5.

P-N Junction diode: I-V Characteristics

5.1 Significance and Importance of P-N junction diode

Pure semiconductors are of very limited use. Semiconductors that are doped
with impurities form the basis of the practical devices.

 A semiconductor that has been doped with acceptor impurities and into the
surface of which donor atoms are diffused forms a p-n junction diode.
 A p-n junction diode is also known as a semiconductor diode.
 The most remarkable property of the p-n junction is that it allows current flow
in one direction and opposes it in the opposite direction.
 This property is known as rectifying action.
 Semiconductor diodes are widely used as rectifiers, which convert input ac
voltage to dc voltage.
 The production techniques enable the fabrication of p-n junction to suit specific
purposes.
 Thus, a varicap that acts as a variable capacitor, a tunnel diode and a Gunn
diode as oscillators, a Zener diode as a voltage stabilizer, a photodiode as a light
detector, a solar cell as a voltage source, an LED and a laser as light sources are
all p-n junctions.
 A junction transistor is fabricated with two p-n junctions in close proximity.
 Therefore, p-n junction constitutes the most basic component of solid-state
devices and a thorough understanding of its electrical behaviour is essential for
appreciation of the operation of many semiconductor devices.

5.2 Structure of P-N Junction Diode

The diode is a device formed from a junction of n-type and p-type

semiconductor material. The lead connected to the p-type material is called the
anode and the lead connected to the n-type material is the cathode. In general, the
cathode of a diode is marked by a solid line on the diode.

Fig.2.28 Block diagram of a P-N Junction diode

 2.29 Circuit symbol of a P-N Junction diode

5.3 Working of p-n junction diode

Biasing of a P-N junction

Unbiased circuit

When a p-n junction is formed, a potential barrier is established which does

not permit the current to flow across the junction. Such a p-n junction is called
unbiased junction and is of no use in practice.

Fig.Unbiosed p-n junction diode

When an external voltage source (battery) is connected to the p-n junction, then it
is said to be biased.

A p-n junction diode can be biased in two ways:

(a) Forward bias

 (b)Reverse bias
(a) Forward biasing

The positive terminal of battery is connected to the P side (anode) and

the negative terminal of battery is connected to the N side (cathode) of a
diode.

The holes in the p-type region and the electrons in the n-type region are
pushed toward the junction and start to neutralize the depletion zone,
reducing its width (2.30 a).

 The positive potential applied to the p-type material repels the holes,
while the negative potential applied to the n-type material repels the
electrons.
 The change in potential between the p side and the n side decreases or
switches sign.
 With increasing forward-bias voltage, the depletion zone eventually
becomes thin enough that the zone's electric field cannot counteract
charge carrier motion across the p–n junction, which as a consequence
reduces electrical resistance.
 The electrons that cross the p–n junction into the p-type material (or
holes that cross into the n-type material) will diffuse into the nearby
neutral region.
 The amount of minority diffusion in the near-neutral zones determines
the amount of current that may flow through the diode.
 The forward bias circuit is shown in fig.2.30(a).
 (a) (b)

2.30. (a) Current flow in a forward biased P-N Junction and

(b) Current flow in a forward biased P-N Junction

(b) Reverse biasing

The positive terminal of battery is connected to the N side(cathode)

and the negative terminal of battery is connected to the P side(anode) of a
diode, the 'holes' in the p-type material are pulled away from the junction,
leaving behind charged ions and causing the width of the depletion region to
increase (2.30 b).

 Likewise, because the n-type region is connected to the positive

terminal, the electrons will also be pulled away from the junction, with
similar effect.
 This increases the voltage barrier causing a high resistance to the flow
of charge carriers, thus allowing minimal electric current to cross the
p–n junction.
 The increase in resistance of the p–n junction results in the junction
behaving as an insulator.
 Once the electric field intensity increases beyond a critical level, the
p–n junction depletion zone breaks down and current begins to flow,
usually by either the Zener or the avalanche breakdown processes.
 Both of these breakdown processes are non-destructive and are
reversible, as long as the amount of current flowing does not reach
levels that cause the semiconductor material to overheat and cause
thermal damage.
 The reverse bias circuit is shown in fig.2.30(b).
2.7.4 I–V characteristics of P-N junction diode
 The I-V(Amp-Volt) characteristics of a p-n junction diode can be studied in two
ways as explained below.
a) Forward bias characteristics

1. Identify the anode and cathode terminals of the given diode.

2. Make the circuit connections as shown in the figure.2.31.
3. Connect the diode in forward bias i.e., Anode is connected to positive of
the power supply and cathode are connected to negative of the power
supply.
4. In Forward Bias Current (IF) should be in mA position & similarly Voltage
(V) should be in 1.5 V.
5. Now Switch ON the main supply & Vary the power supply with help of
nob.
6. For various values of forward voltage (VF) note down the corresponding
values of Forward current (IF).
7. Note down the observations in table 2.1(a).

Fig.2.31Forward bias circuit 2.32 Reverse Bias circuit

Note

A P-N Junction is known as Semiconductor diode or Crystal diode. It is the

combination of P-type & N-type semiconductor, which offers nearly zero resistance
to current on forward biasing & nearly infinite resistance to the flow of current when
in reverse biased.

b) Reverse bias characteristics

1. Identify the anode and cathode terminals of the given diode.

2. Make the circuit connections as shown in the figure.2.32.
3. Connect the diode in Reversed bias i.e., Anode is connected to negative of the
power supply and cathode are connected to positive of the power supply.
4. In Reversed Bias, Current (I) should be in µA position & similarly Voltage (V)
should be in 15 V.
5. Now Switch ON the main supply & vary the power supply with help of nob.
6. For various values of reverse voltage (VR) note down the corresponding values of
reverse current (IR).
Note down the observations in table 2.1(b).
7. Note down the observations in table 2.1(b).
8. The voltage at which current increases suddenly is known as Breakdown voltage
(VBR).

Table 2.1 Forward bias and Reverse bias characteristics of the p-n junction diode

a) Forward bias b) Reverse bias

Germanium 0A79 Germanium 0A79
Silicon IN4007 Silicon IN4007

GRAPH

Draw a graph with the voltage, V along the X-axis and the current, I along the Y-
axis. A curve as shown in the fig.2.33 will be obtained.
 Fig V-I Characteristics of a p-n junction diode

Breakdown voltage

The reverse voltage at which break down of the p-n junction occurs with sudden
rise in reverse Current is known as breakdown voltage.

Knee voltage
Zener diode characteristics and explanation:

Zener diode is a semiconductor diode specially designed to operate in the breakdown

region of the reverse bias. Zener diodes are always operated in the reverse bias condition. The
breakdown phenomenon is reversible and harmless.

 Zener diode acts similar to a ordinary

diode under forward bias condition.
 In reverse bias condition, as the
reverse voltage is increased a small amount of
 current called leakage current flows. Leakage current is due to minority charge
carriers.
 At a particular value of reverse voltage, the current increases suddenly. This voltage is
called breakdown voltage or Zener voltage, VZ.
 In ordinary diodes the breakdown voltage is high and if reverse current is allowed to
flow, then the diode will be damaged.
 Zener diodes are designed so that their Zener voltage is much lower, about 2.4 volts.
 When a reverse voltage above the Zener voltage is applied to a Zener diode, there is a
controlled breakdown which does not damage the diode.
 In the Zener region the voltage across the Zener diode remains constant but the
current changes depending on the supply voltage.

 The location of Zener region can be controlled by varying doping levels. An increase
in doping will decrease the Zener potential.
 Zener diodes are available in the range of 2 V to 200 V.