PN JUNCTION DIODE

A Report on the partial fulfilment of the requirements of the Internal evaluation of

Grade XII

Submitted by: Submitted to:

Samir Shrestha Department of Physics

Kathmandu Model Secondary
School
Balkumari, Lalitpur
Stream: Science
Section: P2
Roll no: 22
 Letter of Declaration

I hereby declare that the report presented in this project has been done by myself
under the supervision of Mr.Puspa Nath,Mrs.Basanta Rimal,Mr.Shreejan
Sharma,and has not been submitted elsewhere for any examination.
All sources of the information have been specifically acknowledged by references
to authors or institutions.

Signature:

Name of Student: Samir Shrestha

Stream: Science
Section: P2
Roll no: 22

Date:

i
 Letter of Recommendation

The project work report entitled ‘PROJECT WORK REPORT OF physics’

submitted by Samir Shrestha of Kathmandu Model Secondary School, Balkumari,
Lalitpur, Nepal is prepared under my supervision as per the procedure and format
requirements laid by the Department of physics , Kathmandu Model Secondary
School, as the partial fulfilment of the requirements of the internal evaluation of
grade XII. I, therefore, recommend the report for evaluation.

Signature:

Name of Supervisor: Basanta Rimal

Date:

ii
 Letter of Approval

I hereby endorse the project work report entitled ‘PROJECT WORK REPORT OF
physics’ submitted by Samir Shrestha of Kathmandu Model Secondary School,
Lalitpur, Nepal in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the internal evaluation
of physics of grade XII.

Supervisor Head of Department

Basanta Rimal Puspa Nath
Signature Signature

Kathmandu Model Secondary School Kathmandu Model Secondary School

Department of physics Department of physics

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 Acknowledgments

I would like to express our sincere gratitude to the department of physics for
bringing this topic to our attention and for their support and guidance during the
preparation of this project work. I am also grateful to our respected physics
teachers who contributed to build a strong foundation of physics.

Samir Shrestha

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Contents
Letter of Declaration..................................................................................................i
Letter of Recommendation........................................................................................ii
Letter of Approval....................................................................................................iii
Acknowledgments....................................................................................................iv
1) INTRODUCTION TO PN JUNCTION DIODE.................................................1
a) Intrinsic Semiconductor..................................................................................2
b) Extrinsic Semiconductor.................................................................................3
c) N-Type Semiconductors..................................................................................4
d) p-Type Semiconductors..................................................................................4
2) Study on the Characteristics of PN Junction:.............................................................5
a) Forward Voltage Drop....................................................................................5
b) Reverse Breakdown.....................................................................................5
3) Experimental analysis to study forward characteristics of the semiconductor
diode.....................................................................................................................6
4) Analysis to study reverse characteristics of the semiconductor diode...............11
5) Applications of diodes........................................................................................13

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 PN JUNCTION DIODE

INTRODUCTION TO PN JUNCTION DIODE

The PN junction diode is a fundamental semiconductor device that plays a crucial

role in modern electronic circuits. This small but significant component is formed
by joining a P-type (positively doped) material with an N-type (negatively doped)
material. The interface where these two regions meet is called the PN junction. The
unique properties of the PN junction diode enable it to function as a rectifier,
allowing current to flow in only one direction.Widely employed for rectification,
amplification, and signal modulation, the pn junction diode is indispensable in
diverse electronic devices.

Historically, the pn junction diode's origins trace back to the early 20th century,
marked by key observations by scientists like Sir Jagadish Chandra Bose and Lee
De Forest. The 1930s witnessed a notable breakthrough when Russell Ohl's
discovery of the p-n junction paved the way for subsequent semiconductor
advancements. The following characteristics will be the major takeaway for the
given study of this device:

Forward Bias: Applying voltage in the forward direction allows majority charge
carriers to traverse the junction, facilitating a low-resistance state for efficient
current flow.

Reverse Bias: Conversely, reverse bias increases the potential barrier, hindering
majority carriers, resulting in a high-resistance state crucial for rectification in
electronic circuits.

In summary, this study provides a detailed examination of the characteristics of the

PN junction diode, including forward and reverse biasing, forward voltage drop,

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reverse breakdown, and its diverse applications. The understanding of these
characteristics and their implications in circuit design is essential for leveraging the
PN junction diode's unique properties in various electronic devices, contributing to
the advancement of modern technology.

Intrinsic Semiconductor
The definition of an intrinsic semiconductor is a semiconductor that is exceedingly
pure. According to the energy band theory, the conductivity of this semiconductor
will be zero at ambient temperature. Si and Ge are two examples of intrinsic
semiconductors.

The conduction band is empty in the below energy band diagram, but the valence
band is completely filled. Some heat energy can be provided to it once the
temperature has been raised. As a result of exiting the valence band, electrons from
the valence band are provided to the conduction band.

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Extrinsic Semiconductor
Extrinsic semiconductors are semiconductors that have had an impurity introduced
to them at a regulated rate to make them conductive.

While insulating materials may be doped to make them into semiconductors,

intrinsic semiconductors can also be doped to make an extrinsic semiconductor.
Extrinsic semiconductors are divided into two categories as a result of doping:
atoms with an additional electron (n-type for negative, from group V) and atoms
with one fewer electron (p-type for positive, from group III).
Doping is the purposeful introduction of impurities into a very pure, or intrinsic,
semiconductor in order to change its electrical characteristics. The kind of
semiconductor determines the impurities. Extrinsic semiconductors are those that
are light to moderately doped.

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Impurity is used to enhance the number of free electrons or holes in a
semiconductor crystal, making it more conductive. A significant number of free
electrons will exist if a pentavalent impurity with five valence electrons is
introduced to a pure semiconductor. A significant number of holes will exist in the
semiconductor if a trivalent impurity with three valence electrons is introduced.
Extrinsic semiconductors are divided into two categories based on the type of
impurity added: N-type and P-type semiconductors.

N-Type Semiconductors

N-type semiconductors are extrinsic semiconductors in which dopant atoms can

provide additional conduction electrons to the host material (e.g. phosphorus in
silicon).

An overabundance of negative (n-type) electron charge carriers results as a result

of this. Doping atoms often contain one extra valence electron than the host atoms.
Atomic replacement in group-IV solids by group-V elements is the most typical
case. When the host includes many types of atoms, the issue becomes more
complicated. Silicon, for example, can act as a donor when it replaces gallium or as
an acceptor when it replaces arsenic in III-V semiconductors like gallium arsenide.
Some donors have fewer valence electrons than the host, such as alkali metals,
which are donors in most solids.

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p-Type Semiconductors
To enhance the number of free charge carriers, a p-type (p for “positive”)
semiconductor is formed by adding a certain type of atom to the semiconductor.

The doping substance removes (accepts) weakly bonded outer electrons from
semiconductor atoms when it is introduced. The vacancy left behind by the
electron is known as a hole, and this sort of doping agent is also known as an
acceptor substance. The goal of p-type doping is to produce a large number of
holes.In the instance of silicon, the crystal lattice is swapped by a trivalent atom.
As a result, one of the four covalent bonds that typically make up the silicon lattice
is lacking an electron. As a result, the dopant atom can accept an electron from the
covalent link of a nearby atom to complete the fourth bond. Acceptors are the
name given to these dopants because of this.

As a result, a hole behaves like a positive charge. When a large enough number of
acceptor atoms are supplied, thermally excited electrons are substantially
outnumbered by holes. In p-type materials, holes are the majority carriers, whereas
electrons are the minority carriers.

Study on the Characteristics of PN Junction:

The behavior of a PN junction diode is primarily defined by its characteristics,

which govern its electrical properties and applications. Understanding these
characteristics is essential for utilizing PN junction diodes in various electronic
circuits.

Forward Bias:
When a positive voltage is applied to the P-region and a negative voltage to the N-
region, the PN junction diode is said to be forward biased. In this mode, the diode
allows current to flow easily, as the applied voltage assists the movement of charge
carriers across the junction.

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Reverse Bias:
Reverse biasing occurs when a negative voltage is applied to the P-region and a
positive voltage to the N-region. In this configuration, the PN junction diode
inhibits the flow of current due to the repulsion of charge carriers away from the
junction region. The diode acts as an insulator, except for a small reverse leakage
current.

Forward Voltage Drop:

The PN junction diode exhibits a characteristic forward voltage drop when
conducting current in the forward bias mode. This voltage drop typically ranges
from 0.6 to 0.7 volts for silicon diodes and around 0.2 volts for germanium diodes.

Reverse Breakdown :
Reverse voltage exceeding a certain threshold, known as the reverse breakdown
voltage, can cause a PN junction diode to enter a state of reverse breakdown. In
this state, the diode experiences a significant increase in reverse current and can be
permanently damaged if the reverse voltage is not limited.

Experimental analysis to study forward characteristics of the

semiconductor diode

Apparatus required:
 P-N junction diode
 Voltmeter
 Milliammeter
 Rheostat
 D.C. Power supply
 Connecting wires
 Resistance box

Theory:

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When external potential difference is applied to the junction in such a direction that
it cancels the potential barrier i.e. positive terminal of battery is connected to P-
type side and negative terminal to N-type side and permits current flow, it is called
forward bias.

When the diode is forward- biassed and the applied voltage is increased from zero,
hardly any current flows through the device in the beginning.It is so because the
external voltage is being opposed by the internal barrier potential(whose value is
0.7 for Si and 0.3 for Ge). As soon as the potential is neutralised, current through
the diode increases rapidly with increasing applied external potential. The forward
characteristic curve is obtained by plotting a graph between forward bias voltage
and forward current as shown in the given graph.

Knee voltage (Vk):

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It is the forward voltage beyond which the variation of forward current with
forward voltage is rapid and below which the variation is non-linear.

Dynamic Resistance (Rd):

The forward bias (as well reverse bias) characteristics of the P-N junction doesn’t
obey Ohm’s law. Therefore, the resistance offered by a junction diode depends
upon the applied voltage is called dynamic resistance.
The dynamic resistance of a junction diode is defined as the ratio of small change
in voltage to the small change in current produced. It is also called a.c. resistance
of the junction diode.

Rd= dV/dI.

PROCEDURE

 1)Place the Diode on the Breadboard:

 Insert the diode into the breadboard with attention to its polarity. The
cathode (shorter lead) should be connected to the N-type
semiconductor, and the anode (longer lead) should be connected to the
P-type semiconductor.
 2)Connect the Power Supply:
 Connect the positive terminal of the power supply to the anode of the
diode.
 Connect the negative terminal of the power supply to the cathode of
the diode.
 3)Connect Ammeter (Current Measurement):
 Connect the ammeter in series with the diode to measure the forward
current.
 Place the ammeter's probes in series with the diode. The positive
probe should be on the anode side, and the negative probe on the
cathode side.
 4)Connect Voltmeter (Voltage Measurement):
 Connect the voltmeter in parallel with the diode to measure the
forward voltage.
 Place the voltmeter's probes across the diode. The positive probe
should be on the anode side, and the negative probe on the cathode
side.
 5)Connect Rheostat:
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  Connect the rheostat in series with the diode if you want to vary the
resistance in the circuit.
 Connect one end of the rheostat to the anode of the diode and the
other end to the positive terminal of the power supply.
 This allows you to change the resistance in series with the diode.
 6)Connect Resistance Box (Optional):
 If you want to add a fixed resistance in the circuit, connect the
resistance box in series with the diode or in parallel with the power
supply.
 7)Adjust Power Supply and Rheostat:
 Set the power supply voltage to a low value (e.g., 0.1V) to begin.
 Gradually increase the voltage while observing the behaviour of the
diode.
 Adjust the rheostat to vary the resistance in the circuit and observe its
effect on current and voltage.
 8)Record Data:
 Record the voltage and current values at different points, especially at
the threshold and as the voltage increases.
 Analysis:
 Analyse the data and observe how the forward bias, resistance
variations, and additional resistances affect the PN junction diode's
behaviour.
 Safety Precautions:
 Do not exceed the maximum forward voltage specified for the diode.
 Be mindful of the polarity to avoid reverse biassing.
 If using a multimeter, ensure it is set to the correct mode and range.

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 Observation

No. of Voltmeter reading Millimetre reading I(mA)

obs. V(volt)

For R1=1 For R2=2 For R3=3

ohm ohm ohm
1 0 0 0 0
2 0.1 0 0 0
3 0.2 0 0 0
4 0.3 0 0 0
5 0.4 2 4 4
6 0.5 8 10 14
7 0.6 24 26 24
8 0.7 50 58 60
9 0.8 Out of range Out of range Out of range

Nature of graph was like this one below:

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We see that there’s rapid change in forward current once external potential exceeds
potential barrier of the Ge P-N junction diode(0.3 V). Hence it is concluded that
when P-N junction diode is forward biassed:

1. The width of the depletion region decreases.

2. The potential barrier decreases
3. The flow of current inside the diode increases rapidly.
4. The diode offers very low resistance.

Analysis to study reverse characteristics of the

semiconductor diode

Apparatus required:

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 ● P-N junction diode
● Voltmeter
● Millimeter
● Rheostat
● D.C. Power supply
● Connecting wires
● Resistance box

Theory

If
a voltage is applied across the diode in such a way that the n-type half of the diode
is connected to the positive terminal of the voltage source and the p-type half is
connected to the negative terminal, electrons from the external circuit would create
more negative ions in the p-type region by "filling the holes" and more positive
ions would be created in the n-type region as electrons are displaced toward the
positive terminal of the voltage source (see Figure 2). Hence, the depletion region
would increase and the voltage between the p-type and n-type regions would also
increase as the total charge on each side of the junction increases in magnitude
until the voltage across the diode equals and opposes the applied voltage and
cancels it out, ceasing the current through the circuit. This process happens nearly
instantaneously and results in essentially no current flow through the circuit when

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voltage is applied in this direction across the diode. This is known as a reverse-
biased p-n junction

The nature of the graph:

Breakdown voltage:
The breakdown voltage of a diode refers to the minimum reverse voltage at which
the diode starts to conduct appreciably in the reverse direction. It is the threshold
voltage at which the initiation of breakdown occurs

Characteristics of reverse-biased

1) The width of the depletion region increases.

2) The potential barrier increases
3) The flow of current inside the diode is negligible.
4) The diode offers very high resistance.

Applications of diodes

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Diodes have diverse applications in electronics. Some of the common applications
include:

 Rectifiers: Diodes are used as rectifiers in DC power supplies to convert AC

power to DC power.
 Zener Diodes: Zener diodes are utilized in voltage-regulating circuits to
maintain a consistent voltage across a load.
 Signal Diodes: Signal diodes are employed in communication circuits for
tasks such as signal detection and switching.
 Varactor Diodes: Varactor diodes find use in radio and TV receivers,
enabling precise tuning.
 Logic Circuits: Diodes can serve as switches in logic circuits, playing a
crucial role in digital logic functions.

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 CONCLUSION

The pn junction diode is a fundamental electronic component with distinctive

characteristics and wide-ranging applications. Its ability to control current flow in
one direction and its non-linear current-voltage relationship make it indispensable
in various circuits.

One key characteristic of the pn junction diode is rectification. By applying a

forward bias voltage, it allows current to flow easily, converting AC to DC. This
property is essential in power supplies and rectifier circuits for efficient energy
conversion.
The diode's reverse bias property is another important feature. When a reverse bias
voltage is applied, it creates a high resistance barrier, blocking current flow. This
characteristic is utilized in voltage regulation, signal demodulation, and
overvoltage protection.

The forward voltage drop (Vf) is a significant parameter of the pn junction diode.
It typically ranges from 0.3 to 0.7 volts, depending on the material used.
Understanding and controlling this voltage drop is crucial for designing circuits
with precise voltage levels.
The pn junction diode's applications are diverse and extensive. It is used in power
supplies, rectifier circuits, signal processing circuits, and voltage regulation
circuits. It is also employed in LEDs, laser diodes, solar cells, and photodiodes,
where it converts electrical energy to light and vice versa.

In summary, the pn junction diode is a vital electronic device that enables

rectification, voltage regulation, signal processing, and energy conversion. Its
applications span across various fields, from power supplies to lighting and
renewable energy. The pn junction diode's significance in modern electronics
cannot be overstated, as it continues to drive technological advancements and
shape our daily lives.

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 References

1. https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/intrinsic-semiconductors-and-extrinsic-
semiconductors/

2. https://www.allaboutcircuits.com/

3. https://study.com/academy/lesson/p-n-junction-diode-definition-properties.html

4. https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/diode/diode_2.html

5. https://byjus.com/physics/p-n-junction/

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