Lecture 27 Frequency Response 2

Fundamentals of Digital Signal Processing

Spring, 2012

Wei-Ta Chu
2012/6/12

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 Application of Ideal Filters
Suppose we can generate a square wave with a
fundamental period of ( = 2kHz,
rad/sec)

In Section 3-4 we showed that periodic waveforms can

be represented by a Fourier series of the form

The Fourier coefficients are given by the integral

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 Application of Ideal Filters
Make substitution:

If we evaluate the integral, we can show that the

complex amplitudes in the spectrum are:

Fourier series of the square wave contains only odd

harmonics of the fundamental frequency.

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 Application of Ideal Filters
The spectrum of the square wave with fundamental
frequency of 2 kHz has (radian) frequency components
at rad/sec, rad/sec,
rad/sec, etc.
The average value of the square wave (over one period)
is

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 Application of Ideal Filters
Now we want to apply an LTI filter to the square wave
so that the output will be a sinusoid.
The desired spectrum of the output signal consists of
two frequency components – if we want the output
sinusoid at f=2 kHz , or rad/sec, the
required two complex exponential components will be
at kHz.

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 Application of Ideal Filters
The action of the filter operating on the input signal
can be described as multiplication of the input
spectrum times the frequency response of the filter.
That is, if ak represents the Fourier series coefficients
of the input square wave, then the output signal has
Fourier coefficients
The narrow passband of the BPF is centered around
the spectrum lines at . The ideal
passband can have any nonzero width as long as it
includes , but does not include any of
the other nonzero spectrum components of the input.
Any ideal BPF will give the same output if
and
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 Application of Ideal Filters
The complex amplitudes of the two output spectral
lines are found by multiplication, and only the
terms of the output Fourier series will be left

The output sinusoid

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 Application of Ideal Filters
The key point of this example is that filtering involves
the multiplication of the frequency response times the
input spectrum.
This provides us with the concept of filters where
signal components are either passed through or
“filtered out” of an input signal.

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 Time-Domain or Frequency Domain?
We have shown that a continuous-time LTI system can
be represented in the time domain by its impulse
response and in the frequency-domain by its frequency
response.
Which is to be used in a given situation?
When the input signal can be represented as a sum of
sinusoids or complex exponentials, then the frequency
response method usually provides the simplest solution.
If a signal consists of impulses or step functions or
other non-sinusoidal signals, convolution of that signal
with the impulse response may be the simplest
approach.

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 Example: Superposition
Suppose that an LTI system has impulse response

Assume the input is

for
The input consists of three parts: a constant signal, an
impulse, and a cosine wave
Because the system is linear, we can take each part
separately and use the solution method that is easiest
for that input

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 Example: Superposition
We can treat the constant signal as a complex-
exponential signal with zero for its frequency. For this
we will need to compute the frequency response.

Therefore, the output due to the constant signal is

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 Example: Superposition
The output due to the cosine signal

For the impulse component, convolution is easily

evaluated by simply shifting and scaling the impulse
response, i.e.,

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 Example: Superposition
Overall, the output of the system is

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 Lecture 27 Continuous-Time Fourier
Transform
Fundamentals of Digital Signal Processing
Spring, 2012

Wei-Ta Chu
2012/6/12

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 Fourier Transform
In previous chapters, our presentation of the spectrum
was limited to sinusoids and periodic signals. Now we
want to develop a completely general definition of the
frequency spectrum that will apply to any signal x(t).
We will be able to
(1) define a precise notion of bandwidth for a signal
(2) explain the inner workings of modern
communication systems which are able to transmit
many signals simultaneously by sharing the available
bandwidth
(3) define filtering operations that are needed to
separate signals in such frequency-shared systems

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 Fourier Transform
In Chapter 3, we show if a continuous-time signal is
periodic with period T0, then it can represented as a
sum of cosines with all frequencies being integer
multiples of the fundamental frequency
In Chapter 10, we show that a complex-exponential
input of frequency produces an output that is also a
complex exponential of that same frequency, but
modified in amplitude and phase by frequency
response of the LTI system.

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 Definition of the Fourier Transform
Forward Continuous-Time Fourier Transform

Inverse Continuous-Time Fourier Transform

The forward transform is an analysis integral because

it extracts spectrum information
The inverse transform is a synthesis integral because it
is used to create the time-domain signal from its
spectral information.

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 Definition of the Fourier Transform
Time domain and frequency domain

It is common to say that we take the Fourier transform

of x(t), meaning that we determine so that we
can use the frequency-domain representation of the
signal.
We often say that we take the inverse Fourier
transform to go from the frequency-domain to the
time-domain.

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 Example: Forward Fourier Transform
Consider the one-sided exponential signal

Take the Fourier transform of x(t)

Time-Domain Frequency-Domain

It is rare that we actually evaluate the Fourier transform integral,

or the inverse transform integral directly. Instead, the usual route
for solving signal processing problems is to use a known Fourier
transform pair along with properties of the Fourier transform to
get the solution.
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 Example: Unique Inverse
Consider the problem of evaluating the following
integral:

This integral is difficult. However, the integral is a

special case of an inverse transform integral, so the
uniqueness of the Fourier transform representation
guarantees

Uniqueness guarantees that there is only one time

function that goes with a given Fourier transform.
We can “do integral” by taking the special case of t=-3.

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 Fourier Transform
It is possible to think of an integral as a sum.
We can interpret the synthesis integral as a “sum” of
complex-exponential signals, each having a different
complex amplitude if we write the integrand as

An integral is a special “sum” because it is the “sum”

of infinitesimally small quantities.
carries the amplitude and phase information for
all the frequencies required to synthesize x(t) as a “sum”
of complex-exponential signals.

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 Limit of the Fourier Series
Recall that the Fourier series representation of a
periodic signal are
and

Now consider a finite-duration signal x(t) that is not

periodic, and therefore does not have a Fourier series
representation. Nonetheless, we can use x(t) to define
one period of a periodic function as long as the period
T0 is longer than the duration of x(t).
Start with a finite-duration rectangular pulse

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 Limit of the Fourier Series
A convenient way to express a periodic signal is to
write an infinite sum of time-shifted copies of x(t)

T0 increases relative to T, the periodic signal

becomes equal to x(t) over a longer time interval, so
we can claim that

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 Limit of the Fourier Series
Now we examine the Fourier series for each of these
periodic signals and take the limit. The fundamental
frequency of the periodic signal is , the
spectrum lines at integer multiples of . Hence,
is the spacing between spectral lines.
As , we find that the frequencies contained in
the spectrum of become infinitely dense

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 Limit of the Fourier Series
Rewrite (11.9) and (11.10) as

As , the fundamental frequency gets very

small and the set defines a very dense set of
points on the frequency axis that approaches the
continuous variable
As a result, we can claim that

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 Limit of the Fourier Series
Similarly,

For the examples of Fig. 11-1,

the spectra plot

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 Limit of the Fourier Series
The frequencies get closer and closer together as

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 Existence and Convergence
The Fourier transform and its inverse are integrals with
infinite limits.
An infinite sum of even infinitesimally small quantities
might not converge to a finite result.
To aid in our use of the Fourier transform it would be
helpful to be able to determine whether the Fourier
transform exists or not
check the magnitude of

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 Existence and Convergence
To obtain a sufficient condition for existence of the
Fourier transform

The last step follows that for all t and

Thus, a sufficient condition for the existence of the
Fourier transform ( ) is

Sufficient Condition for Existence of

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 Right-Sided Real Exponential Signals
Fourier transform can represent non-periodic signals in
much the same way that the Fourier series represents
periodic signals
The signal
is a right-sided exponential signal
because it is nonzero only on the
right side.
Time-Domain Frequency-Domain

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 Right-Sided Real Exponential Signals
Substitute the function into (11.15) we
obtain

This result will be finite only if at the upper limit

of is bounded, which is true only if a > 0.
Thus, the right-sided exponential signal is guaranteed
to have a Fourier transform if it dies out with
increasing t, which requires a > 0.

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 Right-Sided Real Exponential Signals
The Fourier transform is a
complex function of .
We can plot the real and imaginary
parts versus , or plot the
magnitude and phase angle as
functions of frequency.

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 Bandwidth and Decay Rate
These figures show a fundamental property of Fourier
transform representations – the inverse relation between
time and frequency.
a controls the rate of decay
In the time-domain, as a increases,
the exponential dies out more
quickly.
In the frequency-domain, as a
increases, the Fourier transform
spreads out
Signals that are short in time duration
are spread out in frequency

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 Exercise 11.2

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