.

 Reactivity towards air:

 Boron does not react with oxygen at ordinary temperature due to small size
and high ionization energy (Boron is unreactive in its crystalline form).
 Amorphous boron on heating in air forms B2O3.
 If Al reacts with oxygen, it reacts at normal temperature. With time it forms a
protective layer of oxide on its surface. This layer makes it non-reactive.

Eq: Al + 3O2 --> 2Al2O3

Aluminium Oxygen Aluminium oxide
 They react with nitrogen gas also, to form compound with formula EN but at
high temperature. But Ga, In and Tl doesn’t react with nitrogen.

Example:

Eq: 6Al + 3N2 --> 6AlN

Aluminium Nitrogen Aluminium nitride

 If we see acidic strength of oxides, then it decreases down the group.

B2O3 Al2O3 Ga2O3 In2O3 Tl2O3

Boron oxide aluminium oxide gallium oxide indium oxide thallium oxide

(Acidic) (Amphoteric) (All are basic)

 Reaction with water: Hydroxides are formed of type E(OH)

 Boron does not react with water.
 Aluminium reacts with cold water that is:

Eq: Al + H2O --> Al(OH)3 + H2

Aluminium Water Aluminium hydroxide Hydrogen gas

 Gallium and indium neither react with cold water nor with hot water.
 Thallium reacts with water but form protective layer which make it passive.

 Reactivity towards acids and bases:

 Boron doesn’t react with acids and bases at normal temperature, but reacts
with strong acids.
 Aluminium reacts with acid and base because it is amphoteric in nature.
 Al dissolves in dilute HCl and liberates hydrogen gas.

Eq: 2Al + 6HCl --> 2Al3+ + 6Cl- + 3H2

Aluminium Hydrogen chloride Aluminium ion Chloride ion Hydrogen gas

 Boron doesn’t react with alkali at moderate temperature, but get attacked by
strong alkali at high temperature.
Eq: 2B + 6KOH --> 2K3BO3 + 3H2 (at high temp)

 Al reacts with aqueous alkali and liberates hydrogen gas.

Eq: 2Al + 2NaOH + 6H2O(I) --> 2Na+[Al(OH)4]- + 3H2

Aluminium Sodium hydroxide Water Sodium tetrahydroxoaluminate (III) Hydrogen gas

Eq: 2Ga + 2NaOH + 6H2O(I) --> 2Na+[Ga(OH)4]- + 3H2

Gallium Sodium hydroxide Water Sodium tetrahydroxogalinate (III) Hydrogen gas

 Al when react with nitric acid, initially it reacts but after same time it became
passive because of the formation of oxide layer on the surface.
 Some oxidising acids are HNO3, perchloric acid HCLO4, chromic acid H2CrO4,
conc. H2SO4.
 Some non-oxidising acids are HCl, hydroiodic acid HI, hydrobromic acid HBr,
hydrofluoric acid HF, phosphoric acid H3PO4, dil. H2SO4.
 NO2/SO2/ reduced form of the acid in gaseous form is liberated (OA).
 Hydrogen gas is liberated (NOA).
 Reaction with Halogens: Form halides of type EX3 (except Tl I3)

Eq: 2B + 3X2 --> 2BX3

Boron Halogen Boron halide

Eq: B + F2 --> BF3

Boron Fluorine Boron trifluoride

Eq: Al + Cl2 --> AlCl3

Aluminium Chlorine Aluminium chloride

 All halides are Lewis bases.

[X=F, Cl, Br, I]

Q. White fumes appear around the bottle of anhydrous aluminium chloride.
Give reason.

Anhydrous aluminium chloride is partially hydrolysed with atmospheric moisture

to liberate HCl gas. Moist HCl appears white in colour.

Q. Boron trihalides behave as Lewis acid. Why?

In boron trihalides, after the bond formation, boron has only 6e -. It is electron
deficient. It has the tendency to accept electron pair (2 electrons). Hence they
behave as Lewis acid.

Important Trends and Anomalous Properties of Boron:

 The tri-chlorides, bromides and iodides of all these elements being covalent in
nature are hydrolysed in water. Species like tetrahedral [M(OH) 4]– and
octahedral [M(H2O)6]3+, except in boron, exist in aqueous medium.
 The monomeric trihalides, being electron deficient, are strong Lewis acids.
Boron trifluoride easily reacts with Lewis bases such as NH 3 to complete octet
around boron.

Eq: BF3 + :NH3 --> BF3 <-- NH3

 It is due to the absence of d orbitals that the maximum covalence of B is 4.

Since the d orbitals are available with Al and other elements, the maximum
covalence can be expected beyond 4.
 Most of the other metal halides (e.g., AlCl3) are dimerised through halogen
bridging (e.g., Al2Cl6). The metal species completes its octet by accepting
electrons from halogen in these halogen bridged molecules.
 Diagonal relationship:
 Boron and Silicon have very common similarities with each other.
 Both are non-metals
 Both have high MP & BP. Also have High density.
 Both form only covalent bond.
 Both exist in amorphous and crystalline state and exhibit allotropy.
 Both possess closer Electronegativity values.
 Hydrides are gaseous 7 flammable.
 Carbides of both Boron & Silicon (B4C and SiC) are very hard and used as
abrasive.
 Oxides are acidic. Halides Hydrolyses vigorously.

Q. BF63- does not exist. Why?

Boron cannot form more than 4 bonds due to the absence of vacant d-orbital.
Hence, BF63- doesn’t exist.

Q. Arrange the boron trihalides in the increasing order of Lewis acid character.
BF3, BCl3, BBr3, BI3.

BF3 < BCl3 < BBr3 < BI3 back bonding is less (big size of I).
___________________________
>
Lewis acid character

Q. A mixture of dil. NaOH and Al pieces are used to open drains. Why?

Al reacts with NaOH sol, to produce H2 gas which can exert pressure to open the
drainage.

2Al + 2NaOH + 6H2O(I) --> 2Na+[Al(OH)4]- + 3H2

Q. HNO3 (conc) can be transported in Aluminium vessels. Why?

Conc. HNO3 is an oxidising agent. It oxidises Al to Al2O3. It acts as a protective

layer. So further corrosion will not occur.
Group 14 Elements: The Carbon Family

The carbon family:

 The Carbon Family Group 14 includes carbon (C), silicon (Si), Germanium (Ge),
tin (Sn) and lead (Pb).
 All members of group14 are solids. Carbon and silicon are non-metals;
germanium is a metalloid, whereas tin and lead are soft metals with low
melting points.
Electronic configuration: ns2np2
Occurrence:
 Carbon is the seventeenth most abundant element by weight in the earth’s
crust. Naturally occurring carbon contains two stable isotopes 12C and 13C
and third isotope 14C. 14C is a radioactive isotope with half-life 5770 years and
is used for radiocarbon dating.
 Carbon exists in two forms, i.e., elemental form and combined form.
 Carbon is an essential constituent in all living organisms.
 Silicon is the second (27.7% by mass) most abundant in the earth’s crust.
Germanium is found in traces. Si and Ge are found in transistors and semi-
conductors.
 Pb was used as an antiknocking agent in petrol.
 Sn is used as packaging can food.
Atomic Radius (Covalent):
 There is a considerable increase in covalent radius from C to Si; thereafter
from Si to Pb a small increase in radius is observed.
 Reason: This is due to the presence of completely filled d and f orbitals in
heavier members.
 Ionization Enthalpy:
 The first ionization enthalpy of group 14 members is higher than the
corresponding members of group 13.
 The influence of inner core electrons is visible here also. In general the
ionisation enthalpy decreases down the group.
 Small decrease in ∆i H from Si to Ge to Sn and slight increase in ∆ i H from Sn to
Pb.
 Reason: This is the consequence of poor shielding effect of intervening d and f
orbitals and increase in size of the atom.

Density:
 Mass and volume increases as we go down the group so density increases.
 Mass increases than that of the volume increases.
 But in group 14, the density Si less than C this is due to volume of Si is larger
than carbon. As we know density is inversely proportional to volume.
Therefore, Si has lesser density than C.
 Melting point and Boiling point:
 Down the group MP and BP decreases down the group due to the increase in
atomic size and bond length as strength of the bond decreases which makes it
easy to break it.
 MP of Sn is less than Pb because Sn has a distorted structure.
Metallic character
 The tendency to lose electrons depends upon ionization energy or,
we can say that less is the ionization energy, more is the metallic
character.
 If we compare for group 13 and group 14, we see that group 13 is
more metallic due to big size and low ionization energy.
 Down the group metallic character increases as size increase and
ionization energy decreases. Therefore, the order is :
C Si Ge           Sn            Pb
Carbon        silicon                germanium         Tin                  lead
    (Nonmetals)                  (Metalloid)             (Metals)
Electronegativity:
 Electronegativity decreases down the group.
 Due to small size, the elements of this group are slightly more electronegative
than group 13 elements.
 The electronegativity values for elements from Si to Pb are almost the same.
 The shielding effect of f and d orbital is poor. Due to which the effective
nuclear charge increases and tightly holds the atom which results in increase in
electronegativity.
Chemical Properties:
 Oxidation States:
 The group 14 elements have four electrons in outermost shell. The common
oxidation states exhibited by these elements are +4 and +2.
 Carbon also exhibits negative oxidation states.
 Since the sum of the first four ionization enthalpies is very high, compounds in
+4 oxidation state are generally covalent in nature.
 In heavier members the tendency to show +2 oxidation state increases in the
sequence Ge<Sn<Pb.
 It is due to the inability of ns 2 electrons of valence shell to participate in
bonding.
 The relative stabilities of these two oxidation states vary down the group.
 Carbon and silicon mostly show +4 oxidation states. Germanium forms stable
compounds in +4 state and only few compounds in +2 states. Tin forms
compounds in both oxidation states (Sn in +2 states is a reducing agent).
 Lead compounds in +2 states are stable and in +4 states are strong oxidising
agents.
 In tetravalent state the number of electrons around the central atom in a
molecule (e.g., carbon in CCl4) is eight.
 Being electron precise molecules, they are normally not expected to act as
electron acceptor or electron donor species. Although carbon cannot exceed
its covalence more than 4, other elements of the group can do so. It is because
of the presence of d orbital in them.
 Due to this, their halides undergo hydrolysis and have tendency to form
complexes by accepting electron pairs from donor species. For example, the
species like, SiF62–, [GeCl6]2–, [Sn (OH) 6]2– exist where the hybridisation of the
central atom is sp3d2 .
 Reactivity towards oxygen:
 They form two types of oxides
 Monoxides (MO)
 Dioxides (MO2)
 That is :
 Monoxides : CO, SiO, GeO, SnO, PbO
 Dioxides: CO2,SiO2,GeO2,SnO2,PbO2
 Out of them:
 CO: Neutral

 SiO: is not so stable (exists at high temperature)

 GeO, SnO and PbO : Amphoteric
 CO2,SiO2 : Acidic
 GeO2: Less acidic
 SnO2 and PbO2: Amphoteric
 Out of them, CO Is strongest reducing agent because it has ability to accept
oxygen and form stable oxide that is carbon dioxide.
 The solid form of carbon dioxide is called dry ice and the commercial name of
dry ice is drikold.
 Out of them PbO2 is strongest oxidizing agent.
 Reaction with water: They form hydroxides.
 In this group, Carbon does not react with water.
 Tin reacts with steam forming SnO2.
Sn + 2H2O --> SnO2 + 2H2
 Ge, Sn, Pb do not react with water due to formation of protective layer of
oxide on it.
 Reaction with halogens: Halides are formed (EX4).
 The halides formed are:

CX4               SiX4             GeX4             SnX4           PbX4

                                    GeX2             SnX2           PbX2
 Most of the MX4 are covalent in nature. The central metal atom in these
halides undergoes sp3 hybridisation and the molecule is tetrahedral in shape.
 Exceptions are SnF4 and PbF4, which are ionic in nature.
 PbI4 does not exist because Pb—I bond initially formed during the reaction
does not release enough energy to unpaired 6s2 electrons and excite one of
them to higher orbital to have four unpaired electrons around lead atom.
 Heavier members Ge to Pb are able to make halides of formula MX2. Stability
of dihalides increases down the group.
 Considering the thermal and chemical stability, GeX4 is more stable than GeX2,
whereas PbX2 is more than PbX4.
 Except CCl4, other tetrachlorides are easily hydrolysed by water because the
central atom can accommodate the lone pair of electrons from oxygen atom of
water molecule in d orbital.
 
 Hydrolysis can be understood by taking the example of SiCl4. It undergoes
hydrolysis by initially accepting lone pair of electrons from water molecule in
d orbitals of Si, finally leading to the formation of Si(OH)4.
 CCl4 can’t be hydrolyzed easily whereas SiCl4 can be easily hydrolyzed: The
reason being, that carbon has no d orbital.
 As a result carbon can’t increase its oxidation number beyond 4. On the other
hand, Si has d orbital therefore, it can easily form bond with water by
extending its octet. That is the reason it can be hydrolyzed.

Allotropes of carbon:
 The property of an element to exist in two or more forms which have different
physical properties but identical chemical properties is called allotropy and
different forms are called allotropes. Carbon exists in three allotropic forms:

(i) Crystalline

(ii) Amorphous

(iii) Fullerenes

 The allotrope fullerenes were discovered by H.W.Kroto, E.Smalley and R.F.Curl.

For this discovery they were awarded the Nobel Prize in 1996.

 Diamond
 It has a crystalline lattice.
 Each carbon undergoes sp3 hybridization and is linked with other carbon
atoms in tetrahedral geometry.
 The bond length of C-C bond is 154pm.
 The structure extends in space and produces a rigid three dimensional
network of carbon atoms.
 The structure directional covalent bonds are present throughout the lattice
 Physical Properties:
 Due to the three dimensional structure of diamond, it is the hardest substance
on earth.
 The pure form of diamond is a transparent and colorless.
 Diamonds occur in a variety of colors—steel gray, white, blue, yellow, orange,
red, green, pink to purple, brown, and black. Colored diamonds contain
interstitial impurities or structural defects that cause the coloration.
 They have high melting point.
 It is a good thermal conductor but not a good electric conductor.
 Diamonds have a very bright luster - the highest non-metallic luster - known as
"adamantine."
 It is highly refractory.
 Chemical properties:
 Diamonds are chemically stable.
 At room temperature, diamonds do not react with any chemical reagents
including strong acids and bases.
 But if diamonds are ignited at certain temperature it oxidizes to forms the
everyday gases carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide.
 Uses:
 It is commonly used as ornamentals.
 It is also used as abrasive for sharpening tools
 They are used for polishing stones or gems.
 They are used for cutting glasses.
 They are used for making dyes.
 They are used in manufacturing of tungsten filaments for electric light bulbs.
 They can make in labs however in small quantities.
 Graphite
 It has a layered structure. These layers are held by Van der Waals forces.
 The distance between two layers is 340pm.
 Each layer is composed of planar hexagonal rings.
 The bond length is 141.5pm.
 Each carbons undergoes sp2 hybridization and has three sigma bonds plus one
pi bond
 The pi electrons are delocalized through the whole sheet.
 Physical properties
 It is greyish in color and opaque
 It is lighter than diamond, smooth and slippery to touch.
 It is soft due to the weak van der wail force.
 It cleaves easily between the layers.
 It conducts electricity due to the pi electrons delocalized which makes them
mobile helps to conduct electricity. (Presence of free electrons)
 It is a good conductor of heat.
 It is highly refractory.
 It is flexible but not elastic.
 It is very soapy to touch.
 Chemical Properties
 It is the most stable form of carbon.
 At normal conditions it does not reacts with strong acids.
 But if ignited it reacts to form carbon dioxide.
 Uses:
 Graphite is used for making the cores of our pencils- It is black, soft and its
layers can slide over one another.
 Graphite has a low adsorption of X-rays and neutrons making it a particularly
useful material in nuclear applications.
 Due to its softness, powder graphite is used as a lubricant for fast-moving
parts of machinery.
 Graphite conducts electricity hence it is used for making carbon electrodes in
dry cells and electrolysis. Electrolysis is the process of passing electricity
through an electrolyte.
 Fullerene
 Fullerene is the only pure form of carbon (Because of smooth structure no
dangling bonds.) It is made by heating of graphite in an electric arc in the
presence of inert gases such as helium or argon.
 Because of smooth structure no dangling bonds.
 C 60 has shape of soccer ball called buckminsterfullerene
 It has 20 six-membered rings and 12 five-membered rings
 All the carbon atoms are equal, and they undergo sp 2 hybridization
 Each carbon atom forms three sigma bonds with other three carbon atoms.
 The remaining electron at each carbon is delocalized in molecular orbitals,
which in turn give aromatic character to the molecule.
 This ball shaped molecule has 60 vertices and each one is occupied by one
carbon atom and it also contains both single and double bonds (hexagon-
hexagon) with C-C distances of 143.5 pm and 138.3 pm respectively.
 Δ f H - of graphite is the most thermodynamically stable allotrope of carbon
and is taken as zero.
 Δ f H - values of diamond and fullerene, C 60 are 1.90 and 38.1 kJ/mol
respectively.
 Other forms of elemental carbon like carbon black, coke, and charcoal are all
impure forms of graphite or fullerenes.
 Carbon black is obtained by burning hydrocarbons in a limited supply of air.
Charcoal and coke are obtained by heating wood or coal respectively at high
temperatures in the absence of air.
 Uses of carbon:
 Carbon in the form of coke and coal is used as fuel. Coke is also used as
reducing agent in metallurgy.
 Charcoal is used in absorbing poisonous gases and in water filters to remove
organic contaminators and in air-conditioning system to control odour.
 Carbon black is used as black pigment in black ink and as filter in automobile
tyres.
 Graphite is used for pencil tips, high temperature crucibles, dry cells,
electrodes and as a lubricant. Crucibles made from graphite are inert to dilute
acids and alkalis.
 Diamond is a precious stone and is used in jewellery.