Fungal Structure &

Ultrastructure
Physiology of
Microorganisms
(M401- 4th Level
Microbiology)
Ass.Prof. Mervat H. Hussein
Botany Department
Faculty of Science
Mansoura University
 Microbial
(Fungal)
Physiology
What is it?
 Micrbial Physiology
• The study of the nutrition,
metabolism, growth, reproduction
and death of microbial (fungal) cells.
• The interaction of microorganism
(fungi) with their biotic & abiotic
environment, including cellular
responses to stress.
 Learning Goals
• Illustrate the basic structure of
fungal cell
•Recognize fungal ultrastructure
•Understand how hypha is part of
a colony
•Understand structure of fungal
walls & wall components
 The structure of a fungal hypha
• hypha is essentially a tube with a
rigid wall, containing a moving slug
of protoplasm.
• Diameter, ranging from 2 μm to 30
μm or more (usually 5–10 μm),
depending on the species and
growth conditions.
• Hyphae grow only at their tips,
extension zone.
• Behind the growing tip, the hypha ages
progressively and in the oldest regions it
may break down by autolysis or be
broken down by the enzymes of other
organisms (heterolysis).
• fungal hypha continuously extends at
one end & continuously ages at the
other end, drawing the protoplasm
forward as it grows.
Fungal ultrastructure
 The zonation of organelles in the apical
compartment
• The extreme hyphal tip contains a large
accumulation of membrane-bound
Vesicles.
• Most of the vesicles are thought to be
derived from golgi bodies.
• The collection of vesicles at the hyphal
tip is termed the apical vesicle cluster
(AVC). (apical body)
 The hypha as part of a colony
• Fungal colonies typically develop from a single
germinating spore, which produces a germ
tube (a young hypha) that grows and
branches behind the tip.
• As the original hypha and the first-order
branches grow, they produce further
branches behind their tips.
• Branches diverge until the colony
develops a characteristic circular outline.
 The Body of a Fungus
• Fungi exist mainly in the form of
slender filaments (hyphae).
– long chains of cells joined end-
to-end divided by cross-walls
(septa)
• rarely form complete
barrier
• cytoplasm freely streams in
hyphae
– mycelium - mass of connected
hyphae
• grows through and
penetrates substrate
 Hyphal growth from spore

germinating
spore
mycelium

Mycelia have a huge surface area

Stages in the development of a fungal
colony from a germinating spore.
(e) anastomosis of hyphae near the
center of the colony.
Videotaped sequence of anastomosis of
two hyphae of Rhizoctonia solani
Mycelial (filamentous):
• In nutrient-rich conditions, the hyphae &
branches at the colony margin always diverge
from one another, so that they grow in the
spaces between existing hyphae.
• Nutrient-poor conditions near the center of a
colony create exactly the opposite effect, in
which hyphae grow towards one another and
fuse at the points of contact.
• “homing response” is extremely accurate &
always leads to tip-to-tip fusion.
• Hyphal anastomosis only occurs
between members (colonies) of the
same species.
• Even within a species, strains that
are genetically different can fuse,
leading to rapid death of the fused
hyphal compartments – a reaction
governed by heterokaryon
incompatibility.
• The hyphae of Oomycota seldom
exhibit “vegetative” anastomosis,
but when they produce sexual
hyphae of opposite mating types;
the development of these is
controlled by sex hormones
 Hyphal Ultrastructure

• Diagram illustrating the

ultrastructure of a septate
hypha
 Fungal walls and wall
components
Taxonomic group Structural
(fibrillar) components Matrix
components
 The major wall components
• Table 3.1 The major components of fungal
walls.

• Wall architecture
 Diagram to illustrate the wall
architecture in a “mature” (subapical)
region of a hypha of Neurospora
crassa
The cytoskeleton
and molecular
motors
• Cytoskeleton plays a major role in
the internal organization of
eukaryotic cells, providing a
dynamic structural framework for
transporting organelles, for
cytoplasmic streaming, and for
chromosome separation during cell
division.
 The three main elements of
the cytoskeleton
• (i) microtubules, consisting of
polymers of tubulin proteins,
• (ii) microfilaments, consisting of the
contractile protein actin,
• (iii) intermediate filaments which
provide tensile strength.
• Hypothetical model of the organization
of the vesicle-trafficking network in a
growing hypha,
• E = endosome; ER = endoplasmic
reticulum;
• G = Golgi cisterna;
• M = mitochondrion;
• SPK = Spitzenkörper;
• V = vacuole.
Electron micrographs of hyphae
• Most fungi are composed of
microscopic filaments called
HYPHAE, which branch to
eventually form a network of
hyphae, called a MYCELIUM
(colony).
• Mycelium extends over or through
whatever substrate the fungus is
using as a source of food
• Each hypha is essentially a tube,
containing PROTOPLASM
surrounded by a RIGID WALL.
• Depending upon the species,
protoplasm may form a continuous,
uninterrupted mass running the length
of the branching hyphae,
• or the protoplasm may be interrupted at
intervals by cross-walls called SEPTA
 Hyphae
• Cylindrical, branching filaments
composed of a tubular cell wall
filled with cytoplasm and organelles
• Most fungal hyphae are 2-10 m
diameter
• Septa divide up hyphae into
individual discrete cells
•
• Hyphae exhibit APICAL GROWTH
(i.e. they elongate at their tips) are
capable of growing indefinitely, if the
provided environmental conditions
remain favorable for growth.
• Their environment eventually limits or
restricts their growth.
• Hyphae may initially develop from
a GERM-TUBE (a short, immature
hypha) that emerges from a
germinating spore.
• Spores are the microscopic dispersal
or survival propagules produced by
many species of fungi
 Hyphal Ultrastructure

• Diagram illustrating the

ultrastructure of a septate
hypha
• Each HYPHA is:
–essentially a tube - consisting
of a rigid wall and containing
protoplasm
–tapered at its tip - this is the
region of active growth (i.e. the
extension zone).
• SEPTA (cross-walls), if
present, can usually be
observed down a light
microscope
–some fungi possess septa at
regular intervals along the
lengths of their hyphae
• cross-walls form to isolate old
or damaged regions of a
hypha or
• to isolate reproductive
structures
• PLASMA MEMBRANE is
closely associated with the
hyphal wall and in some
regions may even be firmly
attached to it - making it
difficult to plasmolyse
• Each hyphal cell or compartment
normally contains one or more
NUCLEI
• Other CYTOPLASMIC
ORGANELLES are those
commonly found in all
eukaryotic cells.
 GROWING TIP
• Its structure and function is
very different from the rest of
the hypha
–its cytoplasm appears more
dense
–there are no major organelles at
the extreme tip
• at the extreme tip there is an
accumulation of membrane-
bound vesicles - the APICAL
VESICULAR CLUSTER
(COMPLEX) (AVC) - which
plays an important role in apical
growth.
• VACUOLES may be visible in
sub-apical hyphal compartments
- although small at first, they
grow larger and merge with one
another
• they store and recycle cellular
metabolites, e.g. enzymes and
nutrients
• In the oldest parts of the hypha
the protoplasm may breakdown
completely, due either to:
*AUTOLYSIS (self-digestion) or
in natural environments
*HETEROLYSIS (degradation
due to the activities of other
microorganisms).
The Fungal Wall
 Functions
• Protects the underlying
protoplasm;
• Determines and maintains THE
SHAPE of the fungal cell or
hypha; if you remove the wall
the resulting protoplast will
always assume a spherical shape;
• Acts as an Interface between the
fungus and its environment;
• Acts as a Binding Site for some
enzymes;
• Possesses Antigenic properties -
which allow interactions with other
organisms
Chemical composition of the wall

• POLYMERIC FIBRILS
–chitin
–cellulose (in the Oomycota)
• AMORPHOUS MATRIX
COMPONENTS
– glucans
– proteins
– lipids
– heteropolymers (mixed polymers) of
mannose, galactose, fucose and xylose
• The types and amounts of
these various components
vary amongst different
groups of fungi &
• may even vary during the life
cycle of a single species
 Fungal cell wall composition
• Structural components:
–chitin microfibrils [ß(1-4)-linked
polymer of N-acetylglucosamine]
–ß-linked glucans
• Gel-like components:
–Mannoproteins (form matrix
throughout wall)
 Arrangement of the wall
components
• The diagram above represents a section
through the mature lateral wall of
hyphae of Neurospora crassa.
• In general, the inner part of the
wall consists of POLYMERIC
FIBRILS embedded in an
AMORPHOUS MATRIX and
this is covered by further layers
of matrix material.
• At the HYPHAL TIP the wall is
thinner & simpler in structure,
consisting of only TWO LAYERS
- an inner layer of fibrils
embedded in protein and outer
layer of mainly protein
• EXTRA LAYERS of wall
material are deposited in the
lateral walls behind the
extending apex -
strengthening the wall as the
hypha matures
• In the oldest parts of the hyphae
(and in many fungal spores)
LIPIDS and PIGMENTS may be
deposited in the wall
• LIPIDS serve as a nutrient
reserve and help prevent
desiccation
• PIGMENTS, such as MELANIN,
help protect the protoplast
against the damaging effects of
UV radiation
 Septa

• Oomycota and Zygomycota

• But septa in the form of COMPLETE
CROSS-WALLS are formed to
isolate old or damaged regions of
the mycelium or to separate
reproductive structures from somatic
hyphae.
Ascomycota
• Cytoplasmic streaming enables
sub-apical and central
compartments of young hyphae
to contribute towards growth of
the hyphal tip - transporting
nutrients and essential enzymes
to the apex
• so maximizing the capacity for
somatic growth
• Associated with each septum are
spherical, membrane-bound
organelles called WORONIN
BODIES
 –are composed of protein;
–remain close to the septal pore and
not disturbed by the cytoplasmic
streaming taking place
• tend to be of the same or larger
diameter than the septal pore
and are capable of blocking the
pore
• will block the septal pore if
the adjacent hyphal
compartment is damaged or
ageing and becoming highly
vacuolated
Functions of septa
Act as STRUCTURAL SUPPORTS
• The addition of plate-like cross-
walls to what is essentially a
long tube-like structure (hypha)
willt help stabilize it
 FIRST LINE OF DEFENCE
• Act as the FIRST LINE OF
DEFENCE when part of a hypha
is damaged
 Facilitate DIFFERENTIATION in fungi
• Septa can isolate adjacent
compartments from one another so
that different biochemical and
physiological processes can occur
within them
• these may result in differentiation of
the hyphae into specialized
structures, such as those associated
with sporulation
Chitin Structure
 Chitin Synthesis
• Chitin synthase catalysis the
synthesis of chitin chains, and is
therefore one of the principal
enzymes involved in fungal wall
synthesis.
 The Cell Envelope
• Ergosterol is the major sterol of p.
m. in fungi
• A macromolecule coating …
Glycocalyx outside the p. m.
 Fungal Biology
• Jim Deacon, 2006
• Biol. 10508
• (20049)
• * chapter 3: Fungal structure & ultrastructure