Realization of discrete-time

systems
Prepared by
Anas Thamer Omar Haitham

Supervised by
Dr. Mohammed Younis
Outlines

 Introduction
 Block Diagram Representation
 Signal Flow Graph Representation
 IIR Direct form I realization
 IIR Direct form II realization
 IIR Cascade realization
 IIR Parallel realization
 FIR Direct form realization
 FIR Cascade realization

2
Introduction
Digital filters described by the transfer function H(z) may be generally
realized into the following forms:

❑ IIR filters: ∑𝑀
𝑘=0 𝑏𝑘 𝑧 −𝑘
𝐻(𝑧) =
 Direct-form I 1 + ∑𝑁
𝑘=1 𝑎 𝑘 𝑧 −𝑘

 Direct-form II
 Cascade
 Parallel
❑ FIR filters: 𝐻(𝑧) = ∑𝑀−1
𝑘=0 𝑏𝑘 𝑧
−𝑘

 Direct-form
 Cascade
3
Block Diagram Representation

adder

multiplier

unit delay

4
Signal Flow Graph Representation

adder

multiplier

unit delay

5
IIR filters
1- DIRECTION-FORM I
The transfer function of a digital filter is given by

𝑌 𝑧 𝑏0 + 𝑏1 𝑧 −1 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑀 𝑧 −𝑀 𝐵 𝑧
𝐻 𝑧 = = =
𝑋 𝑧 1 + 𝑎1 𝑧 −1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑁 𝑧 −𝑁 𝐴 𝑧

This expression can also be written as

𝑌(𝑧) = 𝐻(𝑧)𝑋(𝑧)

or 𝑏0 + 𝑏1 𝑧 −1 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑀 𝑧 −𝑀
𝑌(𝑧) = 𝑋(𝑧)
1 + 𝑎1 𝑧 −1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑁 𝑧 −𝑁

6
DIRECTION-FORM I
𝑏0 + 𝑏1 𝑧 −1 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑀 𝑧 −𝑀
𝑌(𝑧) = 𝑋(𝑧)
1 + 𝑎1 𝑧 −1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑁 𝑧 −𝑁

7
Example 1
Perform the filter realizations Direct-form I for a given a second-order transfer function

𝟎. 𝟓 𝟏 − 𝒛−𝟐
𝑯 𝒛 =
𝟏 + 𝟏. 𝟑𝒛−𝟏 + 𝟎. 𝟑𝟔𝒛−𝟐
SOLUTION

The transfer function in its “delay” form can be written as

0.5 − 0.5𝑧 −2
𝐻 𝑧 =
1 + 1.3𝑧 −1 + 0.36𝑧 −2

Comparing it with the standard delay form of the transfer function

𝑏0 + 𝑏1 𝑧 −1 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑀 𝑧 −𝑀
𝐻(𝑧) =
1 + 𝑎1 𝑧 −1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑁 𝑧 −𝑁

We identify, that M = 1, N = 2,
8
and b0 = 0.5, b1 = 0, b2 = -0. 5 a1 = 1.3, a2 = 0.36
 0.5 − 0.5𝑧 −2
𝐻 𝑧 =
1 + 1.3𝑧 −1 + 0.36𝑧 −2

9
 2- Direct Form II
• A more efficient direct form structure can be realized by placing the feedback
section first, followed by the feedforward

Using the digital filter transfer function, we can write

𝐵(𝑧) 𝑋(𝑧)
𝑌(𝑧) = 𝐻(𝑧)𝑋(𝑧) = 𝑋(𝑧) = 𝐵(𝑧)
𝐴(𝑧) 𝐴(𝑧)
The expression can also be written as Implementation of IIR

−1 −𝑀
𝑋 𝑧
𝑌 𝑧 = 𝑏0 + 𝑏1 𝑧 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑀 𝑧
1 + 𝑎1 𝑧 −1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑁 𝑧 −𝑁
1
By defining 𝑊 𝑧 = 𝑋 𝑧
1 + 𝑎1 𝑧 −1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑁 𝑧 −𝑁

𝑌(𝑧) = 𝑏0 + 𝑏1 𝑧 −1 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑀 𝑧 −𝑀 𝑊(𝑧)
10
 𝑋 𝑧
𝑌 𝑧 = 𝑏0 + 𝑏1 𝑧 −1 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑀 𝑧 −𝑀
1 + 𝑎1 𝑧 −1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑁 𝑧 −𝑁

11
Example 2
Perform the filter realizations Direct-form II for a given a second-order transfer function

𝟎. 𝟓 𝟏 − 𝒛−𝟐
𝑯 𝒛 =
𝟏 + 𝟏. 𝟑𝒛−𝟏 + 𝟎. 𝟑𝟔𝒛−𝟐

SOLUTION:

The transfer function in its “delay” form can be written as

0.5 − 0.5𝑧 −2
𝐻 𝑧 =
1 + 1.3𝑧 −1 + 0.36𝑧 −2

12
 0.5 − 0.5𝑧 −2
𝐻 𝑧 =
1 + 1.3𝑧 −1 + 0.36𝑧 −2

13
Direct FORM-II vs the Direct FORM-I

Advantage of the Direct Form-II over the Direct Form-I:

• The number of delay elements used in direct form-II is less than that
of direct form-I.

Limitations of Direct FORM-II :

• It also lacks hardware flexibility

• There are chances of instability due to the quantization noise

14
3- Cascade (Series)
An alternate way to filter realization is to cascade the factorized H(z) in the
following form:
𝑯 𝒁 = 𝑯𝟏 𝒁 ⋅ 𝑯𝟐 𝒁 … 𝑯 𝒌 𝒁

Where 𝐻𝑘 (Z) is chosen to be the first- or second-order transfer function

(section), which is defined by
𝑏𝑘0 + 𝑏𝑘1 𝑍 −1
first-order 𝐻𝑘 𝑍 =
1 + 𝑎𝑘1 𝑍 −1
𝑏𝑘0 + 𝑏𝑘1 𝑍 −1 + 𝑏𝑘2 𝑍 −2
𝐻𝑘 𝑍 =
second-order 1 + 𝑎𝑘1 𝑍 −1 + 𝑎𝑘2 𝑍 −2

15
Example 3
Perform the filter realizations Cascade form via the first-order sections for a given a
second-order transfer function
𝟎. 𝟓 𝟏 − 𝒛−𝟐
𝑯 𝒛 =
𝟏 + 𝟏. 𝟑𝒛−𝟏 + 𝟎. 𝟑𝟔𝒛−𝟐
SOLUTION

0.5 𝑧 2 − 1
𝐻 𝑧 = 2
𝑧 + 1.3𝑧 + 0.36

0.5 𝑧 − 1 𝑧 + 1
𝐻 𝑧 =
𝑧 + 0.4 𝑧 + 0.9

0.5 − 0.5𝑧 −1 1 + 𝑧 −1
𝐻(𝑧) = = 𝐻1 (𝑧) ⋅ 𝐻2 (𝑧)
1 + 0.4𝑧 −1 1 + 0.9𝑧 −1
16
 𝐻(𝑧) = 𝐻1 (𝑧) ⋅ 𝐻2 (𝑧)

0.5 − 0.5𝑧 −1 1 + 𝑧 −1
𝐻1 𝑧 = 𝐻2 (𝑧) =
1 + 0.4𝑧 −1 1 + 0.9𝑧 −1

17
4- PARALLEL
The digital filter transfer function can be written as

𝑯 𝒛 = 𝑯𝟏 𝒛 + 𝑯𝟐 𝒛 + ⋯ + 𝑯𝒌 𝒛

where 𝑯 𝒛 is chosen as the first- or second-order transfer function (section), defined as,

𝑏𝑘0
𝐻𝑘 𝑧 =
1 + 𝑎𝑘1 𝑧 −1

𝑏𝑘0 + 𝑏𝑘1 𝑧 −1
or 𝐻𝑘 𝑧 =
1 + 𝑎𝑘1 𝑧 −1 + 𝑎𝑘2 𝑧 −2

18
𝑯 𝒛 = 𝑯𝟏 𝒛 + 𝑯𝟐 𝒛 + ⋯ + 𝑯𝒌 𝒛

19
Example 4
Perform the filter realizations Parallel form via the first-order sections for a given a
second-order transfer function
𝟎. 𝟓 𝟏 − 𝒛−𝟐
𝑯 𝒛 =
𝟏 + 𝟏. 𝟑𝒛−𝟏 + 𝟎. 𝟑𝟔𝒛−𝟐
SOLUTION

The transfer function in its “delay” form can be written as

0.5 − 0.5𝑧 −2
𝐻 𝑧 =
1 + 1.3𝑧 −1 + 0.36𝑧 −2

Multiplying the numerator and denominator with 𝑧 2 we get

0.5 𝑧 2 − 1
𝐻(𝑧) = 2
𝑧 + 1.3𝑧 + 0.36

or 𝐻 𝑧 0.5 𝑧 2 − 1 20
=
𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 + 0.4 𝑧 + 0.9
Writing it into partial fractions form

𝐻 𝑧 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
= + +
𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 + 0.4 𝑧 + 0.9

0.5 𝑧 2 − 1 0.5 𝑧 2 − 1
𝐴=𝑧 อ = อ = −1.39
𝑧 𝑧 + 0.4 𝑧 + 0.9 𝑧 + 0.4 𝑧 + 0.9
𝑧=0 𝑧=0

0.5 𝑧 2 − 1 0.5 𝑧 2 − 1
𝐵 = 𝑧 + 0.4 อ = อ = −2.1
𝑧 𝑧 + 0.4 𝑧 + 0.9 𝑧 𝑧 + 0.9
𝑧=−0.4 𝑧=−0.4

0.5 𝑧 2 − 1 0.5 𝑧 2 − 1
𝐶 = (𝑧 + 0.9) อ = อ = 0.21
𝑧(𝑧 + 0.4)(𝑧 + 0.9) 𝑧(𝑧 + 0.4)
𝑧=−0.9 𝑧=−0.9
21
 Therefore,

𝐻 𝑧 −1.39 −2.1 0.21

= + +
𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 + 0.4 𝑧 + 0.9

or
2.1𝑧 0.21𝑧
𝐻 𝑧 = −1.39 − +
𝑧 + 0.4 𝑧 + 0.9

In delay form, it can be written as

2.1 0.21
𝐻 𝑧 = −1.39 − +
1 + 0.4𝑧 −1 1 + 0.9𝑧 −1

22
𝐻 𝑧 = 𝐻1 𝑧 + 𝐻2 𝑧 + 𝐻3 𝑧

23
Realization of FIR filters
A causal FIR filter is characterized by its transfer function H(z) given by:
𝑀
𝑌 𝑧
= 𝐻 𝑧 = ෍ 𝑏𝑛 𝑧 −𝑟 = 𝑏0 + 𝑏1 𝑧 −𝑙 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑀 𝑧 −𝑀
𝑋 𝑧
𝑟=0

or, by the corresponding difference equation

𝑀

𝑦(𝑛) = ෍ 𝑏𝑟 𝑥(𝑛 − 𝑟) = 𝑏0 𝑥(𝑛) + 𝑏1 𝑥(𝑛 − 1) + 𝑏2 𝑥(𝑛 − 2) … + 𝑏𝑀 𝑥(𝑛 − 𝑀)

𝑟=0

Note that some use the notation below with 𝑀 coefficients instead of 𝑀 + 1

𝑀−1

𝑦(𝑛) = ෍ 𝑏𝑟 𝑥(𝑛 − 𝑟) = 𝑏0 𝑥(𝑛) + 𝑏1 𝑥(𝑛 − 1) + 𝑏2 𝑥(𝑛 − 2) … + 𝑏𝑀−1 𝑥(𝑛 − 𝑀 + 1)

𝑟=0 24
1- FIR Direct form

𝑀
𝑌 𝑧
= 𝐻 𝑧 = ෍ 𝑏𝑛 𝑧 −𝑛 = 𝑏0 + 𝑏1 𝑧 −𝑙 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑀 𝑧 −𝑀
𝑋 𝑧
𝑛=0

25
2- FIR Cascade form
The simplest form occurs when the system function is factored in terms
of quadratic expressions in z –1 as follows:
𝐾 𝐾

𝐻(𝑧) = ෑ 𝐻𝑖 𝑧 = ෑ 𝐻𝑖 𝑧 = 𝑏0𝑖 + 𝑏1𝑖 𝑧 −1 + 𝑏2𝑖 𝑧 −2

𝑖=1 𝑖=1
𝐻(𝑧) = 𝑏01 + 𝑏11 𝑧 −1 + 𝑏21 𝑧 −2 + 𝑏02 + 𝑏12 𝑧 −1 + 𝑏22 𝑧 −2 +...+ 𝑏0k + 𝑏1𝑘 𝑧 −1 + 𝑏2𝑘 𝑧 −2

26
EXAMPLE 5
1 + 2𝑧 −1
𝐻 𝑧 =
Given the first-order IIR system 1 − 0.5𝑧 −1

realize H(z) using the following forms:

a. direct-form I;
b. direct-form II

Solution:

a. direct-form I

27
b. direct-form II

1 + 2𝑧 −1
𝐻 𝑧 =
1 − 0.5𝑧 −1

28
EXAMPLE 6
Given the filter 1 − 0.9𝑧 −1 − 0.1𝑧 −2
𝐻 𝑧 =
1 + 0.3𝑧 −1 − 0.04𝑧 −2
realize H(z) using the following forms:
a. direct-form I;
b. direct-form II;
c. cascade (series) form via the first-order sections;
d. parallel form via the first-order sections.
Solution:

a. direct-form I

29
b. direct-form II

1 − 0.9𝑧 −1 − 0.1𝑧 −2
𝐻 𝑧 =
1 + 0.3𝑧 −1 − 0.04𝑧 −2

30
c. cascade (series) form via the first-order sections

1 − 0.9𝑧 −1 − 0.1𝑧 −2
𝐻 𝑧 =
1 + 0.3𝑧 −1 − 0.04𝑧 −2

𝑧 2 − 0.9𝑧1 − 0.1
𝐻 𝑧 = 2
𝑧 + 0.3𝑧1 − 0.04

𝑧 − 1 𝑧 + 0.1 (1 − 𝑧 −1 ) (1 − 0.1𝑧 −1 )
𝐻 𝑧 = = ×
𝑧 + 0.4 𝑧 − 0.1 (1 + 0.4𝑧 −1 ) (1 − 0.1𝑧 −1 )

31
d. parallel form via the first-order sections.
1 − 0.9𝑧 −1 − 0.1𝑧 −2 𝑧 2 − 0.9𝑧1 − 0.1
𝐻 𝑧 = = 2
1 + 0.3𝑧 −1 − 0.04𝑧 −2 𝑧 + 0.3𝑧1 − 0.04
𝑧 2 − 0.9𝑧 − 0.1
𝐻 𝑧 =
(𝑧 + 0.4)(𝑧 − 0.1)
𝐻 𝑧 𝑧 2 − 0.9𝑧 − 0.1 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
= = + −
𝑧 𝑧(𝑧 + 0.4)(𝑧 − 0.1) 𝑧 𝑧 + 0.4 𝑧 − 0.1

𝑧 2 − 0.9𝑧 − 0.1
𝐴=𝑧 อ = 2.5
𝑧(𝑧 + 0.4)(𝑧 − 0.1)
𝑧=0

𝑧 2 − 0.9𝑧 − 0.1
𝐵 = (𝑧 + 0.4) อ = 2.1
𝑧(𝑧 + 0.4)(𝑧 − 0.1)
𝑧=−0.4

𝑧 2 − 0.9𝑧 − 0.1
𝐶 = (𝑧 − 0.1) อ = −3.6 32
𝑧(𝑧 + 0.4)(𝑧 − 0.1)
𝑧=0.1
 2.1𝑧 3.6𝑧
𝐻 𝑧 = 2.5 + −
𝑧 + 0.4 𝑧 − 0.1

2.1 −3.6
𝐻 𝑧 = 2.5 + +
1 + 0.4𝑧 −1 1 − 0.1𝑧 −1

33
EXAMPLE 7
Consider a causal linear time-invariant system whose system function is
1
1 − 𝑧 −1
𝐻 𝑧 = 5
1 1 1
1 − 𝑧 −1 + 𝑧 −2 1 + 𝑧 −1
2 3 4
Draw the signal flow graphs for implementations of the system in each of the following forms:
(i) Direct form I
(ii) Direct form II
(iii) Cascade form using first- and second-order direct form II sections

Solution:

(i) Direct form I

1
1 − 𝑧 −1
𝐻 𝑧 = 5
1 5 1
1 − 𝑧 −1 + 𝑧 −2 + 𝑧 −3
4 24 12
34
 1
1 − 𝑧 −1
𝐻 𝑧 = 5
1 5 1
1 − 𝑧 −1 + 𝑧 −2 + 𝑧 −3
4 24 12

35
(ii) Direct form II
1
1 − 𝑧 −1
𝐻 𝑧 = 5
1 5 1
1 − 𝑧 −1 + 𝑧 −2 + 𝑧 −3
4 24 12

36
(iii) Cascade form using first- and second-order direct form II sections
1
1 − 𝑧 −1
𝐻 𝑧 = 5
1 1 1
1 − 2 𝑧 −1 + 3 𝑧 −2 1 + 4 𝑧 −1

1
1 − 𝑧 −1 1
𝐻 𝑧 = 5
1 1 1
1 + 𝑧 −1 1 − 𝑧 −1 + 𝑧 −2
4 2 3

37