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Linear fracture mechanics

I.Introduction

Depending on the physical behavior of a material, appropriate fracture mechanics

concepts are used. The classification usually used for these concepts is as follows:

- Linear fracture mechanics (MLR) for materials whose behavior

is essentially linear elastic. High-strength steels, ceramics, etc. belong to this
category.
- Nonlinear fracture mechanics (MNLR) or elastoplastic mechanics of
rupture (MEPR), for ductile materials such as low or medium strength steels,
stainless steels or austenitic steels, aluminum alloys and copper alloys, etc.
- Dynamic fracture mechanics (MDR), linear or nonlinear, for
metals subjected to high strain rates.
- The viscoelastic fracture mechanics (MVER) for essentially the
polymers stressed at temperatures below the glass transition temperature.
- Viscoplastic fracture mechanics (MVPR) for polymers above
the transition temperature, for metals and ceramics stressed at high temperature.
MLR and MNLR are independent of time. Time intervenes in the behavior for the
MDR, the MVER and the MVPR.
MEPR, MDR, MVER and MVPR are often grouped together in the broader field of
nonlinear fracture mechanics (MLNR).

II. Zone delimiting the tip of the crack

According to the behavior of the material during the propagation of a crack, one can be
confronted with two types of ruptures: brittle rupture,in the absence of significant plastic
deformation (linear fracture mechanics) and ductile fracture, in the presence of non-
negligible plastic deformation (nonlinear fracture mechanics).
When the rupture of a material is fragile, a single initiation site is generally observed
on a defect from which a main crack propagates by cleavage until the rupture of the
part. During a brittle fracture, the macroscopic behavior of the metal remains
elastic. Ductile failure in the case of metals is a very different damage mechanism
from brittle failure. It's a mechanism that occurs when the metal is

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macroscopically in plasticity. Many cavities develop on defects. Then, due to plastic
deformation, these cavities grow and then coalesce. Rupture occurs by coalescence
of micro-cracks or cavities. Fracture mechanics proposes to describe the stages of
crack initiation and propagation. The linear fracture mechanics applies to materials
having an elastic behavior obeying Hooke's law. Even if corrections related to the
presence of a plasticized zone near a stress concentration zone (notch, crack) have
been proposed subsequently, these analyzes based on the assumption that the
plasticity remains confined are only valid. for structures whose behavior is globally
elastic.
In a homogeneous material subjected to a uniaxial stress --, the force is transmitted
in the structure along lines of force which are parallel (Fig.1a). The effect of cracking
results in the modification of the flow of force due to the presence of a geometric
discontinuity (Fig.1b). In the vicinity of the crack, the lines of force are relatively close
and this leads to a concentration of the local stress field with a maximum at the
crack tip.

To) b)
Figure 1: Stress concentration in the vicinity of the crack.

Fracture mechanics studies the interaction between the geometric discontinuity (crack) and the

surrounding continuous medium, as well as the evolution of this discontinuity. From a

mechanical point of view, one can schematically distinguish, in a fissured medium, three

successive zones (Fig.2).

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 Figure 2: Zone delimiting the vicinity of a crack tip.

- Processing area (zone 1):it is at the crack tip and in the wake left by the crack
during its propagation. The study of this zone is very complex because of the
significant stresses which have seriously damaged the material. It is discontinuous
in the sense of solid mechanics. The classical theory of fracture mechanics reduces
this zone to a point for plane problems and to a curve for three-dimensional
problems.
- Singular zone (zone 2):in which the fields of displacements, deformations and
stresses are continuous and have a formulation independent of the distant geometry of
the structure. It is demonstrated that in this zone, the stress field components are
infinite in the vicinity of the crack front (r 0). More exactly, the
singularity is in (1/ r ) in linear elastic medium. The material having an elastic limit, there is a
radius rparound the crack tip which determines the shape of the plastic zone. Depending on
the value of rp, we will say that the fracture is brittle for rpsmall and that it is ductile for rpbig.

- Outdoor area (area 3): it is connected on the one hand, with the singular zone, and on the
other hand with the boundary conditions in loads and in displacements. In this zone, the
fields of displacements, deformations and stresses vary little and can be approximated by
polynomials commonly used in the finite element method.
The stress field in an infinite medium in the vicinity of the crack depends on several
parameters, namely: The loading σ∞away from the crack; the Young's modulus E and the
Poisson's ratio υ as well as the dimensions of the cracked structure.
In the most general case, the stresses σijin polar coordinates (r , θ) with respect to
the end of the crack, are expressed by: σij= f (σ∞, E, υ, a, r, θ, W, rp, σe)

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 To) b) vs)
Figure 3: Different cases of specimens with an emerging crack.

The case “a” represents a crack very small dimension W>>a, the plate is linear
elastic, of Young's modulus E and Poisson's ratio υ . In this case the stress field is
defined by: σij= f (σ∞, E, υ, a, r, θ)
The length has of the crack of case ''b'' is no longer negligible, whence: σij= f (σ∞, E, υ, a, r, θ,

W)
The case “c” is presented under the same configuration of loading as the case “b” but,
with an elastoplastic material. Two other variables must be considered: the elastic limit
σematerial and size rpof the plastified zone which forms at the end of the crack. In this
case we: σij= f (σ∞, E, υ, a, r, θ, W, rp, σe)
When the size of the plasticized zone is negligible compared to the length of the crack (rp

<< a) and that (σ->> σe), we apply the concepts of MLR.

III. Break criteria

In linear elastic fracture mechanics, two main fracture criteria are used, the first
proposed by Griffith (1920) is based on an energy approach, the second by Irwin (1960),
is defined from the local stress field at the tip of the crack. Various analysis methods
make it possible to study the fields of displacements, deformations and stresses in the
vicinity of a crack. All of these methods are grouped under two types of approaches:

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 * Energy approaches that are based on the energy analysis of the continuous medium

containing a crack. it is about an overall energy balance integrating the rate of energy
restitution due to a virtual increase in the crack.
* Direct approaches: which are based on the use of Airy functions; these
approaches solve plane problems and call upon the search for analytical functions.

In general, three parameters can be used to study the characteristics of the singular
zone: the stress intensity factor ''K'', the energy release rate ''G'', and the integral ''J ''.
''K'' is the parameter of the direct local approach. ''G'' and ''J'' are the parameters of the
global energy approach.

III.1. Energy approach

III.1.1. Energy release rate

In his work on brittle fracture theory, Griffith introduced the rate of

energy restitution, noted G corresponding to the energy released during the

propagation of a crack in a perfectly elastic solid. According to Griffith, failure occurs
when sufficient energy is released for the creation of new failure surfaces. This energy
comes from the elastic energy stored in the material and from the potential energy of
the loading system. Griffith considers a solid of thickness ''e'', subjected to a loading F,
comprising a crack of length ''2 a''. The total free energy of the cracked body is equal to:

U = U0+ Us+ UE–W

Or:
U0: is the strain energy of the uncracked body; US: is the surface energy due to the
formation of the crack; UE: is the variation of elastic strain energy due to the
introduction of the crack and W : is the variation of the external work.

Depending on the total energy, Griffith expressed a failure criterion as:

of
-0: crack is unstable (brittle fracture);
there

of
= 0: crack is in equilibrium;
there

of
> 0: crack is stable (ductile failure).
there

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Energy U0is independent of the crack; UEand W are functions of the loading mode.
The energy release rate is defined by:
1 -(U E- W)
G-
e -To
The parameter G is represented by the area between the two curves P = f (-)
corresponding to the cracks of length a and a + da. If we consider an increase in the
crack of a length da, for a constant displacement, we can then observe a decrease in the
load -P as shown in figure 4.a. The variation of the energy of the system is only a
reduction in the strain energy, that is:
1
δW - 0 And δUE- - ΔδP
2
Figure 4.b illustrates the same behavior as shown in Figure 4.a with a constant load.
The propagation of the crack leads to an increase in the displacement d-.
1
In this case, the strain energy increases ( δUE- - PdΔ ). The variation of work
2
corresponding is given by the relationship: - W = P d -

1
From where : δ-UE-W-- -PdΔ
2

P
P

-P

p -

a + da
a + da

d-

- -
a) Constant displacement b) Constant load
Figure 4. Interpretation of energy release rate.

Breaking occurs when the total energy reaches an optimum. It occurs, for a given
applied stress, when the size of the crack tends towards a critical value avs.

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In this case, the value of the energy G corresponds to the rate of restitution of the critical

energy (Gc) whose value for a brittle material is equal to twice the surface energy. (Gc=2-0).

the energy release rate is expressed in J/m2or N/m

III.2. Local approach

Direct approaches are based on the use of Airy functions; these approaches solve
plane problems and call upon the search for analytical functions. This approach
considers the local stress and strain fields around the crack tip in a linear elastic
material.
III.2.1. Stress intensity factor
Irwin, considers a solid of linear elastic behavior and comprises a crack. It shows
that the stress field in the vicinity of the crack can be defined only by a parameter
''K'' called stress intensity factor. The break can occur when ''K'' reaches a critical
value ''Kc''. Using the Westergaard functions, it is possible to describe the stress field
at a distance r from the tip of the crack (Figure 5).
K
The general expression of this field is of the form: -ij- fII-- -
2 -r

Figure 5: Stresses near the tip of a crack.

Where: K: is the stress intensity factor;

fij: is a function which depends only on the angle - and on the mode of cracking

(I, II or III).
r, - are the polar coordinates of the considered point.

K is the stress intensity factor, which contains both the information on the level of loading
and on the dimension of the crack. This factor is expressed in ( MPa m1/2)

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As the stress intensity factor K defines the stress field in the vicinity of the crack,
Irwin postulated that the condition K - Kc. Represented a criterion of rupture, K and

Kc are given by the following relations:

K-Y.- -To
Kvs-Y-vs -To
Or: -vsis the value reached by the stress applied at failure, and Y is a geometric factor
(Correction coefficient). Taking into account the finished dimensions and the geometry
of the specimen. This parameter is given for each type of specimen as a polynomial
function of (a/w), where w is the width of the specimen.
Using Westergaard's method, Irwin shows that the main stress components in the
vicinity of the crack tip, corresponding to the three displacement modes, can be
expressed by:

In I mode:
In Cartesian coordinates In polar coordinates

KI -- - 3--
-there- cos -1- sin sin
2-r 2- 2 2 --    5   1  
 = −     3
2   4 2 4 2
KI - - 3-    3   1  
-xy- sin cos cos  = +     3
2-r 2 2 2 2   4 2 4 2
   1   1  
  = +     3
KI -- - 3-- 2   4 2 4 2
-x- cos2 --1-sin sin
2-r 2 2 --

In Mode II:In Cartesian coordinates In polar coordinates

KII -- - 3--     
-x- - sin 2 --2 - cos cos  = − 54    + 34    3 2
2-r 2 2 -- 2   2

KII - - 3-     
-there- sin cos cos  = − 34    − 34    3 2
2 2 2 2   2
2-r
    
KII -- - 3--
  = 1    + 34    3 2
-xy- cos 1-sin sin 2   4 2
2-r 2 -- 2 2 --

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In Mode III:

KIII -
-xz- - sin
2-r 2
KIII -
-yz- cos
2-r 2

-x- -there- -z- -xy- 0

In the general case (presence of the three modes) the stress field takes the following
form:

-
σ-ij θ--- -2-r KIfij-θ--Kf
-1/2 I
II II ij-θ--KIII ij-θ-
fIII -

FunctionsfI,II,IIIare
ij functions depending only on the polar angle θ. In the

plane of cracking (θ = 0) these functions are reduced to:fI 22----fII 12----fIII 23----1
KI, KIIand KIIIare the stress intensity factors in mode I , II and II It is therefore clear
that the stress field has a singularity (r-1/2) at the tip of the crack (r tends towards 0).
Using the theory of elasticity, Irwin showed that, in strain or plane stress,
displacements in the singular zone can be expressed as a function of stress intensity
factors:

r -
u=
KI
- - -cos 32--- - KII
--2k -1 cost
r -
- - -sin 3- --
--2k-3 mins
4- 2- - 2 - 4- 2- - 2 2 -

r -
v=
KI
- - -sin 32--- - KII
--2k-1 sin
r - -
-cos
3- -
4- 2- - 2 - 4- 2----2k-3-cos 2 2 --

Where: - is the shear modulus, and - the Poisson's ratio,k-3- 4-in deformation

flat andk- 3 -- in plane stress.

1--

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In mixed mode (I+II) the two K factorsIand KIIare defined by:

KI=K0cos2θ

KII=K0cos θ sin θ

With K0-Y.-0 -To

In the linear elastic context of fracture mechanics, the rate of energy restitution and
the stress intensity factor are linked by the type relation:

K2I-K 2
K III
2
G- II
-
E' 2-

K2I; K2II K2III

G-I GII - AndGIII-
E' E' 2-

With: E' = E in plane stress and E' = E / (1+υ2) in plane strain; μ and - are respectively
the shear modulus and the Poisson's ratio.
The two parameters, stress intensity factor and rate of energy restitution are
essential for fracture mechanics, they are valid only for a linear elastic behavior.
However, in ductile fracture, taking into account the real behavior of the material is
necessary to define parameters representative of dissipative phenomena such as
plasticity.

III.2.2. Strain energy density

The Griffith magnitude is the result of an energy balance between the configurations
before and after propagation of the crack. A local energy study in the singular field
makes it possible to obtain the volume strain energy density. This density is defined in
the same way as the stress intensity factor. Sih and Chen expressed this energy density
in a homogeneous elastic and isotropic medium by:

of 1--- -
- -2 - - 2
there-
- z2- ---x- --
there
z - --
2
2 xy
-
- -2xz- -2yz-
dv 2E- -x 1- - -

The deformation energy factor noted S is defined in the same way as the stress
intensity factor. This factor S is defined in a direction - at a distance r corresponding
to the singular zone.

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Either :

-of -
S----r- -
-dv-

Sih and Chen showed that there is a relationship between the strain energy factor S
and the stress intensity factors KIand KII, for all plane problems:

a K2 KII- To22K2 II
S -11 I- 2a12KI
r
With :

-To11- - -3-4-.cos---1-cos-- -
-- - -
-To12- - 1 - 2. sin--cos--1-2-- -
- --16- - -
- To22 -4-1----1-cos----3cos--1--1-cos---
-- -- -- --

Under the assumption of linear elastic behavior, Sih and Chen showed that the strain
energy density factor S can be related to the other failure parameters by the following
relationships:

1-ν 1-ν
In plane stress: S I= K2I = GI
2πE 2π

-1----1- 2-- -1- 2--

In plane strain: S I= K 2I=
2.--1---G
I
2.-.E

These rupture parameters make it possible to characterize the stress fields and
deformations at crack tips. It remains to be seen whether this crack will propagate;
if so, in which direction; how stable or unstable. Propagation is defined, as in many
failure criteria, from the experimental determination of threshold

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