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=> Reaching very high levels by the Late Archaic Period (ca. 500-480 BC):
- Almost perfect representation of body proportions (e.g. muscles), movement and three-dimensionality

Red-figure cup (510-500 BC) by

Onesimos; youth coursing a hare (H.:
9.4cm; D.: 23.3cm)

Red-figure cup (510-500 BC) by Red-figure krater (ca. 500 BC), by the Kleophrades Painter; return of Hephaistos
Onesimos; Herakles & the Amazons (H.: to Olympos
8.3cm; D.: 23.1cm)

- 6th and Early 5th c. BC Developments in Archaic Sculpture:

- Further development of the first ‘Daidalic’ kouroi:
- Used as votives in temples or as grave markers to
represent ‘ideal youths’
- Characterised by an ‘Archaic smile’
- Increasing attempts to represent a more realistic
body representation:
- At first:
- Becoming less block-shaped
- Getting less elongated heads
- Represented with more muscular bodies:
- Using strong ridges to accentuate
the major divisions of the body (e.g.
pelvis, knees)
- Adding shallow surface grooves to
indicate details (e.g. abdominal
muscles)

Kouros of Sounion (ca. 590 BC) (H.: Kouroi (‘Kleobis and Biton’) (ca. 610-570
3.05m) BC) (H.: 2.16m)

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=> Further developments:

- More slender proportions and more realistic depiction
of the body parts and muscles
- More rounded and three-dimensional representation
- Faces (and eyes) becoming more complex

Megara Hyblaia (Sicily), Kouros from Anavyssos, perhaps

Kouros from the grave of the of the tomb of Kroisos (ca. 530
physician Sombrotidas (ca. BC) (H.: 1.94m)
560-550 BC) (preserved H.:
1.19m)

=> End of the Archaic Period: development towards large naturalism:

- More lifelike anatomical structure and proportions
- More details of the skeleton and musculature

Kouros dedicated to Apollo by Pytheas and Aeschrion (ca. 500 BC) (preserved H.: 1.03m); statue and detail

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- Archaic korai:
- Used as votives in temples and as grave markers
- Similar development towards naturalism:
- More articulated drapery and folds to
accentuate movement and to stress the curves
of the body unerneath the clothing (khiton) in
fine linen; thicker mantle (himation) and shawl

Kore dedicated by Cheramyes, a man from Samos, possibly symbolizing

the women of his family (570-560 BC) (H.: 1.92m)

=> More moving representations through gestures

and clothing (generally decorated with colour
pigments)

Kore of Phrasikleia (ca. 550-540 BC), signed by Aristion of Paros (H.: 1.76m), original and
cast with reconstructed colours

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=> Late Archaic korai becoming more ‘real’:

- More complicated and delicately carved
- Each statue different and individual in proportions and details
- Very richly painted, to represent textile patterns; sometimes jewellery added in precious metal

Kore 680 from the Athenian Akropolis Kore 675 from the Akropolis (ca. 520- Kore dedicated by Euthydikos, from the
(ca. 520-510 BC) (preserved H.: 1.17m) 510 BC) (preserved H.: 0.55m) Athenian Akropolis (ca. 490-480 BC)
(preserved H.: 1.24m)

II.5. The Classical Greek World (ca. 480-323 BC)

II.5.1. The ‘Classical’ Ideal
The Classical Period:
- Often considered the ‘climax’ of ancient Greek Culture, based on assumptions concerning
e.g. :
- Perfection in the representation of the human body in statuary (qualitative and stylistic
appreciation)
- Highlights of Greek architecture (e.g. Akropolis)
- Development of the Athenian democracy

Athens, Akropolis, General view

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- Period largely defined by:

- Greek-Persian Wars and the highdays of Athens:
- 498-479 BC: War of the Greeks against the Persians (starting in Asia Minor) and the eventual Greek
victory
- Leading role of Athens: becoming the main political, economical and cultural power after the Persian
Wars as effective ruler of the Delian-Attic League
- Late Gradually announcing a new Greek reality:
- Crisis and issues following the Persian Wars
- Conflicts between city states (e.g. Athens and Sparta; Thebes)
- Opening the way for a new ‘world power’: Macedonia

The Persian Wars The Attic-Delian League

- Macedonian power:
- 338 BC: Philippos II: getting power over the Greek Mainland
- 336-323 BC: Rule of Philippos’ son Alexander the Great:
- Defeating the Persians
- Building up a Greek-Eastern world empire
- Bringing ‘Greek’ culture up to an international level

Philippos II (reign: 359-336 BC) Alexander (reign: 336-323 BC) Alexander’s Empire

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II.5.2. The Fifth Century (ca. 480-400 BC)

Classical Sculpture:
- End of the Archaic Period: human representations had become more lifelike,
but:
- Pose still symmetrical
- Face still spherical
- Eyes protruding from the skull
- Archaic smile making the face ‘mask-like’

Late Archaic kouros dedicated to Apollo by

Pytheas and Aeschrion (ca. 500 BC)

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=> Ca. 480 BC: changing conception of the human figure in art (stone, bronze, painting):
- Based on imitation of:
- Physical movement
- Emotional expression
- Ca. 480-450 BC: Severe Style (rather fleshy representation)
- E.g. ‘Kritios Boy’ (after 480 BC):
- Different pose:
- Right leg to the front with bent knee; left leg straight) imitating
the natural way of standing and walking
- Different body parts showing different directions (shoulders,
hips, knees; torso slightly twisted to the left; head slightly
turned to the right)
= Real contrapposto: balanced movement and counter-movement
- More lifelike rending of the face (mouth, eyes; as if looking around)
- Date not certain: presumably post-480 BC and reflecting an
innovative change in art

‘Kritios Boy’ (after 480 BC) (preserved H.: 0.86m)

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- E.g. ‘Tyrannicides’ (ca. 477/476 BC):

- Shown in action
- Engaging the viewer in the action
= Narrative quality of Classical sculpture

The ‘Tyrannicides’, Aristogeiton (L) and Harmodios (R), ready to kill the tyrant Hipparchos (killed in 514 BC), made by Kritios and Nesiotes (Roman copy
of a Greek bronze original of ca. 477/476 BC) (H.: 1.95m)

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- No abrupt stop of Archaic art and start of innovative Classical art:

- E.g. Sculptures of the pediments of the Temple of Aphaia on Aegina:
- Originally brightly coloured (cf. pigment traces)
- West pediment showing the sack of Try under Agamemnon:
- In the past dated to 500-480 BC (Late Archaic Period) based on stylistic
analysis (e.g. kore figure, Archaic smile & twisted pose of a fallen warrior)
- East pediment depicting the first sack of Troy under Herakles:
- In the past dated slightly before 480 BC (transition from Archaic to
Classical) (e.g. pose and anatomy more lifelike)

Aegina, Temple of Aphaia (after 480 BC

Colour reconstruction East pediment (top) and West pediment (bottom)

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=> Recent re-investigation of the temple’s foundations: temple built after 480 BC:
- Both pediments dating to the Early Classical Period
- But: different execution:
- Less or more lifelike representation of figures
- Non-interaction or interaction with the viewer:
- ‘Archaic’ warrior of the West pediment: looking straight out into space
- ‘Classical soldier: looking down to make eye-contact with the viewers
below in front of the temple

West pediment, ‘Archaic’ fallen warrior (with Archaic smile and twisted pose) East pediment, ‘Classical’ wounded soldier

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- Similar developments in Early Classical bronze originals:

- Still characterised by a certain stiffness
- But gradually:
- Better representation of movement
- Awareness of optical effects
- Creating eye contact with the viewer
- E.g. Charioteer of Delphi (ca. 475-466 BC):
- Part of a larger group with a four-horse chariot
- Dedicated by Polyzalos, brother of Hieron, tyrant of Syracusa
on Sicily and twice winner of the chariot races at Delphi
- Legs of the charioteer elongated to make him stand taller
- Intending to increase lifelikeness by means of the dress folds
- Absence of Archaic smile; impassive expression

‘Charioteer of Delphi’ (ca. 475-466 BC) (H.: 1.80m); statue, detail and reconstruction drawing of the statue group

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- E.g. Poseidon or Zeus from Cape Artemision (ca. 460 BC):

- More-than-life size
- Suggesting movement by accentuating the musculature
- Left arm too long but normal in proportion when seen from the front

God (Poseidon or Zeus?) from Cape Artemision (ca. 460 BC) (H.: 2.09m)

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- E.g. ‘Bronzes of Riace’ or ‘Riace Warriors’ (ca. 460-450 BC):

- Found in the sea off the coast of Southern Italy
- Made with the same master model: same size, pose and anatomical
structure
- Heads worked out in different ways
- Dating discussed: generally ascribed to ca. 460-450 BC (or 1st c. BC
‘Neo-Classical’ works?)
- Belonging to a scene representing heroic warriors

‘Riace Warriors’ in bronze (ca. 460-450 BC) (H.: 1.97m &1.98m), the two statues and detail of their faces (inlaid eyes, copper lips, silver teeth)

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- Indirect lost-wax casting technique

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

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In the indirect method of lost-wax casting, the original master model is not lost in the casting
process. Therefore, it is possible to recast sections, to make series of the same statue, and to piece-
cast large-scale statuary.
1. First a model for the statue is made in the sculptor’s preferred medium, usually clay.
2. A mould of clay or plaster is then made around the model to replicate its form. This mould is
made in as few sections as can be taken off without damaging any undercut modelling. Upon
drying, the individual pieces of the mould are removed, reassembled, and secured together.
3. Each mould segment is then lined with a thin layer of beeswax.
4. After this wax has cooled, the mould is removed and the artist checks to see if all the desired
details have transferred from the master model; corrections and other details may be rendered
in the wax model at this time.
5. The bronze smith then attaches to the wax model a system of funnels, channels, and vents, and
covers the entire structure in one or more layers of clay.
6. The clay mould is heated: the wax is poured out and the clay is fired.
7. The molten metal is poured in the terracotta mould.
8. When this metal cools, the mould is broken open to reveal the cast bronze segment of the
statue.
9. Any protrusions left by the pouring channels are cut off, and small imperfections are removed
with abrasives. The separately cast parts are then joined together by metallurgical and
mechanical means.
10. The sculpture is ready.

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- E.g. Diskobolos (‘Discus-Thrower’) of Myron (ca. 450 BC):

- Representing an athlete at the moment of action
- Lifelike representation of movement and tension by means of the musculature
- Facial expression not in accordance with the physical effort: expresionless

Diskobolos (‘Discus-Thrower’) of Myron (2nd c. AD copy of a bronze original of ca. 450 BC)

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- The ‘Canon’ of Polykleitos:

- Treatise known through remarks and quotations by other
writers
- Discussing a system of proportions to be used for human
representations, based on mathematical ratios (Pythagoras)
- E.g. Doryphoros (‘Spear-Bearer’) (ca. 450-440 BC):
- Corresponding to the ‘Canon’
- Contrapposto with straight right leg and bent left leg;
straight right arm and bent left arm (carrying a spear)
- Balance between straight and curved lines
- Stopping or starting to move

Doryphoros (‘Spear-Bearer’) of Polykleitos (marble copy of a bronze original of ca. 450-440 BC) (H.: 1.98m); statue, detail and proportions

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- Sculpture of the late 5th c. BC:

- Moving towards a new style:
- Becoming more sensual, decorative and emotional
- Related to the time period: time of military struggle between city
states
=> Idealistic representations no longer fitting the realistic situation of
war and destruction
- E.g. Nike by Paionios (ca. 420 BC):
- Located at the top of a victory monument dedicated at Olympia
- Strong expression of movement and speed
- Impression of wet drapery revealing much of the anatomical
structure underneath

Nike by Paionios (ca. 420 BC) (H.: 1.95m)

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