Life's Biological Molecules 2

3. Transport Protein Contractile proteins in the form of actin and

myosin are found in cells to allow movement and cause
The presence of membrane proteins in the form
muscle contraction.
of channel and carrier proteins in the plasma membrane
aid cells to be selective in moving substances into and out Animals are capable of locomotory movement
of the cell. Other transport proteins exist in the body. and substance movement inside the body due to the
action of the contractile protein. In addition, those
4. Defense Proteins
proteins also help regulate body temperature.
Another type of protein that plays an important
role in the body’s defense system against disease-causing
foreign organisms and particles, like bacteria and viruses
is called the antibody.

Antibodies are produced by a specific type of

WBC called B lymphocytes in response to the presence of
a foreign substance in the body , which is referred as
Antigen.

The reaction between an antibody and an

antigen is highly specific, in which a particular antibody
can only recognize a specific antigen.

Antibodies can cause the death of invading

microorganisms by destroying the disease-causing cells
via cell lysis or by aggregating the cells via agglutination.

Antibodies can also detoxify foreign substances

that may cause damage or death to affected cells.

7. Storage Protein

Storage proteins serve as reserves of amino

acids, which can be used later on to nourish the growth
and development of organisms. These proteins are found
in egg whites (albumin), seeds, and milk.

Structures of Protein

Primary Structure of Protein

• The Primary structure of proteins is the exact
ordering of amino acids forming their chains.

• The exact sequence of the proteins is very

important as it determines the final fold and
therefore the function of the protein.

5. Regulatory or Signal Proteins • The number of polypeptide chains together form

proteins. These chains have amino acids
Hormones are signal proteins that regulate body
arranged in a particular sequence which is
function. Growth factors are proteins that influence the
characteristic of the specific protein. Any change
growth and development of an organism. The hormone
in the sequence changes the entire protein.
insulin regulates glucose concentration in the blood.

6. Contractile Proteins
 Life's Biological Molecules 2
β – pleated sheet

In this arrangement, the polypeptide chains are

stretched out beside one another and then bonded by
intermolecular H-bonds. In this structure, all peptide
chains are stretched out to nearly maximum extension
and then laid side by side which is held together by
intermolecular hydrogen bonds. The structure resembles
the pleated folds of drapery and therefore is known as β –
pleated sheet.

Secondary Structure of Protein

Secondary structure of protein refers to local folded

structures that form within a polypeptide due to
interactions between atoms of the backbone.

• The proteins do not exist in just simple chains of

polypeptides.

• These polypeptide chains usually fold due to the

interaction between the amine and carboxyl
group of the peptide link.

• The structure refers to the shape in which a long

polypeptide chain can exist.

• They are found to exist in two different types of

structures α – helix and β – pleated sheet
structures.

• This structure arises due to the regular folding of

the backbone of the polypeptide chain due to
hydrogen bonding between -CO group and -NH
groups of the peptide bond.

However, segments of the protein chain may acquire
their own local fold, which is much simpler and usually
takes the shape of a spiral an extended shape, or a loop.
These local folds are termed secondary elements and
form the protein’s secondary structure.
Tertiary Structure of Protein
• This structure arises from further folding of the
secondary structure of the protein.
• H-bonds, electrostatic forces, disulfide linkages,
and Vander Waals forces stabilize this structure.

• The tertiary structure of proteins represents the

overall folding of the polypeptide chains, further
folding of the secondary structure.

• It gives rise to two major molecular shapes called

fibrous and globular.

• The main forces which stabilize the secondary

and tertiary structures of proteins are hydrogen
α – Helix bonds, disulfide linkages, van der Waals and
electrostatic forces of attraction.
α – Helix is one of the most common ways in
which a polypeptide chain forms all possible hydrogen
bonds by twisting into a right-handed screw with the -NH
group of each amino acid residue hydrogen-bonded to
the -CO of the adjacent turn of the helix. The polypeptide
chains twisted into a right-handed screw.
 Life's Biological Molecules 2

Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are organic compounds that

serve as the main source of energy in all organisms.
Quaternary Structure of Protein Together with proteins, carbohydrates also
The spatial arrangement of various tertiary function as structural components of living cells.
structures gives rise to the quaternary structure. Some of
the proteins are composed of two or more polypeptide
chains referred to as sub-units. The spatial arrangement
of these subunits with respect to each other is known as
quaternary structure.

Monosaccharides

Monosaccharides are simple sugars with only

one sugar unit.

They are identified based on the number of carbon

atoms they are made up.

• TRIOSE, ex. Glyceraldehyde (C3H6O3)

• PENTOSE, ex. Ribose (C5H10O5)

• HEXOSE, ex. Fructose, Galactose, Mannose, and

Glucose (C6H12O6)

Monosaccharides are highly soluble in water and can

easily pass through membranes such as the cell
membrane.
 Life's Biological Molecules 2
Fructose is commonly found in plants, but rarely
found in animals.

It is the sweetest known sugar in fruits, such as ripe

mangoes, melon and sugar apple. Glucose is an
indispensable component in mammalian blood and is
found at least in small quantities in all animals.

Ribose and deoxyribose are simple sugars forming

the backbone of RNA and DNA.

Simple sugar is used as building blocks in the

formation of complex sugars such as disaccharides.

Monosaccharides also serve as starting materials for

the construction of other organic molecules such as fats.

The main bulk of carbohydrates in the diet is utilized

as an energy source and converted to glycogen for
storage in the liver. But any excess is converted into fats. Maltose or malt sugar is made up of two glucose
molecules, which occur in malted cereals and sprouting
Disaccharides
grains.
Disaccharides are complex sugars made up of
Lactose or milk sugar is composed of one
two molecules of monosaccharides chemically joined
molecule of galactose and one molecule of glucose.
together.
A disaccharide can be broken down into simple
The chemical formula of a disaccharide
sugar by heating it with acids or treating it with a suitable
(C12H22O11).
enzyme.
The chemical process where two
The chemical reaction is where a water molecule
monosaccharides are joined together to form a
is added to split a disaccharide into its component units.
disaccharide with the loss of water molecules is called
condensation or dehydration synthesis. Ex. When sucrose in a water solution is heated in diluted
hydrochloric acid or treated with enzyme sucrase, what
Sucrose, the common table sugar, is a
will happen to the sucrose?
disaccharide formed from the chemical combination of
glucose and fructose. Polysaccharides

Sucrose is found in sugarcane, sugar beets, Polysaccharides are complex sugars made up of
carrots, and other sweet fruits. It is not found in chains and branches of monosaccharides formed by
mammals. condensation reaction.

The basic formula for polysaccharides is

(C24H42O21)n, where n refers to the number of
monosaccharides present.

Polysaccharides are capable of acting as energy

storage or structural molecule as parts of cell structures.

Starch and Glycogen are examples of storage

and polysaccharides, while cellulose and chitin are
examples of polysaccharides.
Life's Biological Molecules 2

Starch is a storage carbohydrate in plants

composed entirely of glucose molecules.

A starch molecule may contain as many as 200

glucose molecules.

It is commonly found in potato tubers, cassava,

carrots, corn, and cereals.

It is easily digested by most animals because the

enzyme amylase needed to hydrolyze the compound is
present in animals.

Glycogen is a storage carbohydrate in animals,

which accumulates in the liver and muscle cells of
vertebrates.

Like starch, glycogen is also made up entirely of

glucose units.

Glycogen, however, contains more glucose units

than starch.

During, digestion, glucose, and other

monosaccharides are released from food and used as
energy sources.

However, not all monosaccharides are used by

cells, so the unused glucose is stored in the liver as
glycogen for future use.

Glycogen and Starch are ideal storage polysaccharides

for the following reasons.

• Both can easily be broken down into glucose

molecules when needed.

• Both are insoluble in water, thus, do not affect

osmotic pressure in cells.

• Both have compact shapes, thus, occupy less

space.

• Both cannot diffuse through cell membranes

because of their relatively large size.

Cellulose, the most abundant organic compound on

Earth, is a polysaccharide found in plant cell walls.

It is a highly insoluble carbohydrate that functions for

support and protection for plant cells.
 Life's Biological Molecules 2
It is also made of long chains of glucose molecules,
like glycogen and starch, but differs in linkage and
formation.

Cellulose is a rich supply of glucose, but

unfortunately, humans and many animals are not capable
of digesting it as they lack cellulase.

Ruminant animals eat cellulose-rich materials such as

grass and hay but rely on bacteria present in their
digestive tract to digest cellulose.

Nevertheless, cellulose is important in the human

diet because it serves as a fiber source.
Fiber helps reduce cholesterol in the body and helps
produce soft fecal material, reducing constipation,
hemorrhoids, and even rectal cancer.
Lipids in living organisms have the following functions:
• Solvent for fat-soluble vitamins and hormones.
• Prevents water loss from the skin surface. The
thin layer of oil secreted by sebaceous glands in
the skin prevents water evaporation.

• Essential parts of cell structures such as cell

membranes. Phospholipids are major building
blocks of the phospholipid layer of the cell
membrane.

• Insulating material to prevent heat loss and

protection against extreme cold.

• Source and storage of energy. As a result of the

larger hydrogen content of fats, a greater degree
of oxidation (removal of hydrogen) is required,
thus, more energy per molecule of fat is
obtained compared to carbohydrates. Lipids
provide twice as much energy per pound as
carbohydrates.

Fats are lipids of one molecule of glycerol (an alcohol-

containing three carbons) and three fatty acid molecules.
An ester bond connects the glycerol and the fatty acids.

Lipids

Lipids are organic substances that include fats

and fat-like substances, such as phospholipids, wax,
steroid, and sphingolipid.

Lipids are generally hydrophobic substances and

are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents,
such as benzene, ether, and chloroform.

Like carbohydrates, lipids are also made up of
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, but contain less oxygen in
proportion to hydrogen.
Tristearin, the primary fat in beef, has the
formula C57H110O6.
Fats can be broken down into simpler
compounds by the addition of water hydrolysis. Three
molecules of water are needed to break one molecule of
fat into its component glycerol and three fatty acids with
the aid of an enzyme.
 Life's Biological Molecules 2

Other Examples of Lipids

Two types of Fatty Acids Phospholipids

- Are important components of cell membranes.
• Saturated Fatty Acids
- They are made up of two fatty acid molecules
• Unsaturated Fatty Acids
and one phosphate group.

- The nonpolar fatty acids components are

Saturated Fatty Acids hydrophobic, while the polar phosphate group is
hydrophilic.
• Are solid at room temperature.

• These are mostly found in animals.

• Ex.: Lard, margarine, and butter.

Stearic Acid (Saturated Fatty Acids)

Waxes

- Are lipids, which are important components for

many organisms, such as the cuticle covering the
surface of leaves and stem plants, and protective
coverings on the skin and fur of some animals.

Unsaturated Fatty Acids

• Liquid state at room temperature.

• These are mostly found in plants.

• Unsaturated fats are found to be healthier

sources of fats compare to saturated form.

• Ex.: Vegetable oil and Corn oil

Linoleic Acid (Unsaturated Fatty Acids)

Steroids

- Are lipids with a carbon of four fused rings.

- Cholesterol, bile salts, sex hormones, and vitamin

D.
 Life's Biological Molecules 2
- Cholesterol adds strength to the plasma
membrane of animal cells and serves as a
precursor to the formation of steroids.

- The liver produces cholesterol that you need.

- Cholesterol was get by consuming meat

products, poultry, eggs, and dairy products.

- Too much cholesterol is harmful to the body.

Nucleic Acids

Nucleic acids are organic compounds that store

genetic information, which is transmitted from one
generation to the next in all living organisms.

It is the physical carrier of inheritance that is

Triglycerides
- Also known as blood fats, circulate in the
bloodstream along with cholesterol.
passed from parents to offspring.
Nucleic acids also function in protein synthesis as
they carry the code needed in the formation of specific
proteins.

- Humans get triglycerides from food such as meat
and plant oils.
- Like cholesterol, humans need just the right
amount of triglycerides because too much can
increase the risk of heart and blood vessel
diseases.
The type of nucleic acids also functions in protein
synthesis, as they carry the code needed in the formation
of specific proteins.
The types of nucleic acids in living organisms are
DNA and RNA.
A nucleotide is made up of a five-carbon sugar,
phosphate group, and nitrogenous base.

“High cholesterol and triglycerides put you at high risk

for heart disease”

Sphingolipids

- Are specifically found in the brain, lungs, and

nerve tissues.

- They also serve as surfactants that help reduce

tension in the lungs to maintain their right shape. Nitrogenous base group

Double-ringed purines:

Guanine and Adenine

Sigle-ringed pyrimidines:
 Life's Biological Molecules 2
Cytosine, Thymine and Uracil The two strands that make up the DNA molecule
winds around each other, forming a double spiral
molecule that resembles a twisted ladder.

According to Chargaff’s rule, the different

nitrogenous bases form specific pairs.

The structure of DNA as a double-stranded helix

molecule was first described by James Watson and
Francis Crick in 1953.