Composites Part B 130 (2017) 90e102

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Composites Part B
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Tensile behaviour of a basalt TRM strengthening system: Influence of

mortar and reinforcing textile ratios
Carmelo Caggegi*, Emma Lanoye, Khaled Djama, Antoine Bassil, Aron Gabor
University Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Laboratory of Composite Materials for Construction (LMC2), Site Bohr, 82 Boulevard Niels Bohr, Campus de la DOUA,
69622 Villeurbanne Cedex, France

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The use of textile reinforced mortar (TRM) composites is considered a suitable solution to strengthen
Received 14 March 2017 historical masonry structures. Specifically, TRM composites are characterised by a textile embedded in a
Received in revised form mortar matrix. In the present work, we propose a thorough experimental analysis of basalt textile
21 June 2017
reinforced mortar. Four series of tensile tests were carried out on specimens characterised by three
Accepted 25 July 2017
Available online 27 July 2017
different basalt textile reinforcing ratio and two different kinds of mortar (usual gauged mortar and
thixotropic mortar with additives). The use of digital image correlation facilitated detailed description of
the displacement fields and the crack pattern during the tests. The comparison between the results of
Keywords:
Textile reinforced mortar (TRM)
each series allowed us to evaluate the influence of the different parameters on the behaviour of the
Fibre reinforced cementitious matrix analysed TRM and to obtain useful information regarding the strengthening design.
(FRCM) © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Basalt textile
Masonry
Strengthening system
Tensile test
DIC

1. Introduction
The use of composite materials characterised by textiles
embedded in a mortar matrix (Textile Reinforced Mortar e TRM) is
considered an effective and compatible solution to reinforce ma-
sonry structures. This has been proved by several experimental
studies on masonry panels and vaults [1e7].
TRM systems enable minimal and reversible strengthening in-
terventions without altering permeability in the reinforced ele-
ments. Different acronyms are used in the literature to define the
same typology of composite material, specifically: TRC (textile-
reinforced concrete), MBC (mineral-based composite), FRC (fibre-
reinforced concrete), and FRCM (fibre-reinforced cementitious
matrix) [8]. Usually, inorganic matrix composites are constituted
and applied directly in situ as an externally-bonded reinforcement.
The textiles used in the TRM composites are frequently charac-
terised by carbon, glass, steel, PBO, aramid or basalt fibres [8e11].
Similarly, different kinds of mortar are used as the inorganic ma-
trix; the most common are minerals, cement, modified cement
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: carmelo.caggegi@univ-lyon1.fr (C. Caggegi).
with additives, and natural hydraulic lime mortars [12]. The
adhesion between the fibres and the matrix is essential to ensure
the effectiveness of the reinforcement system [8,13]. Literature
shows that the most common failure of TRM-strengthened systems
under loading is debonding at the matrix-fibre interface [8,14]. This
failure mode differs from the cohesive failure frequently recorded
in systems strengthened by FRP (fibre-reinforced polymer) [15].
Since the inorganic matrix is not able to fully penetrate the yarns,
the adhesion between the mortar and textile is not as strong as in
FRP systems. During debonding failure at the matrix-fibre interface,
the external filaments of the roving fracture and the internal ones,
not in direct contact with the matrix, slip without any apparent
damage (“telescopic behaviour”) [13,14]. Experimental studies
show that a polymer coating treatment on the textile roving could
enhance the adhesion strength between the textile and mortar [16],
and that consequently could increases the ultimate strength of the
TRM reinforced systems.
The American guideline ACI 549.4R-13 [17] provides useful in-
formation regarding qualification and design criteria of TRM sys-
tems. However, in Europe, standards and guidelines concerning
textile-reinforced mortar do not yet exist.
In literature, the identification of the TRM system is frequently
carried out by tensile tests on coupons of the composite and shear

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2017.07.027
1359-8368/© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 C. Caggegi et al. / Composites Part B 130 (2017) 90e102
bond tests on system TRM-substrate.
Three phases characterise the behaviour of the composite dur-
ing tensile tests [12,14]; in the first, no cracks are recorded (un-
cracked stage); in the second, development of cracks in the matrix
allows successive drops in the load (crack development stage); in
the third, the tensile stress in the textile increases gradually and the
existing cracks in the mortar become wider (cracked stage) until
rupture. The analysis of the strain-stress relationship of the tensile
test on the TRM facilitates identification of the rigidity of the
composite and the stress peak related to each of the three stages
[14]. The stress is usually obtained by dividing the load by the cross-
sectional area of the textile roving [12,14,16,18]; this cross-section is
frequently obtained using the design thickness (bulk density of the
material divided by the surface density of the textile) [12]. The
longitudinal strain is usually recorded by linear displacement
transducers (extensometer, potentiometers and linear variable
differential transducer) applied to a specific base length along the
specimen length [12]. In addition, the clamping method of the
specimen extremities affects the behaviour of the composite during
the tensile test [12]; direct clamping on the mortar matrix (rein-
forced by aluminium or FRP tabs) and the use of clevis articulation
are the most common methods used by laboratories [12,14,18,19].
The shear tests permits to evaluate the debonding strength of
the system TRM-substrate. In literature experimental, numerical
and analytical campaigns carried out by single or double shear tests
exists [8,9,14,20,21]. The most common failure mode recorded in
the shear tests is the textile slippage within the mortar matrix
(telescopic failure); then, frequently, the interface between TRM
and substrate is not solicited.
Ascione et al. [9] proposed a qualification method for TRM
strengthening systems based on the combination of results of direct
tensile and shear bond tests. In the same context, the technical
committee RILEM TC 250 CSM was appointed to propose guidelines
for testing and designing of externally-bonded mortar-based sys-
tems for the strengthening of historical masonry construction. This
committee carried out a round robin test on tensile and shear-bond
behaviour of different TRM composites characterised by one layer
of carbon, glass, steel, basalt, PBO, or aramid textile [22e26].
The basalt textile has been considered a strengthening material
for FRP and TRM systems over the last ten years. The tensile
strength of basalt fibre is considerably smaller than that of carbon
fibre. The experimental studies of Sim et al. [27] show that the
basalt fibre loses strength and volumetric stability under severe
alkaline conditions. However, the basalt fibres exhibit a high ther-
mal stability and heat resistance (higher than that of carbon and
glass fibres) [27]. In the context of TRM composites, to protect the
basalt fibre against the alkalinity of the mortar, an industrial
coating treatment is frequently carried out on the surface of the
textile.
This work involves an experimental study on basalt-TRM sys-
tems by conducting 22 tensile tests on composite specimens. The
principal aims of this study are as follows: I) evaluate the influence
of the textile reinforcing ratio and mortar matrix on the mechanical
behaviour of the composites, II) Relate the crack pattern of the
tested specimens to the textile mesh and to the mortar strength
and III) analyse the stress-strain relations defining the mechanical
parameters related to each composite type. The cross-sectional area
of the basalt roving was obtained by X-ray tomography. The
displacement fields on the composite surfaces were measured by
digital image correlation (DIC) using the algorithm CORRELIGD
[28e30]. A recent study regarding the performances of DIC in the
framework of TRM composite reinforcement testing was presented
recently by Tekieli et al. [31].
The descriptions of the test series, properties of the materials
used in the testing and the experimental setup reproduced during
91
the testing program are reported in Section 2. In the same section,
detailed descriptions of the x-ray tomography and DIC measure-
ment parameters are stated. The third section reports the results
and discussion by means of tables, graphs and measurement fields.
The conclusions of the study close the paper.
2. Experimental program
2.1. Series
The experimental study on basalt-TRM was carried out on 22
composite specimens. The TRM composite materials consisted of
mortar matrices and basalt fibre grids. Two types of mortar were
used: a usual gauged mortar (referenced ‘M1’) and a thixotropic
mortar with additives (referenced ‘M2’). Three different basalt
textile reinforcing ratio were also considered; the increase of
reinforcing ratio was obtained by adding layers of fibre grids: one
layer, referenced by ‘TT1’, including three longitudinal roving; two
layers, ‘TT2’, including five longitudinal roving and three layers;
and ‘TT3’, including seven longitudinal roving (Figs. 1 and 2). The
characteristics of the corresponding systems are indicated in
Table 1.
All of the specimens were 650 mm long
90 mm wide
10 mm
thick. The textile was placed in the middle plane by inserting one,
two or three textile layers. The specimens were moulded by
applying an initial 5-mm thick layer of mortar, the fibre textile, and
a second 5-mm thick layer of mortar, as shown in Fig. 3.
Before testing, the specimens were subjected to a 40-day curing
procedure (22.5 ± 2.5  C, 60 ± 10% of humidity).
2.2. Materials
2.2.1. Textile reinforcement
The studied textile reinforcement was a basalt fibre balanced net
with a special high temperature resistive coating for textile sta-
bility. The longitudinal and transversal roving were woven and
fixed at their intersection with nylon fibres.
The ‘TT1’ fibre grids were made of bidirectional roving spaced at
25 mm intervals in the two orthogonal directions; the free spacing
between the roving was approximately 20 mm (Fig. 2a). The ‘TT2’
fibre grids were made of bidirectional roving spaced at approxi-
mately 12.5 mm intervals in the two orthogonal directions; the free
spacing between the roving was approximately 7.5 mm (Fig. 2b).
Finally, the ‘TT3’ fibre grids were made of bidirectional roving
spaced at approximately 8 mm intervals in the two orthogonal
directions; the free spacing between the roving was approximately
3 mm (Fig. 2c).
For the ‘TT2’ and ‘TT3’ fibre grids, the different layers were not
glued together or only superimposed, but rather interleaved.
The average value of the cross-sectional area of one roving is
1.61 mm2. This value was determined by using x-ray tomography.
The reinforcing ratios in Table 1 are calculated from the ratio of the
cross-sectional area of all longitudinal fibres over the total cross-
sectional area of the composite (90
10 mm2).
A series of tensile tests on dry fibres was performed on a single
roving to define the mechanical characteristics of the basalt fibre
textile. Tests were performed according to the European standard
EN ISO 10618/2005 [32] and carried out by displacement control at
a rate of 1 mm/min; the samples were instrumented with a strain
gauge (Fig. 4a).
Fig. 4b shows the stress-strain curves of the tested samples. The
average values of tensile strength fft and elastic modulus Eft ob-
tained were 1089 MPa (CoV 2.4%) and 56 GPa (CoV 3.6%),
respectively.
92 C. Caggegi et al. / Composites Part B 130 (2017) 90e102

Fig. 1. Three basalt textile reinforcing ratio: a) 1 layer, b) 2 layers, c) 3layers.

Fig. 2. Geometry of the three basalt textile reinforcing ratio (mm): a) 1 layer, b) 2 layers, c) 3 layers.

Table 1
Denomination and characteristics of specimens tested.

Mortar Series Number of specimens Number of rovings Cross-sectional area of fibres [mm2] Reinforcing ratio [%]

Gauged mortar M1 TT1_M1 5 3 4.83 0.54

TT2_M1 6 5 8.05 0.89
TT3_M1 5 7 11.27 1.25
Thixotropic mortar M2 TT2_M2 6 5 8.05 0.89

2.3. Clamping and instrumentation

The tensile tests were carried out by reproducing the boundary

Fig. 3. TRM specimen geometry (mm).
2.2.2. Mortar
Two types of mortar were considered. The first, ‘M1’, is a com-
mercial gauged mortar consisting of hydraulic binder, lime, and
calibrated aggregates (0e2 mm). The second, ‘M2’, is a single
component, dry, thixotropic mortar with 1 mm aggregates and
additives.
The main mechanical properties have been evaluated by textile
and flexural tests based on the European standard EN 1015-11 [33].
The average compressive strengths obtained for ‘M1’ and ‘M2’ are
21.0 MPa (CoV 4.7%) and 20.6 MPa (CoV 14.4%), respectively; the
average flexural strengths obtained for ‘M1’ and ‘M2’ are 3.6 MPa
(CoV 3.1%) and 5.5 MPa (CoV 10.6%), respectively.
conditions proposed in TC RILEM 250 CSM. The extremities of the
specimens were locked by the hydraulic grips (Fig. 5) of a bi-axial
machine (WALLACE). The tests were conducted using displace-
ment control (U) at a speed of 0.3 mm/min. The longitudinal strain
(ε) was obtained by the global displacement of the cross-head. The
measure of the global displacement permitted to take into account
all the cracks developed along the specimen, also those developed
close to the grips; since the mechanical gripping system is very
rigid (Fig. 5) the displacement of the cross-head corresponds
almost exactly to the displacement applied to the specimen. The
photographs required for DIC were obtained by a charge couple
device (CCD) camera fixed at a distance of 87.5 cm from the spec-
imen surface.
2.4. Methods
2.4.1. Tomography
X-ray tomography was used in this study to define the cross-
sectional area of the fiber roving. Tomography by x-ray absorp-
tion gathers projections from multiple directions and feeds the data
into a reconstruction software algorithm processed by a computer
 C. Caggegi et al. / Composites Part B 130 (2017) 90e102
Fig. 4. Tensile tests on dry basalt fibres: a) Test setup, b) Stress-strain curves.
Fig. 5. Test setup for tensile tests on TRM systems.
Fig. 6. Description of the x-ray tomography principle.
(Fig. 6). With the acquired data, it is possible to construct a 3D
digital image, transposing the diminution of x-ray power in the
grey shades. The density level of the grey shades provides an
overview of the textile. The sequence of the obtained 2D images can
be used to control the distribution of yarns over the height of the
composite or to assess the effective thickness.
93
For this study, five samples of a basalt roving (Fig. 7b) were
scanned by x-ray tomography (Fig. 7a). A part of each sample was
irradiated by x-rays to obtain 3D images (resolution of 3 mm,
Fig. 7c). It should be noted that this resolution enables definition of
the cross-section of the basalt without the coating. Then, each
transversal slice of the 3D images was processed with the “ImageJ”
software [34] by adjusting the contrast and brightness (histogram
stretch) and making a thresholding to separate the two phases
(textile and void). The processed images were used to quantify the
cross-sectional area of the roving by averaging the ratios of the
number of pixels of the textile phase over the number of pixels of
the entire surface of each slice. The average value of the effective
cross-sectional area (Af) obtained for one roving is 1.61 mm2 (CoV
2.9%).
2.4.2. Digital image correlation
The algorithm CORRELI [28e30] was used to carry out a digital
image correlation related to the specimen surface. It permits the
displacement fields at each loading step to be obtained using a fast
Fourier transform (FFT). In the correlation process, the digital
photographs obtained by the CCD camera are matched. CORRELI
uses a multi-scale approach to define the displacement fields of
several sub-zones (zones of interest -ZOI) in to a specific region of
interest (ROI). All ZOIs have the same square size and are placed
homogeneously in the ROI. Each sub-zone must be characterised by
a grey level distribution sufficiently rich to be distinguished. The
algorithm computes the displacements along the vertical and
horizontal directions related to each ZOI; these displacements are
assumed to be applied at the centre of each subzone.
In the present study, the surface of the specimens was pre-
treated by a homogeneous layer of white paint and then coated
with a random speckle pattern of black paint. This treatment fa-
cilitates definition of a grey level distribution sufficient to differ-
entiate the ZOIs. The CCD camera employed in the analysis has a
resolution of 5 MP; the distance between the camera and the sur-
face of interest was 87.5 cm (ratio mm/pixel of 0.18); the ZOI size
used to carry out the correlation was 64
64 pixels; and the dis-
tance between the ZOI centres was chosen to be 32 pixels. Fig. 8a
and b shows the ROI, ZOIs and the characterization of the dis-
placements W and V for a generic node (ZOI centre).
94 C. Caggegi et al. / Composites Part B 130 (2017) 90e102

Fig. 7. X-ray tomography measurements: a) Laboratory x-ray tomography (Phoenix vTomeX/X ray, Germany), b) Sample of basalt roving scanned, c) 3D section of a basalt roving.

Fig. 8. Parameters of the digital correlation; a) Specimen size and ROI, b) Centres of the ZOIs and the reference axes (x and y).

3. Results and discussion
3.1. Results overview
The results obtained by the experimental campaign are reported
in terms of stress-strain (s-ε) and load-displacement (F-U) curves.
A generic stress-strain curve related to a tensile test on basalt TRM
is shown in Fig. 9, where the three stages (un-cracked, crack
development and cracked stage) are easily recognizable. The post-
treatment of the experimental data permitted the definition of the
peak stresses “s1”, “s2”, “smax” and corresponding strains “ε1”, “ε2”,
“εmax” related to the end of the first, second and third stages,
respectively (Fig. 9). It is important to note that s represented in the
ordinate of the graphs refers to the ratio “applied force/cross-
sectional area of textile” (F/Af). The strain “ε” was obtained by
means of the global displacement of the cross head. The stiffness
“Ks” corresponding to the first linear stroke and the stiffness “Kd”
related to the third stage are graphically defined in Fig. 9. The
failure modes defined by RILEM TC 250 CSM and related to the
tensile test on TRM are reported in Fig. 10 (“mode A” - failure at the
clamps, “mode B” - cracking in the length of the specimen and fibre
tensile failure, “mode C” - cracking in the length of the specimen
and fibre slippage).
The stress-strain curves obtained for the four series of tests are
presented in Fig. 11. Table 2 lists the mechanical parameters and the
failure modes related to each specimen in the experimental
campaign.
 C. Caggegi et al. / Composites Part B 130 (2017) 90e102
Fig. 9. Generic stress-strain curve for a tensile test on basalt-TRM.
3.2. Series M1 (different textile reinforcing ratios)
Fig. 12 compares the force-displacement curves of the three
specimens; each curve is representative of series M1 (TT1_M1,
TT2_M1 and TT3_M1). The force F1 recorded at the end of the first
stage of the three tests (Fig. 12, Table 2) is almost equal for all tests;
this is due to the mechanical properties of mortar M1. Indeed,
dividing the average F1 obtained in each series (Table 2) by the
global cross-sectional area of the composite (90
10 mm2) yields a
stress s1c of approximately 3.20 MPa (Table 2). This closely ap-
proximates the flexural tensile strength of mortar M1 (3.6 MPa).
Fig. 12 shows that stages II and III are linked to the reinforcing ratio
of the textile and force Fmax is proportional to the strengthening
ratio. Fig. 13 presents the behaviour of the same specimens in terms
of s-ε curves (s ¼ F/Af); the slopes of the second and third stages
are similar because the same basalt textile material was used in the
Fig. 10. Failure modes defined by RILEM TC 250 CSM; a) Failure at the clamps (mode A), b) Cracking in the length of the specimen and fibre tensile failure (mode B), c) Cracking in
the length of the specimen and fibre slippage (mode C).
95
TRMs. The comparison between the sε relation of the dry textile
to the curves obtained during the tests on TRM shows that the
Young's modulus of the basalt fibre (Eft ¼ 56000 MPa) is almost
equal to the stiffness of the composite TT1_M1 during the third
phase. In fact, the average Kd obtained during the series TT1_M1,
TT2_M1, and TT3_M1 is equal to 53 163, 46 393 and 43 220 MPa,
respectively (Table 2). It is likely that an inhomogenous load dis-
tribution in the cross-section of the textiles in series TT2 and TT3
justifies the higher difference between Eft and Kd (probably due to
the overlapping of fabric layers generating a different interaction
between the gripping system and the textile). The average smax
(equal to Fmax/Af, Fig. 9) recorded in series TT1_M1 is equal to
912 MPa; this closely approximates the tensile strength obtained in
the tests on the dry textile. A “fibre tensile failure” (Mode B) was
recorded three times in this series (Fig. 14). The fibre tensile failure
was recorded after an homogeneous cracking in the length of the
specimen. The average smax obtained in series TT2_M1 and TT3_M1
is 755 and 636 MPa, respectively; the overlapping of fabric grids
reduces the adhesion between the textile and mortar producing a
failure “Mode C” before the maximum strength of the fibre is
reached (Fig. 15). Typically, slippage between the mortar and textile
was recorded at the clamps (Fig. 15) without any fibre tensile
fracture. The slippage was recorded after an homogeneous cracking
in the length of the specimen. All cracks were orthogonal to the
loading axis. The distance “L” between the cracks recorded by DIC
during the tests on series TT1_M1 varies between approximately 50
and 100 mm; this “L” is roughly a multiple of the distance between
the transversal roving of the textile mesh (25 mm). The same
variation in L values was found in series TT2_M1 and TT3_M1.
Further information about the crack pattern are reported in section
3.4.
3.3. Series TT2 (different mortar matrix)
Comparison between the force-displacement curves of two
representative specimens of series TT2, characterised by the same
96 C. Caggegi et al. / Composites Part B 130 (2017) 90e102
Fig. 11. Stress-strain curves; a) Series TT1_M1, b) Series TT2_M1, c) Series TT3_M1, d) Series TT2_M2.
textile reinforcing ratio and different mortar matrices is presented
in Fig. 16. Unlike the three series of M1, series TT2_M1 and TT2_M2
exhibit different behaviour in the first stage of the test (Fig. 16). The
average F1 obtained in the TT2_M1 series is higher than that ob-
tained in the TT2_M2 series; the corresponding average s1c is 3.35
and 4.68 MPa, respectively. These values are in accordance with the
tensile strength of the mortars; 3.6 (M1) and 5.5 MPa (M2). Since
the two TRM systems, TT2_M1 and TT2_M2, are characterised by
the same amount of textile, the average stiffness Kd obtained in the
two series are almost equal.
The distance between the cracks obtained in the TT2_M2 series
is generally equal to approximately 50 mm; therefore, it is twice the
distance between the transversal roving of a single textile layer
(Fig. 1a). Mode C failure was recorded in all of the tests of series
TT2_M2 (fibre slippage close to the loaded end) (Fig. 17).
The results show that the evolution of the crack pattern (stage 2)
is related to the mortar strength. The comparison between the
systems basalt_M1 (TT2_M1) and basalt_M2 (TT2 M2) highlights
that with this kind of basalt textile, the more resistant the mortar is,
the closer together the cracks are. To confirm this hypothesis,
further experimental campaigns on basalt TRM systems charac-
terised by others mortar matrices are required.
3.4. Displacement fields and crack patterns
DIC facilitated evaluation of the displacements fields on the
external surface of the specimen. The analysis of the displacements
“V” in the y-direction (Fig. 8b) allowed localisation of the crack
openings and description of their evolution during the test. The DIC
carried out in this work takes into account a ROI related to the
global surface of the specimen and parameters of correlation (ZOI
and dx) optimal to study the evolution of cracks.
The results of the DIC are presented herein in terms of V-y
curves and displacement fields. Fig. 18 shows the force-
displacement curve of specimen TT2_M1_1 and TT2_M2_1; the
DIC measurements related to the load steps (defined by red points
in Fig. 18) are shown in Fig. 19. Specifically, each drop in the V-y
curves corresponds to a crack opening; the measurement of dV
(difference between the values “V after the drop” and “V before the
drop”) defines the opening of crack. The distance between the
drops “L” corresponds to the distance between the cracks (Fig. 19).
The results show that distance L varies between 5 and 10 cm in
series M1 (Fig. 19a) and is approximately 5 cm in series M2
(Fig. 19b). The cracks had been recorded in correspondence to
several transversal roving of the mesh; the presence of fibre in the
 C. Caggegi et al. / Composites Part B 130 (2017) 90e102 97

Table 2
Global results of the four series tested.

Series Specimen F1 (N) s1 (Mpa) s1c (Mpa) u1 (mm) Ks (Mpa) F2 (N) s2 (Mpa) u2 (mm) Fmax (N) smax (Mpa) umax (mm) Kd (Mpa) Failure

TT1_M1 TT1_M1_1 3565 738.10 3.96 1.26 862576 3687 763.35 3.21 4301 890.48 4.96 65724 C
TT1_M1_2 2397 496.27 2.66 1.22 632209 2597 537.68 2.32 3287 680.54 4.47 49158 C
TT1_M1_3 2603 538.92 2.89 0.69 1067679 3086 638.92 2.57 4357 902.07 5.63 54555 B
TT1_M1_4 2934 607.45 3.26 1.04 879686 3260 674.95 2.86 4757 984.89 6.76 51638 B
TT1_M1_5 2799 579.50 3.11 0.80 719294 3906 808.70 4.11 5329 1103.31 8.34 44738 B-C

Average 2860 592.05 3.18 1.00 832289 3307 684.72 3.01 4406 912.26 6.03 53163

CoV (%) 10.91 10.91 10.91 20.60 15.05 11.84 11.84 17.06 11.56 11.56 20.13 10.50

TT2_M1 TT2_M1_1 2789 346.46 3.10 0.65 530604 4416 548.57 3.19 7011 870.93 7.54 41884 C
TT2_M1_2 4091 508.20 4.55 1.43 487565 4665 579.50 3.83 5343 663.73 5.39 56018 C
TT2_M1_3 2996 372.17 3.33 0.84 484078 5274 655.16 4.61 5706 708.82 6.04 30573 C
TT2_M1_4 2979 370.06 3.31 0.78 310563 4908 609.69 4.74 6171 766.58 6.50 51208 C
TT2_M1_5 2669 331.55 2.97 0.52 333071 4454 553.29 3.19 5465 678.88 5.33 48415 C
TT2_M1_6 2545 316.15 2.83 0.26 406090 5667 703.98 4.81 6804 845.22 7.28 50261 C

Average 3012 374.10 3.35 0.75 425328 4897 608.36 4.06 6083 755.69 6.35 46393

CoV (%) 11.95 11.95 11.95 36.23 17.73 7.88 7.88 16.22 9.51 9.51 11.97 14.61

TT3_M1 TT3_M1_1 2743 243.39 3.05 0.59 318713 3514 311.80 1.95 6406 568.41 6.18 41871 C
TT3_M1_2 2741 243.21 3.05 0.65 213162 3690 327.42 2.34 6428 570.36 5.46 40494 C
TT3_M1_3 2430 215.62 2.70 0.32 309584 3153 279.77 1.88 5526 490.33 4.74 42924 C
TT3_M1_4 2588 229.64 2.88 0.39 432661 4115 365.13 2.40 8247 731.77 6.82 47761 C
TT3_M1_5 3731 331.06 4.15 0.60 522689 4002 355.10 2.09 9274 822.89 8.27 43048 C

Average 2847 252.58 3.16 0.51 359362 3695 327.84 2.13 7176 636.75 6.29 43220

CoV (%) 12.43 12.43 12.43 24.42 26.34 7.87 7.87 8.93 17.66 17.66 15.92 4.20

TT2_M2 TT2_M2_1 4618 573.66 5.13 1.17 464497 4954 615.40 3.97 6824 847.70 7.09 42495 C
TT2_M2_2 3888 482.98 4.32 0.65 400729 4154 516.02 2.99 6121 760.37 5.98 48714 C
TT2_M2_3 3621 449.81 4.02 0.65 411194 3766 467.83 2.93 6607 820.75 7.15 51350 C
TT2_M2_4 4187 520.12 4.65 0.78 365122 4223 524.60 2.54 6682 830.06 6.50 51937 C
TT2_M2_5 4551 565.34 5.06 0.91 467300 4298 533.91 2.99 7511 933.04 7.93 49004 C
TT2_M2_6 4386 544.84 4.87 0.85 769872 4817 598.39 3.51 8023 996.65 8.39 44367 C

Average 4209 522.80 4.68 0.83 479786 4369 542.69 3.15 6961 864.76 7.17 47978

CoV (%) 7.36 7.36 7.36 16.88 20.15 7.89 7.89 12.37 7.72 7.72 9.16 6.32

Fig. 12. Comparison between the force-displacement curves obtained in the series characterised by the same mortar (representative specimens TT1_M1_3, TT2_M1_1, and
TT3_M1_4).

transversal direction reduces locally the cross section of the matrix DIC facilitates definition of the displacement fields on all sur-
and weakens its resistance. faces of the TRM specimens. The displacement fields V presented in
98 C. Caggegi et al. / Composites Part B 130 (2017) 90e102

Fig. 13. Comparison between the stress-strain curves obtained in the series characterised by the same mortar (representative specimens TT1_M1_3, TT2_M1_1, and TT3_M1_4).

Fig. 14. Failure mode B recorded in test TT1_M1_3; a) Distribution of cracks, b) Tensile failure of textile.

Fig. 15. Failure mode C recorded in test TT2_M1_1.

Fig. 20 (TT2_M1_1) show the evolution of the crack pattern and the
orthogonality between the cracks and the direction of the applied
force (axis Y).
The evolution of the crack openings during tests TT2_M1_1 and
TT2_M2_1 is reported in the graphs dV-F of Fig. 21a and b; each
curve of the figure concerns one crack (the name of the curve is
related to the “x” abscissa where the crack is localized).
Once a crack develops, the opening dV measured by DIC is
proportional to the applied force (Fig. 21); it is interesting to note
that the F-dV curves during the evolution of the crack in the third
stage (Figs. 18a and b and 21a,b) are almost perfectly parallel. It has
been found that the ratio F/dV is nearly equal to the ratio EftAf/L
(where L is the distance between the cracks) (Fig. 21a, b). The EftAf/L
curves in Fig. 21a and b were obtained using a distance L of 100 and
50 mm, respectively. The maximum opening of cracks in systems
characterised by mortar M2 are lower than that measured in
specimens of series M1; the greater the number of cracks devel-
oped along Y, the lower the maximum crack opening recorded.
This equivalence between the F/dV and EftAf/L ratios highlights
that the shear stress at the fibre matrix interface is nearly zero. It is
confirmed by the longitudinal strain on the surface of the mortar;
indeed, Fig. 22 shows that εyy between the cracks is almost zero.
However, the DIC strain fields have been obtained on the external
surface of the composite; we couldn't have information about the
fibre-matrix interface.
 C. Caggegi et al. / Composites Part B 130 (2017) 90e102 99

Fig. 16. Comparison between the force-displacement curves obtained in the series characterised by the same textile reinforcing ratio and different mortar matrices (representative
specimens TT2_M1_1 and TT2_M2_1).

Fig. 17. Failure mode C (specimen TT2_M2_1).

Fig. 18. Force-displacement curves of two tensile tests (the red points define the load steps taken into account in the DIC); a) Specimen TT2_M1_1, b) Specimen TT2_M2_1. (For
interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
100 C. Caggegi et al. / Composites Part B 130 (2017) 90e102

Fig. 19. Values of displacements “V” in millimetres along y (in the axis x ¼ 45 mm) related to ten load steps; a) Specimen TT2_M1_1, b) Specimen TT2_M2_1.

Fig. 20. Displacement fields “V” related to four load steps (specimen TT2_M1_1).

4. Conclusions
The results obtained in this experimental study on TRM systems
characterised by different textile reinforcing ratios and different
kinds of mortar yield the following conclusions:
- In all the tests the peak stress in the composite (s1c) recorded at
the end of the un-cracked stage is almost equal to the tensile
strength of the mortar.
- The results obtained in this study show that the maximum
stress in the textile (s) was reached in the series characterised
by the lowest strengthening ratio (TT1_M1 series). The average
peak stress related to this series is nearly equal to the tensile
strength of the basalt fibre. In series TT1_M1, tensile failure of
the roving was recorded in three out of five tests.
- The stiffness of the TRM systems (TT1, TT2, TT3) during the third
stage of the tensile test is almost equal to the Young's modulus
of the dry basalt fibre.
- The increment of textile layers in the middle plane of the
composite reduces the bond between the textile and the matrix
and promotes premature slippage of the fabric before reaching
the tensile strength of the fibre.
- The results show that the crack pattern is associated with the
tensile strength of the mortar matrix and with the textile mesh
(geometrical and mechanical properties). The failure modes
recorded during the tests on basalt TRM systems show that the
more resistant the mortar is, the closer together the cracks are.
The cracks developed at the location of the transversal roving.
- Once a crack has developed, its opening is proportional to the
applied force. The ratio “applied force/opening crack” (F/dV) is
almost equal to the ratio EfAf/L (where Ef is the Young's modulus
 C. Caggegi et al. / Composites Part B 130 (2017) 90e102
Fig. 21. Evolution of crack openings in a graph dV-F; a) Specimen TT2_M1_1, b) Specimen TT2_M2_2.
Fig. 22. Strain fields “εyy” relate to several load steps (specimen TT2_M1_1).
of the fibre, A is the cross-sectional area of the textile and L is the
distance between the cracks).
The use of x-ray tomography allows detailed characterization of
the basalt fibre and definition of the cross-section of the textile
roving. Further measurements will be carried out on the same
material type to better define the influence of the resolution of the
tomography on the measurement.
Acknowledgment
This research has been carried out in collaboration with San
Marco Terreal and Fyfe Co.
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