Physics Investigatory Project

(2023-2024)
To study the variations in current flowing in
a circuit containing an LDR because of a
variation in (a) the power of the
incandescent lamp, used to 'illuminate' the
LDR (keeping all the lamps at a fixed
distance). (b) The distance of an
incandescent lamp (of fixed power) used to

Submitted by-
Name-: Priyanshu Raj Agarwal
Class & Section-: 12-E
Admission number-: 12208

Guided by-
Mrs. Mira Sahu

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 INDEX
CERTIFICATE Pg.no.- 3
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Pg.no.- 4
DECLARATION Pg.no.- 5
1. PHOTORESISTOR DISCOVERY
Pg.no.-6
AND MECHANISM
2. PRINCIPLE AND THEORY Pg.no.-8
3. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF
Pg.no.-9
COMPONENTS
4. APPLICATIONS Pg.no.-12
5. INTRODUCTION Pg.no.-14
6. AIM AND APPARATUS Pg.no.-14
7. PROCEDURE Pg.no.-15
8. OBSERVATIONS Pg.no.-15
9. RESULT & CONCLUSIONS Pg.no.-20
10. BIBLOGRAPHY Pg.no.-20

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 Certificate
This is to certify that Priyanshu Raj Agarwal
of class XII E has successfully completed the
investigatory project on “TO STUDY
VARIATION OF CURRENT USING A
LDR" under the guidance of Mrs. Mira
Sahu .This project is absolutely genuine and
doesn't not involve in any kind of plagiarism.
This is in partial fulfillment of Physics
practical examination CBSE 2023-24.

Teacher in Charge External Examiner

Acknowledgement
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I would like to express my special thanks of

gratitude to my teacher (Mrs. Mira Sahoo) as
well as our principal (Shri Nilakanth
Panigrahi) who gave me the golden
opportunity to do this wonderful project on the
topic (TO STUDY VARIATION OF
CURRENT USING A LDR), which also
helped me in doing a lot of Research and I
came to know about so many new things I am
really thankful to them.
Secondly I would also like to thank my
parents and friends who helped me a lot in
finalizing this project within the limited time
frame.

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 DECLARATION
I hereby declare that investigatory
project entitled “TO STUDY
VARIATION OF CURRENT USING
A LDR” has been carried out by my
own efforts and fact arrived at my
observation under the guidance &
motivation of subject teacher Mrs.
Mira Sahu.

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Photo resistor discovery

Photo resistors, or light dependent resistors

have been in use for very many years. Photo
resistors have been seen in early forms since
the nineteenth century when
photoconductivity in selenium was discovered
by Smith in 1873. Since then many variants of
photoconductive devices have been made.
Much useful work was conducted by T. W.
Case in 1920 when he published a paper
entitled "Thalofide Cell - a new photo-electric
cell".
Other substances including PbS, PbSe and
PbTe were studied in the 1930s and 1940s,
and then in 1952, Rollin and Simmons
developed their photoconductors using silicon
and germanium.
Photo resistor mechanism
A photo resistor or photocell is a component that uses a
photoconductor between two contacts. When this is
exposed to light a change in resistance is noted.

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Photoconductivity - the mechanism behind the photo
resistor - results from the generation of mobile carriers
when photons are absorbed by the semiconductor material
used for the photoconductor. While the different types of
material used for light dependent resistors are
semiconductors, when used as a photo-resistor, they are
used only as a resistive element and there are no PN
junctions. Accordingly the device is purely passive.
There are two types of photoconductor and hence photo
resistor:
 Intrinsic photo resistor:   This type of photo resistor
uses a photoconductive material that involves
excitation of charge carriers from the valence bands to
the conduction band.
 Extrinsic photo resistor:   This type of photo resistor
uses a photoconductive material that involves
excitation of charge carriers between an impurity and
the valence band or conduction band. It requires
shallow impurity dopants that are not ionized in the
presence of light.

Extrinsic photo resistors or photocells are generally

designed for long wavelength radiation - often infra-red, but
to avoid thermal generation they need to be operated at
low temperatures.

PRINCIPLE

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This project is based on Light Dependent Resistance
(L.D.R.). Light Dependent Resistance [LDR] is a resistance,
in which opposing power of current depends on the
presence of quantity of light present, i.e. the resistance of
LDR increases or decreases, according to quantity of light
which falls on it.

If LDR places in darkness, the resistance of LDR increases

and when light falls on it, the resistance of LDR decreases
and act as a conductor. Any LDR in the presence of light
and darkness changes its resistance is depends on the
different types of LDR.
ADVANTAGES
 Collection of parts of the circuit are easily available.
 Accuracy of this circuit is more than accuracy of other
circuits.
 By using laser, it can be used for security purposes.
 It can be used to stop the wastage of electricity.
 The cost of circuit is low.
 This circuit saves the men's power.

USES
 It can be used in street lights.

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 It can be used in mines areas.
 It can be used in hilly areas.
 By using laser, it can be used for safety purposes.
 It can be used in frontier areas.
 It can be used in houses.
 It can be used in jail lights.
BRIEF DISCRIPTION OF COM PONENTS
1. TRANSISTOR:-When a thin slice of p-type is sandwiched
between two blocks of n-type, then n-p-n transistor is formed. It
consists of emitter, base, and collector. In the project, common
emitter n-p-n transistor (BC-147 & SL-100) is used.
2. DIODE: - When a p-type and n-type semiconductors are
joined a diode is formed. It conducts when forward biased and
does not conduct when reverse biased. In the project, IN-
4007diode is used.
3. RELAY: - It helps to contact and discontact. In the project, we
use relay of 6 ohms.
4. CARBON RESISTOR: - A carbon resistor has generally four
rings or bands A, B, C and D of different colors corresponding to
the value of resistance. In project, we use carbon resistance of 220
kilo-ohms, 1.5 kilo-ohms and 820 ohms.
5. LDR: - LDR means light dependent resistance which is used to
complete the circuit.
6. TRANSFORMER: - Transformer is used to convert low
alternating voltage to high alternating voltage by decreasing the
current and vice-versa. We use a transformer of 6-0-6V for the
circuit
7. CAPACITOR: - Capacitor is used to block DC. In the circuit,
we use the capacitor of 220mfd and 1000mfd.

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8. BULB: - An electric bulb is connected to the circuit when LDR
comes in the darkness.
9. PHOTORESISTOR:-A photoresistor (or light-dependent
resistor, LDR, or photocell) is a light-controlled
variable resistor. The resistance of a photoresistor
decreases with increasing incident light intensity; in other
words, it exhibits photoconductivity. A photoresistor can be
applied in light-sensitive detector circuits, and light- and
dark-activated switching circuits.
A photoresistor is made of a high resistance semiconductor.
In the dark, a photoresistor can have a resistance as high
as several megohms (MΩ), while in the light, a
photoresistor can have a resistance as low as a few
hundred ohms. If incident light on a photoresistor exceeds a
certain frequency, photons absorbed by the semiconductor
give bound electrons enough energy to jump into
the conduction band. The resulting free electrons (and
their hole partners) conduct electricity, thereby
lowering resistance. The resistance range and sensitivity of
a photoresistor can substantially differ among dissimilar
devices. Moreover, unique photo resistors may react
substantially differently to photons within certain wavelength
bands.

A photoelectric device can be either intrinsic or extrinsic. An

intrinsic semiconductor has its own charge carriers and is
not an efficient semiconductor, for example, silicon. In

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intrinsic devices the only available electrons are in
the valence band, and hence the photon must have enough
energy to excite the electron across the entire band gap.
Extrinsic devices have impurities, also called dopants,
added whose ground state energy is closer to the
conduction band; since the electrons do not have as far to
jump, lower energy photons (that is, longer wavelengths
and lower frequencies) are sufficient to trigger the device. If
a sample of silicon has some of its atoms replaced by
phosphorus atoms (impurities), there will be extra electrons
available for conduction. This is an example of an extrinsic
semiconductor.

Applications

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The internal components of a
photoelectric control for a typical
American streetlight. The photoresistor is
facing rightwards, and controls whether
current flows through the heater which
opens the main power contacts. At night,
the heater cools, closing the power
contacts, energizing the street light.
Photo resistors come in many types.
Inexpensive cadmium sulphide cells can
be found in many consumer items such as
camera light meters, clock radios, alarm
devices (as the detector for a light
beam), nightlights, outdoor clocks, solar
street lamps and solar road studs, etc.
Photo resistors can be placed in
streetlights to control when the light is on.
Ambient light falling on the photoresistor
causes the streetlight to turn off. Thus
energy is saved by ensuring the light is
only on during hours of darkness.
They are also used in some dynamic
compressors together with a
small incandescent or neon lamp, or light-

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emitting diode to control gain reduction. A
common usage of this application can be
found in many guitar amplifiers that
incorporate an onboard tremolo effect, as
the oscillating light patterns control the
level of signal running through the amp
circuit.
The use of CdS and CdSe photo resistors
is severely restricted in Europe due to
the RoHS ban on cadmium.
Leadsulphide (PbS)and indium
antimonite (InSb) LDRs (light-dependent
resistors) are used for the mid-infrared
spectral region. Ge: Cu photoconductors
are among the best far-infrared detectors
available, and are used for infrared
astronomy and infrared spectroscopy.

LIGHT DEPENDENT RESISTANCE

Project Report Physics
INTRODUCTION

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In the society, sometimes street lights glow in day time due to
any reason. In mines area people face many difficulties due to
absence of light in the nights. In frontier and hilly areas, people
face many problems due to damaged street lights.

For solve above these problems, we create a device in which the

lights glow in night and in day time, they off automatically and
don't glow. Due to use of it, we can solve above problems and
can also save electricity and men's power.

AIM: To study the variations, in current flowing in a circuit

containing a LDR, because of a variation:-

(a) In the power of the incandescent lamp, used to ‘illuminate’

the LDR. (Keeping all the lamps at a fixed distance).

(b) In the distance of an incandescent lamp, (of fixed power),

used to ‘illuminate’ the LDR.

APPARATUS:
Light Dependent Resistor (LDR), Connecting Wires, Source of
different power rating (bulbs), Bulb Holder, Meter scale, Multi
Meter Battery.

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PROCEDURE
1. Choose a specific position for the source and
mount it using a holder, make sure it is stable.
2. Select the bulb with the lowest power rating and
connect it to the holder as shown in the figure.
3. Connect the LDR, battery (6V) and the multimeter
in series.
4. Set the multimeter to ohm section and select
suitable range and measure the resistance with a
bulb on.
5. Similarly switch to current section and move to
micro ampere in the multimeter. This gives the
value of the current.
6. Repeat these steps with different power sources at
different distances and note down observations.

OBSERVATIONS:-
The experiment has been conducted by using various sources
with different power ratings. Voltage of the battery = 6 V.

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 OBSERVATIONS TABLE:-
(a) Variation in current of LDR with lamps of different power,
keeping distance fixed.

Distance
between Source(Bulb
LDR ) Resistance(Ω
Sl.No. Current(mA)
and the Of power )
source inputs(W)
d(cm)
1. 10 15 1310 4.58

2. 10 30 770 7.00

3. 10 60 285 21.00

4. 10 100 195 30.00

1. 20 15 2800 2.14

2. 20 60 650 9.00

3. 20 100 435 13.79

1. 30 15 4300 1.4

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 2. 30 60 1000 6.00

3. 30 100 660 9.00

(b) Variation in current of LDR with distance :-

FOR 15 W POWER SOURCE

Distance
between LDR
Sl.No. Resistance(Ω ) Current(µA)
and the source
d(cm)
1. 4 1010 5.94

2. 6 1350 4.44

3. 8 1490 4.03

4. 10 1610 3.73

5. 12 1740 3.45

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 6. 14 1880 3.19

7. 16 2300 2.61

8. 18 2540 2.36

9. 20 2800 2.14

10. 22 3000 2.00

11. 24 3240 1.85

FOR 60 W POWER SOURCE

Distance
between LDR
Sl.No. Resistance(Ω ) Current(mA)
and the source
d(cm)
1. 4 105 57

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2. 6 180 33

3. 8 230 26

4. 10 280 21

5. 12 360 16

6. 14 440 13

7. 16 500 12

8. 18 575 10

9. 20 675 8.8

10. 22 740 8.1

11. 24 820 7.3

FOR 100 W POWER SOURCE

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 Distance
between LDR
Sl.No. Resistance(Ω ) Current(mA)
and the source
d(cm)
1. 4 80 75

2. 6 130 46

3. 8 170 35

4. 10 205 29

5. 12 270 22

6. 14 300 20

7. 16 360 16

8. 18 410 14

9. 20 460 13

10. 22 525 11

11. 24 585 10

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CONCLUSION & RESULT
1. The LDR resistance decreases with increase in intensity of
light and hence there is an increase in the flow of current.
2. There is an increase in the current as the distance from the
source decreases.
3. The intensity decreases as the distance from the source
increases
4. The error lies within the experimental limit.

SOURCES OF ERROR
1. The LDR may not be perpendicular to the source.
2. Connections may be faulty.
3. The experiment should be conducted in a dark room.
4. Measurements should be taken accurately.

Bibliography
1. NCERT CLASS 12 PHYSICS TEXTBOOK
2. www.google.co.in

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3. www.wikipedia.com
4. www.yahoo.co.in

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