Unit II

ENERGY SOURCES AND APPLICATIONS

SOLAR CELLS
Solar energy is through the sun’s rays that reach the earth. Solar energy originates from the
thermonuclear fusion reactions taking place in the sun. Only 0.2 to 0.5% of the solar energy reaching the
earth is trapped in photosynthesis. Thus only a tiny fraction of the solar energy reaching the earth drives all
our ecosystems. Solar energy is a renewable eco-friendly, perennial source of energy.
In 1830’s the British astronomer John Herschel used a solar thermal collector box to cook food
during an expedition to Africa.
Solar energy can be converted into Electricity by the following two ways.
1. Photo voltaic cells or Solar cells 2. Solar power plants
Photovoltaic cells: (PV cell (or) Solar cell (or) Solar Battery)
The basic unit of a photovoltaic system is the solar cell. The most common solar cells are made up of
highly refined silicon. These solar cells can change the sunlight directly into electricity.
Working principle of a solar cell: (Photo voltaic cell):
Solar cell constitutes a p-type semiconductor in contact
with a n-type semiconductor. Due to close contact, the
migration of holes or electrons is limited. The outer
layer of p-type semiconductor is struck by a beam of
light from the sun. When enough sunlight is absorbed
by the semiconductor, electrons are dislodged from the
atoms, and migrate to the surface leaving positive holes.
So a potential difference arises between the p-type and
n-type semiconductors. When the terminals are
connected to an external circuit, electrons flows from n-
layer to p-layer, which converts directly the solar
energy into electrical energy. This device is called as a
photo voltaic cell. The photovoltaic individual cells can
vary in size from about 0.5 inches to about 4 inches.
However one single cell produces 1 or 2 watts. To
increase the power put cells are electrically connected
out into a packaged module.
The modules can be further connected to form an array. It refers to an entire photovoltaic power plant.
 Advantages of Photovoltaic power plants
1. The conversion of sunlight directly to electricity does not need any bulky mechanical generators.
2. PV arrays can be installed quickly in any size.
3. The environmental impact is minimal, requiring no water for system cooling and generating
no by products.
4. These will be producing DC (Direct current) which is used for small loads.
Disadvantages
1. The photovoltaic array is dependent on sunlight which is not constant but depends on
location, time of the day, time of year and weather conditions.
2. The Photovoltaic cells used for commercial applications must have an arrangement to
convert the resultant DC power into AC power.
Applications:
• Photovoltaic cells have been used to power many satellites orbiting the earth.
• They are used in remote areas for electricity
• They are also used for low-power mobile applications such as hand-held calculators and wrist
watches.

Photo Galvanic Cells

Solar cell converts solar energy into electricity directly. Among such solar cells, the photo galvanic
cells are unique as these are only solar cells that are capable of doing solar power generation and
storage simultaneously.
On illumination, the photosensitizer molecule gets excited. The excited photosensitizer molecule
accepts an electron from reductant and gets converted into semi or leuco form. At Pt electrode
(Illuminated Chamber-anode), the semi or leuco form of photosensitizer molecules lose an electron
and gets converted into original photosensitizer molecule. At SCE (Dark Chamber-cathode), the
photosensitizer molecule accepts an electron (coming from Pt electrode through external circuit) from
electrode and gets converted into semi or leuco form. Finally, leuco/semi form of photosensitizer and
oxidized form of reductant combine to give original photosensitizer and reductant molecules in dark
chamber. This cycle goes on in cell. The repetition of cycles results in stream of electrons (i.e., current)
flowing through the external circuit having external load. Thus, the PG can be used for solar power
generation (direct current) and storage.

Non Conventional Energy Sources

Non conventional sources
• Non-conventional sources of energy are the energy sources which are continuously
replenished by natural processes. These cannot be exhausted easily, can be generated constantly
 so can be used again and again, e.g. solar energy, wind energy, tidal energy,
biomass energy and geothermal energy etc.
• All these sources are renewable or inexhaustible and do not cause environmental pollution.
More over they do not require heavy expenditure
• These are pollution free and hence we can use these to produce a clean form of energy without
any wastage.
• Most of the Non-conventional Power resources are cheaper and renewable as compared to
the conventional sources.

Advantages:
• Cheaper and Renewable
• Scarcity of Fossil Fuels: The overall limitation and scarcity of fossil fuels has given rise to the
urgent need for exploiting alternative energy sources
Importance
• Non-conventional sources of energy are gaining importance. This energy is abundant,
renewable, pollution free and eco-friendly. Solar Energy, Tidal Energy, Wave Energy,
Geothermal Energy, Wind Energy, etc. are the important non-conventional sources of energy

Hydro Power Plant : Working and Types

• Hydropower became an electricity source in the late 19th century, a few decades after British-
American engineer James Francis developed the first modern water turbine.
• In 1882, the world's first hydroelectric power plant began operating in the United States along
the Fox River in Appleton, Wisconsin.
Definition: Hydropower or water power is power derived from the energy of falling or fast-running
water, which may be harnessed for useful purposes.

The electricity produced from machines that are run by moving water is called
Hydro Power.Generation of electricity by hydropower (potential energy in stored water) is one of the
cleanest methods of producing electric power. In 2012, hydroelectric power plants contributed about
16% of total electricity generation of the world. Hydroelectricity is the most widely used form of
renewable energy. It is a flexible source of electricity and also the cost of electricity generation is
relatively low. This article talks about the layout, basic components and working of a hydroelectric
power station.
Layout and working of hydroelectric power plant
The above image shows the typical layout of a hydroelectric power plant and its basic components.
Dam and Reservoir: The dam is constructed on a large river in hilly areas to ensure sufficient water
storage at height. The dam forms a large reservoir behind it. The height of water level (called as water
head) in the reservoir determines how much of potential energy is stored in it.
Control Gate: Water from the reservoir is allowed to flow through the penstock to the turbine. The
amount of water which is to be released in the penstock can be controlled by a control gate. When the
control gate is fully opened, maximum amount of water is released through the penstock.
Penstock: A penstock is a huge steel pipe which carries water from the reservoir to the turbine.
Potential energy of the water is converted into kinetic energy as it flows down through the penstock
due to gravity.
Water Turbine: Water from the penstock is taken into the water turbine. The turbine is mechanically
coupled to an electric generator. Kinetic energy of the water drives the turbine and consequently the
generator gets driven. There are two main types of water turbine; (i) Impulse turbine and (ii) Reaction
turbine. Impulse turbines are used for large heads and reaction turbines are used for low and medium
heads.
Generator: A generator is mounted in the power house and it is mechanically coupled to the turbine
shaft. When the turbine blades are rotated, it drives the generator and electricity is generated which is
then stepped up with the help of a transformer for the transmission purpose.
Surge Tank:Surge tanks are usually provided in high or medium head power plants when considerably
long penstock is required. A surge tank is a small reservoir or tank which is open at the top. It is fitted
between the reservoir and the power house. The water level in the surge tank rises or falls to reduce
the pressure swings in the penstock. When there is sudden reduction in load on the turbine, the governor
closes the gates of the turbine to reduce the water flow. This causes pressure to increase abnormally in
the penstock. This is prevented by using a surge tank, in which the water level rises to reduce the
pressure. On the other hand, the surge tank provides excess water needed when the gates are suddenly
opened to meet the increased load demand.

Types of Hydro-power plants

Conventional plants:
Conventional plants use potential energy from dammed water. The energy extracted
 depends on the volume and head of the water. The difference between height of water level in the
reservoir and the water outflow level is called as water head.
Pumped storage plant:
In pumped storage plant, a second reservoir is constructed near the water outflow from
the turbine. When the demand of electricity is low, the water from lower reservoir is pumped into the
upper (main) reservoir. This is to ensure sufficient amount of water available in the main reservoir to
fulfil the peak loads.
Run-of-river plant:
In this type of facility, no dam is constructed and, hence, reservoir is absent. A portion
of river is diverted through a penstock or canal to the turbine. Thus, only the water flowing from the
river is available for the generation. And due to absence of reservoir, any oversupply of water is passed
unused.
Advantages of Hydroelectric Energy
• Renewable. Hydroelectric energy is renewable. ...
• Green. Generating electricity with hydro energy is not polluting itself. ...
• Reliable. Hydroelectricity is very reliable energy. ...
• Flexible. As previously mentioned, adjusting water flow and output of electricity is easy.
• Safe.
• Hydropower is fueled by water, so it's a clean fuel source.
• It won't pollute the air like power plants that burn fossil fuels, such as coal or natural gas

Disadvantages of Hydroelectric Energy

• Environmental Consequences are related to interventions in nature due to damming of
water, changed water flow and the construction of roads and power lines.
• Expensive.
• Droughts.
• Limited Reservoirs.

Geothermal Power
Geothermal energy is the thermal energy in the Earth's crust which originates from the formation of
the planet and from radioactive decay of materials in currently uncertain[1] but possibly roughly
equal proportions. The high temperature and pressure in Earth's interior cause some rock to melt and
solid mantle to behave plastically. This results in parts of the mantle convecting upward since it is
lighter than the surrounding rock. Temperatures at the core–mantle boundary can reach over 4000 °C
(7200 °F).
Geothermal heating, using water from hot springs, for example, has been used for bathing
since Paleolithic times and for space heating since ancient Roman times. More recently geothermal
power, the term used for generation of electricity from geothermal energy, has gained in importance.
It is estimated that the earth's geothermal resources are theoretically more than adequate to supply
humanity's energy needs, although only a very small fraction is currently being profitably exploited,
often in areas near tectonic plate boundaries.

• Geothermal power is power generated by geothermal energy.

• Technologies in use include dry steam power stations, flash steam power stations and binary
cycle power stations.
• Geothermal electricity generation is currently used in 26 countries, while geothermal heating
is in use in 70 countries.
Electricity generation
• Geothermal power plants use steam to produce electricity. The steam comes from reservoirs of
hot water found a few miles or more below the earth's surface. The steam rotates a turbine that
activates a generator, which produces electricity.

There are 3 ways to get geothermal energy

1 Dry steam power plant

• This is the simplest and oldest type of geothermal plant. It directly uses steam from the reservoir
to operate the turbine. The steam is collected from the production well and used to operate low-
pressure turbines. Hence, the working fluid is steam. The used steam is then condensed and
injected back through the injection well.

• Flash steam power plant

• Flash steam power plants are the most commonly employed geothermal plants today. They
operate on the geothermal reservoires having water temperature greater than 180 degree celcius.
The high pressure hot water from the reservoir flows up through the production well due to its
own pressure. The pressure decreases as the water flows upwards and, hence, some of it gets
converted into steam. The steam is seperated from the water by steam seperator and sent to drive
the steam turbine. The unused water as well as the condensed steam are injected back through the
injection well.

• Binary power plant

• Binary power plants are the recent development. They have made it possible to produce
electricity from geothermal reservoirs with temperatures lower than 150 degree celcius. In these
plants, hot water from geothermal reservoir is used to heat up an another organic fluid having a
lower boiling point. Thus, here, the working fluid is the secondary organic fluid and not the water
from reservoir. The heat energy from the water is transferred to the working fluid in the heat
exchanger. As a result, the working fluid vaporizes, and then drives the turbines. The spent fluid
passes through the condenser and the cycle repeats. The water is injected back into the reservoir
through the injection well.
 • Advantages

• Renewable energy source

• No harmful gases emitted
• No green house effect
• Cost of Fuel is negligible
• Capital cost is 40-60% less than thermal and Nuclear plants
• Short construction period
• Corrosive effects of steam tackled by advanced metallurgy

Geothermal Energy Disadvantages

• Potential emissions – Greenhouse gas below Earth's surface can potentially migrate to the
surface and into the atmosphere. ...
• Surface Instability – Construction of geothermal power plants can affect the stability of land.
Example of geothermal energy
• A lava fountain is an example of the amount of heat stored in the Earth.
• Geysers, lava mountains and hot springs are all natural examples of geothermal energy.
• In addition, geothermal energy is now a lot more common in homes and businesses,
using geothermal heat pumps to cool and heat buildings

Efficiency of geothermal plant:

• The highest reported conversion efficiency is approximately 21% at the Darajat vapour-
dominated system, with a worldwide efficiency average of around 12%.

Applications
 • Its current uses include heating buildings (either individually or whole towns), raising plants
in greenhouses, drying crops, heating water at fish farms, and several industrial processes, such
as pasteurizing milk.

Geothermal energy usage in the world

• The largest group of geothermal power plants in the world is located at The Geysers,
a geothermal field in California, United States. As of 2004, five countries (El Salvador, Kenya,
the Philippines, Iceland, and Costa Rica) generate more than 15% of
their electricity from geothermal sources.

TIDAL POWER
Tidal power or tidal energy is the form of hydropower that converts the energy obtained
from tides into useful forms of power, mainly electricity. Although not yet widely used, tidal
energy has the potential for future electricity generation. Tides are more predictable than the wind and
the sun
• Tidal energy was discovered in the year of 1966 in the area of La Rance, River, France.
• M. Jannaschii discovered Tidal Energy by simply watching the tides and the power of waves.

• A dam is constructed in such a way that a basin gets separated from the sea and a difference in
the water level is obtained between the basin and sea.
• Tidal power barrages have to resist waves whose shock can be severe and where pressure
changes sides continuously
• Tidal energy is produced through the use of tidal energy generators.
• These large underwater turbines are placed in areas with high tidal movements, and are
designed to capture the Potential motion of the ebbing and surging of ocean tides in order to
produce electricity.
• The turbine and generator converts the movement of water coming from change in tide, the
Potential energy, into electricity.
• Water is 830 times denser than air and therefore can generate electricity at lower speeds than
wind turbines
Electricity generation potential
• The total energy contained in tides worldwide is 3,000 gigawatts (GW; billion watts), though
estimates of how much of that energy is available for power generation by tidal barrages are
between 120 and 400 GW, depending on the location and the potential for conversion

Advantages
• Environment-friendly.
• Highly predictable energy source.

• High energy density.

• Operational and maintenance costs are low.

• Inexhaustible source of energy.

• 100% renewable nature

• Reliable and renewable source of energy.
• High energy density than other renewable energy forms.
• It produces no greenhouse gases or other waste.
• Tidal turbines are 80% efficient, which is higher than solar or wind energy generators.

Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC)

Sea Solar Power uses the basic technology known as Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC). It
was invented in 1881 by a French scientist Jacque Arsene D'Arsonval

Ocean thermal energy conversion produces energy from temperature differences in ocean waters.
Energy from the sun heats the surface water of the ocean. In tropical regions, surface water can be
much warmer than deep water. This temperature difference can be used to produce electricity and to
desalinate ocean water.
• Ocean Thermal Energy also called as Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC)
 • Basically, Ocean thermal energy conversion is an electricity generation system.

• The deeper parts of the ocean are cooler due to the fact that the heat of sunlight cannot penetrate
very deep into the water.

• The efficiency of the system depends on the temperature difference.

• Greater the temperature difference, greater the efficiency.

• The temperature difference in the oceans between the deep and shallow parts is maximum in
the tropics, 20 to 25o C.

• Tropics receive a lot of sunlight which warms the surface of the oceans, increasing the
temperature gradient.

The energy source of OTEC is abundantly available, free and will be so for as long as the sun shines
and ocean currents exist.
Estimates suggest that ocean thermal energy could contain more than twice the world’s electricity
demand. This makes it necessary for us to give it a closer look.
The basic working principle of OTEC is quite simple. The warm water is used to evaporate a working
fluid like liquid Ammonia with a low boiling point. The high pressure vapour that is produced drives
a turbine-generator to produce electricity. The cold deep seawater is used to condense the working
fluid vapor back into a liquid

Types of Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion Systems:

Basically there are two types of OTEC system
• Closed cycle and
• Open cycle.
There is also the Hybrid cycle, which is a combination of both open and closed cycle but which is not
tested yet.
• OTEC system uses the Carnot cycle to generate electricity at a very low efficiency.

Closed Cycle:
 • Closed cycle OTEC systems use a working fluid like Ammonia with a low boiling point, and
use it to power a turbine to generate electricity.
• Warm seawater is taken in from the surface of the oceans and cold water from the deep at 5o.
• The warm seawater vaporizes the fluid in the heat exchanger which then turns the turbines of
the generator.
• The fluid now in the vapour state is brought in contact with cold water which turns it back into
a liquid.
• The fluid is recycled in the system which is why it is called a closed system.

Open Cycle:
• Open cycle OTEC directly uses the warm water from the surface to make electricity.

• The warm seawater is first pumped in a low-pressure chamber where due to the drop in
pressure, it undergoes a drop in boiling point as well.

• This causes the water to boil.

• This steam drives a low-pressure turbine which is attached to an electrical generator.

• The advantage this system has over a closed system is that, in open cycle, desalinated water in
the form of steam is obtained.

• Since it is steam, it is free from all impurities. This water can be used for domestic, industrial
or agricultural purposes.
• OTEC is a future sources of energy. Its environmental impact is negligible; in fact, the mixing
of deep and shallow seawater brings up nutrients from the seafloor. The deep water is rich in
nitrates and this can also be used in agriculture.

• OTEC uses the ocean thermal gradient between cooler deep and surface seawaters to run a heat
engine and produce electricity.
• OTEC can operate with a very high capacity factor and so can operate in base load mode

• HYBRID OTEC
Advantages
• Generation costs are extremely low.
• No fuel is needed to generate the power
• Productive uses include Cooking, drying, heating, smoking, baking, water heating, cooling and
manufacturing.
• New and efficient technologies reduce the amount of biomass needed for fuel
Disadvantages of ocean thermal energy:
• Construction cost is very high.
• Efficiency of energy conversion is very low.
• It disturb the aquatic system.
• A constant offer of heat and cold water is needed.
• The plants are often in-built solely appropriate for tropical locations.
Limitations of OTEC system
Capital investment is very high.
Due to small temperature difference in between the surface water and deep water, conversion
efficiency is very low about 3-4%.
Low efficiency and uneconomical for small plants
Electrochemical Sensors :
The oldest electrochemical sensors date back to the 1950s and were used for oxygen monitoring. More recently,
as the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) began requiring the monitoring of toxic and
combustible gases in confined space applications, new and better electrochemical sensors have been developed.
By the mid-1980s, miniaturized electrochemical sensors became available for detection of many different toxic
gases in PEL ranges, with the sensors exhibiting good sensitivity and selectivity. Currently, a variety of
electrochemical sensors are being used extensively in many stationary and portable applications for personal
safety. Figure 1 shows a small collection of such electrochemical sensors.
The physical size, geometry, selection of various components, and the construction of an electrochemical sensor
usually depends on its intended use. Quite often, the final design results in a compromise between various
performance parameters of the electrochemical sensor. The most common misconception about electrochemical
sensors is that they are all the same. In fact, the appearance of the electrochemical sensors used to detect
various gases may be similar, but their functions are markedly different. Consequently, one can expect varying
performance from each of these sensors, in terms of sensitivity, selectivity, re- sponse time, and operating life.
For example, a low concentration gas sensor with very high sensitivity uses a coarse-porosity hydrophobic
membrane and less restricted capillary to allow more gas molecules to pass through to produce enough sig- nal
for better sensitivity. However, this design also al- lows more of the electrolyte’s water molecules to es- cape
out to the environment. In other words, an elec- trochemical sensor with high sensitivity would have a relatively
short operating life due to evaporation of moisture through the porous membrane.
Similarly, the electrolyte composition and the sens- ing electrode material is selected based on the chemi- cal
reactivity of the target gas. By careful selection of the electrolyte and/or the sensing electrode, one can achieve
the selectivity towards the target gas, but the sensitivity may be reduced.
In summary, different electrochemical sensors may appear very similar, but are constructed with differ- ent
materials including such critical elements as sens- ing electrodes, electrolyte composition, and porosity of
hydrophobic barriers. Additionally, some electro- chemical sensors use external electrical energy to make
them reactive to the target gas. All components of the sensors play a crucial role in determining the overall
characteristics of the sensors.

Major Components
An electrochemical sensor consists of the following ma- jor components:
Gas Permeable Membrane (also called hydrophobic membrane): This is used to cover the
sensor’s sens- ing (catalyst) electrode and, in some instances, to control the amount of gas
molecules reaching the electrode surface. Such barriers are typically made of thin, low-porosity
Teflon membranes. Such sen- sors are called membrane clad sensors. Alternatively, the sensing
electrode is covered with a high-poros- ity Teflon and the amount of gas molecules reach- ing the
electrode surface is controlled by a capil- lary. Such sensors are referred to as capillary-type sensors.
Besides offering a mechanical protection to the sensor, the membrane performs the additional function of
filtering out unwanted particulates. Se- lecting the correct pore size of the membrane and capillary is necessary
to transfer the proper amount of gas molecules. The pore size should be such as to allow enough gas molecules
to reach the sensing electrode. The pore size should also prevent liquid electrolyte from leaking out or drying
out the sen- sor too quickly.
Electrode: The selection of the electrode mate- rial is very important. It is a catalyzed material
which performs the half cell reaction over a long period of time. Typically, the electrode is made
from a noble metal, such as platinum or gold, and catalyzed for an effective reaction with gas
mol- ecules. Depending on the design of the sensor, all three electrodes can be made of different
materi- als to complete the cell reaction.
Electrolyte: The electrolyte must facilitate the cell reaction and carry the ionic charge across the
elec- trodes efficiently. It must also form a stable refer- ence potential with the reference
electrode and be compatible with materials used within the sensor. If the electrolyte evaporates too
quickly, the sensor’s signal will deteriorate.
Filter: Sometimes a scrubber filter is installed in front of the sensor to filter out un-
wanted gases. There is a limited selec- tion of filters, each with different de- grees of effectiveness. The most
com- monly used filter medium is activated charcoal, as shown in Figure 5. The ac- tivated charcoal filters out
most chemi- cals with the exception of carbon mon-

oxide and hydrogen gases. By properly selecting the filter medium, an elec- trochemical sensor can
be made more selec- tive to its target gases.
Choosing the suitable materials for the above components, and arranging the geometry of all these
components to determine the optimum operating per- formance presents a challenge to scientists. Minor
variations in the details of the sensor design can have a profound influence on the sensor’s accuracy, re- sponse
time, sensitivity, selectivity, and life expectancy.
Importance of Oxygen. The reactions at the sens- ing electrode(anode) for some gases are as
follows:
CO + H2O → CO2 + 2H+ + 2e-
H2S + 4H2O → H2SO4 + 8H+ + 8e- NO + 2H2O → HNO3 + 3H+ + 3e-
H2 → 2H+ + 2e-
2HCN + Au → HAu(CN)2 + H+ + e-
Simultaneously, the reactions at the counter elec- trode (cathode) need oxygen molecules to complete the
process:
O2 + 4H+ + 4e- → 2H2O
An inadequate supply of oxygen to complete the reaction will shorten the life of the sensors, hence the sensors
will not operate properly.
Sensors involving a reduction reaction of the tar- get gas—such as the reduction of nitrogen dioxide, chlorine,
and ozone—at the cathode produce water as a byproduct. At the anode, water is simultaneously oxidized. Such
sensors do not require the presence of oxygen to function properly, as shown by the fol- lowing:
NO2 + 2H+ + 2e- → NO + H2O Cl2 + 2H+ + 2e- → 2HCl
O3 + 2H+ + 2e- → O2 + H2O
Characteristics
There are many different ways that electrochemi- cal sensors are constructed, depending both on the gas to be
detected as well as the manufacturer. How- ever, the main characteristics of the sensors are es- sentially very
similar. Following are some of the com- mon characteristics of electrochemical sensors:
With a three-electrode sensor, there is nor- mally a jumper which connects the working and reference
electrodes. If it is removed dur- ing storage, it will take a long time for the sen- sor to stabilize and be ready to be
used. Some sensors require a bias voltage between the elec- trodes, and in such cases, the sensors are shipped
from the factory with a nine-volt bat- tery powered electronic circuit. It takes any- where from thirty minutes to
twenty-four hours for the sensor to stabilize, and it will continue to stabilize over a three-week period.
When installed in a portable or stationary instrument, the sensor cannot be removed from power for an
appreciable amount of time. It is wise to double-check the instrument be- fore use if batteries or power were
removed at some point. The portable instrument’s cir- cuitry provides a small current needed to maintain the
sensor in the ready-to-use condi- tion, even if the instrument is turned off.
Two-electrode sensors do not require any bias voltage. For example, oxygen sensors do not require a bias
voltage.
Most of the toxic gas sensors require a small amount of oxygen to function properly. There is a vent hole on the
side or back of the sensor for this purpose. It is wise to double-check with the manufacturer in applications that use
non- oxygen background gas.
Electrolyte within the sensor cell is an aqueous solution separated by a hydrophobic barrier which will not allow
the aqueous solution to leak out. However, water vapor can pass through, just as other gas molecules can.
In high humidity conditions, prolonged exposure can cause excessive water to build up and cre- ate leakage. In
low humidity conditions, the sensor can dry out. Sensors that are designed to monitor high gas concentrations
have less porous barriers to limit the amount of gas molecules that pass through, and therefore are not affected
by the humidity as much as sen- sors that are used to monitor low gas concen- trations, which have more
porous barriers and allow a more free exchange of water molecules.
Pressure and Temperature
Electrochemical sensors are minimally affected by pressure changes. However, it is important to keep the entire
sensor within the same pressure since differen- tial pressure within the sensor can cause sensor dam- age.
Electrochemical sensors are also quite sensitive to temperature and, therefore, the sensors are typi- cally
internally temperature-compensated. However, it is better to keep the sample temperature as stable as possible.
In general, when the temperature is above 25C, the sensor will read higher; when it is below 25C, it will read
lower. The temperature effect is typically 0.5% to 1.0% per degree centigrade, depending on the manufacturer and
type of sensor.
Selectivity
Electrochemical sensors are generally fairly selec- tive to the target gas they are designed for. The de- gree of
selectivity depends on the type of sensor, the target gas, and the concentration of gas the sensor is designed to
detect. The best electrochemical sensor is for the detection of O2, which has good selectivity, is very reliable,
and has a long life expectancy. Other
electrochemical sensors are subject to interference from other gases. A typical list of interference ratios for CO
sensors is shown on page 34 as an example.
The higher the ratio, the less the effect of inter- ference gas on the sensor. The interference data are taken using
relatively low gas concentrations. In ac- tual applications, interference concentrations can be quite high,
causing false readings and/or alarms.
Q.List various energy resources. Express the advantages and limitations of renewable energy
sources.
Renewable energy comes from a source that will not deplete. Two common examples of this type of energy
are solar power and wind power. Geothermal power, hydropower, biomass, and tidal power are additional
forms of renewable energy that produce power for our planet right now.

Types of renewable energy sources :

Most renewable energy comes either directly or indirectly from the sun. Sunlight, or solar energy, can be used
directly for heating and lighting homes and other buildings, for generating electricity, and for hot water
heating, solar cooling, and a variety of commercial and industrial uses.

The sun’s heat also drives the winds, whose energy, is captured with wind turbines. Then, the winds and the
sun’s heat cause water to evaporate. When this water vapor turns into rain or snow and flows downhill into
rivers or streams, its energy can be captured using hydroelectric power.

Along with the rain and snow, sunlight causes plants to grow. The organic matter that makes up those plants is
known as biomass. Biomass can be used to produce electricity, transportation fuels, or chemicals. The use of
biomass for any of these purposes is called bioenergy.

Hydrogen also can be found in many organic compounds, as well as water. It’s the most abundant element on
the Earth. But it doesn’t occur naturally as a gas. It’s always combined with other elements, such as with
oxygen to make water. Once separated from another element, hydrogen can be burned as a fuel or converted
into electricity.

Not all renewable energy resources come from the sun. Geothermal energy taps the Earth’s internal heat for a
variety of uses, including electric power production, and the heating and cooling of buildings. And the energy
of the ocean’s tides come from the gravitational pull of the moon and the sun upon the Earth.

In fact, ocean energy comes from a number of sources. In addition to tidal energy, there’s the energy of the
ocean’s waves, which are driven by both the tides and the winds. The sun also warms the surface of the ocean
more than the ocean depths, creating a temperature difference that can be used as an energy source. All these
forms of ocean energy can be used to produce electricity.

The primary advantage of renewable energy is that fewer potentially harmful emissions are released into the
atmosphere. Although fossil fuels are used to create the products that allow for this power to be produced,
most forms of renewable energy can become carbon neutral in 5 years or less.

The disadvantage of renewable energy is that it can be costly. Although wind power and solar power have
become cost-competitive with coal-fired power and nuclear power in some communities, some forms are not
cost-competitive globally yet when the cost per kilowatt hour is compared. In 2015, the lifetime cost per
kilowatt hour of conventional coal was 9.5 cents, while the cost of offshore wind was 15.8 cents.
There are additional advantages and disadvantages of renewable energy to consider as well.

What Are the Advantages of Renewable Energy?

1. It is safe, abundant, and clean to use when compared to fossil fuels.

Even clean-burning natural gas is at a disadvantage to what renewable energy sources can provide. Enough
sunlight comes down on our planet every day that if we could harvest it with solar panels and other forms of
collection, we could power everything for an entire year. Because wind is created by the warmth of the sun, it
is also virtually limitless. Fossil fuels, in theory, are a finite resource because of how they are created.
2. Multiple forms of renewable energy exist.
Diversification within the renewable energy sector has exploded since the 1970s. From dams that provide
hydropower to solar strips that are strong enough to handle the weight of a vehicle and can be turned into
roads, we have numerous methods of creating power through the collection of renewable energy. There is
greater diversity in this sector when compared to fossil fuel resources.
3. It provides the foundation for energy independence.
Many nations rely on fossil fuels for their society to function under the “modern” definition. These fuels come
from a handful of countries that work to control pricing and availability. By developing renewable energy
resources, countries can work toward energy independence with a diversified portfolio of energy to access.
Although these resources take time to develop, it should be remembered that the current fossil fuel
infrastructure has more than a century of development behind it.
4. Renewable energy is stable.
When renewables are creating energy, the power produced is stable and usable, just like any other form of
“traditional” power. It is a dependable resource when an infrastructure is available to support it. Jobs are
created within the sector as well, creating stability within local economic sectors at the same time. The power
created can be distributed through existing grids, which can limit installation costs for some communities.
5. It is a technology instead of a fuel.
Coal must be mined and refined to make it useful. Natural gas must be released and transported. A fossil fuel
is created from natural resources, whereas renewable energies are created thanks to the use of technology. For
this reason, the pricing of renewable energies will continue to go down as improvements in technology occur.
Fossil fuels can see price reductions through mining and refining efficiency improvements, but there will
always be an underlying labor cost that will affect pricing and availability.

What Are the Disadvantages of Renewable Energy?

1. Not every form of renewable energy is commercially viable.

Many forms of renewable energy must be collected at a specific location, which means distribution networks
must be setup to take advantage of the power that can be generated. These networks require a massive fossil
fuel investment that can take generations to neutralize with the use of renewable energy. From tidal power to
geothermal, the commercial viability of many renewable energy resources is not available right now.
2. Many forms of renewable energy are location-specific.
Even solar energy has limited potential in some locations. In Seattle, Washington, just 71 days per year are
classified as “sunny,” or having a cloud cover that is less than 30%. Northern cities may go prolonged periods
without any sunlight during the winter months. Because renewable energy is often location-specific, it may
not be available for every community to use.
3. Many forms of renewable energy require storage capabilities.
With traditional power resources, a home or business is connected to a local distribution grid so that it can be
accessed 24/7. When using a renewable energy resource, back-up and storage resources must be included with
the power generation opportunity. Sunlight doesn’t happen at night. Wind speeds are not always consistent.
The storage capabilities that are required can push the cost of a new renewable energy system beyond what the
average person or community can afford.
4. Pollution is still generated with renewable energy.
Renewable energies are cleaner than most fossil fuels, but “cleaner” and “clean” are very different terms. A
resource like biomass still burns waste products and puts pollution into the atmosphere. This includes carbon
and methane, which are classified as greenhouse gases. The technologies and facilities that are used to build
renewable energy resources require fossil fuels, as do the transportation and distribution networks. In many
instances, renewable energy relies on fossil fuels, whereas fossil fuels do not rely on renewables.
5. Renewables often require subsidies to make them affordable.
In the United States, an emphasis on biofuels and renewable energies led to the creation of ethanol as a crude
oil replacement. Despite taxpayer-funded subsidies in place for this corn-based fuel, only 430,000 barrels per
day were produced in 2007. That was enough to replace 2% of the oil that was being consumed while corn
prices skyrocketed because of the crops being funneled into this renewable fuel.
6. Some forms of renewable energy require a massive amount of space.
To product 20 megawatts of energy, current solar technologies require 100 acres of space. In comparison, the
footprint for a nuclear power plant is 1 square mile to produce 1,000 megawatts of energy. Solar is therefore
45 times less space efficient compared to nuclear power. Solar is even worse, requiring up to 360 square miles
to produce the same energy as one nuclear power plant.
The advantages and disadvantages of renewable energy show us that this technology has great potential. We
have yet to realize its full potential, however, because of certain limitations that come with renewables. With
more investments into this technology, prices can be lowered, jobs can be created, and the transition toward
the consumption of fewer fossil fuels can happen.

Differences between Renewable and Non-renewable Resources

Following are major differences between renewable and non-renewable resources.

Renewable Resources Non-renewable Resources

Depletion

Non-renewable resources deplete over

Renewable resources cannot be depleted over time
time

Sources

Renewable resources include sunlight, water, wind and Non-renewable energy includes fossil
also geothermal sources such as hot springs and fumaroles fuels such as coal and petroleum.

Environmental Impact

Most renewable resources have low carbon emissions and Non-renewable energy has a
low carbon footprint comparatively higher carbon footprint
and carbon emissions.

Cost

The upfront cost of renewable energy is high. – For

instance, Generating electricity using technologies running Non-renewable energy has a
on renewable energy is costlier than generating it with comparatively lower upfront cost.
fossil fuels

Infrastructure Requirements

Cost-effective and accessible

Infrastructure for harvesting renewable energy is
infrastructure is available for non-
prohibitively expensive and not easily accessible in most
renewable energy across most
countries.
countries

Area Requirements

Requires a large land/ offshore area, especially for wind Comparatively lower area
farms and solar farms requirements