CHAPTER ONE.

15 & 18
1.1 BACKGROUND

According to Hassan and Mohammed (2014) curing concrete increase strength by up to 50% and also
improve durability, making it more water tight and improve its appearance. If the concrete is not cured
and is allowed to dry in air, it will gain only 50% of the strength of continuously cured concrete (Raheem,
2013). A number of concrete structures around the globe cracks and lose stiffness when subjected to
external load. Having premature deterioration of concrete is an international problem, the building
industry needs to increase the load carrying capacity of structures by using concrete of high strength. In
concrete structures, the mix proportion of the different components together with the aggregate type and
size determine the compressive strength of hard concrete. The aggregates are responsible for the unit
weight, elastic modulus and dimensional stability of concrete because these properties depend on the
physical characteristics (strength and bulk density) of the aggregate (Anonymous, 2012). Cement is
generally an agent that is used to bond materials together, which happens as a result of a chemical
reaction known as hydration. The concrete needs to be cured by immersing concrete cubes in water (i.e.
pounding) for this process. Curing is designed primarily to keep the concrete moist by preventing loss of
moisture from it during the period in which it is gaining strength. Curing can be achieved by keeping the
concrete element completely saturated or as much saturated as possible until the water-filled spaces are
substantially reduced by hydration products. Aggregates constitute about 50 to 60% of the concrete mix
depending on the mix proportion used. The larger the aggregate percentage in concrete mix makes it to
contribute a lot to its strength (Waziri et. al., 2011). Aggregates are the most

mined material in the world. They are a component of composite materials such as concrete and asphalt
concrete. According to Adiseshu and Ganapati (2011), larger aggregates demand lower water on its mix
thus reducing the workability and increasing the compressive strength of concrete. This study therefore
focused on the effect of coarse aggregate size on the compressive strength of concrete. To evaluate the
compressive strength (the theoretical maximum compressive stress reached in the bottom fibre of a test
beam during a compressive strength test) of

concrete implies subjecting concrete to loading on compressive testing machine in

order to measure it's resistance to compression stresses. The constituents of concrete are cement, water
and aggregates (fine and coarse aggregates).

Aggregates are about three-quarter of the volume of concrete with the coarse aggregates taking between
50 and 60% of the concrete mix depending on the mix proportion used (Waziri et. al., 2011). The larger
percentage of coarse aggregate in concrete mix makes it to contribute a lot to the strength of concrete. Its
properties like toughness, hardness, shape, size, soundness, density, and specific gravity also affect the
strength of concrete.

Concrete structures deflect, crack, and loose stiffness when subjected to external load. Loss of
compressive strength of concrete is largely responsible for cracks in structure. In reinforced concrete
structures, the mix proportions of the materials of the concrete and aggregate type determine the
compressive strength while the composite action of concrete and steel reinforcement supplies the
compressive strength. The compressive strength therefore play a crucial role. Many researchers (Wu et.
al. 1997; Zhang et. al. 2010 Waziri et. al. 2011; Abdullahi, 2012 and Joseph et. al. 2012) have carried out
studies on the strength characteristics of concrete produced using different aggregate materials and using
different brands of cement but little or no attention have been focused on the

or extemal loads) benveen reinforcement and concrete Use of poorly waded course rate in concrete matrix
also has it share in the causes of structural Maitre due to the development or hom comb in the cenerele.
This also results in a cohesionless composite of concrete and steel with poor comprensive bond in such
#ase concrete will not be able to emotively transmit the induced extemalb (compression) load to the
reinforcement, thus resulting instructoral allure as the concrete will be subjected to compression stresser
than it can accommodate Therefore it is imperative to determine the enteet of course aggregate ale on the

compressive bond strength of concrete. There is strong evidence that aggregate pe is a factor in the
strength of concrete, Beeldin et al. (1901) compared

concretes with the same mis proportions containing four different coarse aparegatebtypes. They
concluded that, in high strength concretes, higher strength coarse aggregates typically yield higher
compressive strengths, while in normal-strength

concretes: coarse aggregate strength has little effect on compressive strength. Other research has
compared the effects of limestone and basalt on the compressivebstrength of high-strength concrete
(Claccio et al., 1902) Darwin et al (1905) observed that concretes containing basalt coarse aggregate
exhibited higher bond strengths with reinforcing steel than concretes containing timestone, There is
controversy, however, on the effects of coarse aggregate content on the compressive strength of concrete.
Rute (1966) found that the comprensive strength of concrete increases with an increase in coarse
aggregate content until a critical volume is reached, while Zhou et al. (1905) found little correlation
between compressive strength and coarse aggregate content Kaplan (1950) studied the effects of the
properties of coarse aggregates on the compressive strength of

high-strength and normal-strength concrete. Walker et al. (1960) studied the effects of coarse aggregate
size on the properties of normal strength concrete. Their work demonstrates that an increase in aggregate
size from 10 to 64mm results in a decrease in the compressive strength of concrete, by as much as 10
percent however, aggregate size seems to have negligible effects on flexural strength. The study also
shows that the flexural to compressive strength ratio remains at approximately 12 percent for concrete
with compressive strengths between 35 MP3 and 46 MPa. Depending on the structural member/element,
concrete is often subjecte to bending stresses (flexural), compressive stresses, etc. which makes its
preparation very delicate and requiring much care in order to achieve the maximum strength required to
resist these stresses. Aggregates (Coarse and fine) are the major constituents of any concrete mixture. It
has been established that aggregate grading has a significant impact on the strength of concrete as it can
either decrease or increase it, a factor which is as a result of the aggregate sizes, shape, texture etc. It can
therefore be said that aggregate sizes in a particular concrete mixture have an effect on the strength of the
concrete which in turn affects its ability to resist these bending stresses which it is subjected to. It is these
effects (of aggregate sizes) on a concrete subjected to these stresses that will be established in this
research,

1.2 ORIGIN AND CLASSIFICATION OF AGGREGATE

Aggregates can be classified as natural or artificial depending on their sources. Natural aggregates are
obtained from quarries by processing crushed rocks

or from riverbeds while artificial aggregates are obtained from industrial by products such as blast furnace
slag. Natural aggregates are most commonly obtained and are relevant for Nigerian construction sector
since artificial aggregates are hardly produced in the country. It is an accepted met that the physical and
mechanical properties of aggregates are inherited from parent materials, while the properties of the parent
material intern depend on its geological formation. Geologically rocks are classified into three major
divisions based on their origin, namely Igneous, Sedimentary and Metamorphie Igneous rocks are rocks
formed from the solidification of molten matter (magma) either al or below the earth's surface. Igneous
rocks are divided into two plutonie or intrusive, those having cooled slowly with in the earth (eg, granite,
diorite, gabros etc) and volcanic or extrusive, those which are formed from quick cooled lava (en volcanic
rock, volcanic glass, felsites, basalt, ete). Plutonie rocks usually have grain sizes larger than Imm and
classified as course or medium grained while volcanic rocks have grain sizes less than Imm and are
classified as fine-grained These grains are, however, not visible to the naked eye. Sedimentary rocks are
formed as strata as a result of' sedimentation from disintegrated products. They are stratified rocks usually
laid down under water although they can also be formed by wind and glacial action. The sediments are
cemented together or compacted during geologic time with varying degree. Typical examples are sand
stone, limestone, and shale. Metamorphic rocks are formed from pre-existing igneous, sedimentary or
metamorphic rocks by the action of heat or pressure or both. The change may be textural, structural or
mineralogical accompanied by changes in chemical composition. Typical examples are marble, meta-
quartzite, and slate.

1.2.1 Properties of Aggregate

The physical properties like specific gravity, porosity, thermal behavior, and the chemical properties of an
aggregate are attributed to the parent material. Theshape, ale and surface texture which are essential for
concrete workability and bond characteristies between the aureate and cement paste are, however,
attributes of the mode of production is therefore, essential to understand the mechanical physical and
chemical properties of aggregate and its modes of production in an effort to produce the required quality
of concrete at a minimum price

1.2.2 Angregate Sive, Shape and Nurface Texture

The use of larger maximum size of aggregate affects the strength in several ways, Firat, since larger
aggregates have less speelfie surface area and thenaggregate paste bond strength is lessi aggregate fails
along surfaces of aggregates resulting in reduced compressive strength of concrete. Secondly, for a given
volume of concrete, using larger aggregate results in a smaller volume of paste, thereby providing more
restraint to volume changes of the paste. This may induce additional stresses in the paste, creating mero
cracks prior to application of load, which may be a critical factor in very high strength concretes.
Therefore, it is the general consensus that smaller sine aggregates should be used to produce higher
strength concrete Particle shape and surface texture Influence the properties of freshly mixed concrete
more than the properties of hardened concrete, Rough-textured, angular, and elongated particles require
more water to produce workable concrete than smooth, rounded and compact aggregate. Consequently,
the cement content must also be increased to maintain the water cement ratio. Generally, flat and
elongated particles are avoided or are limited to about 15 percent by weight of the total aggregate. The
essential requirement of an aggregate for concrete production is such that it remains stable within the
concrete and in the particular environment throughout the design life of the concrete without adversely
affecting the performance of concrete in either the fresh or hardened state.

1.2.3 Mechanical Properties

Both the shape and surface texture of aggregates influence the strength of concrete, especially so for high
strength concrete. Generally, flexural strength is more affected than compressive strength. Rougher
texture results in a greater adhesion or bond between the particles and cement matrix. Determination of
the quality of bond is rather difficult. When bond is good, a crushed concrete specimen should contain
some aggregate particles broken right through, in addition to the more numerous ones separated from the
paste matrix. On the other hand, an excess of fractured particles suggest that the aggregate is too weak. It
is generally understood that the compressive strength of concrete cannot significantly exceed that of the
major part of the aggregate contained therein, although it is not easy to determine the crushing strength of
the aggregate itself. The required information about the aggregate particles has to be obtained from
indirect tests, such as crushing strength of prepared rock samples, crushing value of bulk aggregate, and
performance of aggregate in concrete. The aggregate crushing value (ACV) test is prescribed by different
standards, and is a useful guide when dealing with aggregates of unknown performance. Toughness can
be defined as the resistance of aggregate to failure by impact, and it is usual to determine the aggregate
impact value of bulk aggregate based on ASTM standard. Toughness determined in this manner is related
to the crushing value, and can, in fact, be used as an alternative test. Hardness, or resistance to wear is an
important property of concrete used in roads and in floor surfaces subjected to heavy traffic. The
aggregate abrasion value of the bulk aggregate is assessed using Los Angeles abrasion machine. The Los
Angeles Abrasion test combines the processes of attrition and abrasion, and gives results which show a
good correlation not only with the actual wear of the aggregate in concrete but also

with the compressive and flexural strength of concrete when made with the same aggregate

1.2.4 Physical Properties

The physical properties of aggregates include specific gravity, porosity, absorption capacity, moisture
content, unsoundness due to volume changes and thermal properties and need a close scrutiny. Chemical
Properties: Alkali- Aggregate Reactions Alkali-aggregate reactions are chemical reactions in concreten
involving certain active mineral constituents often present in some aggregates and the sodium and
potassium alkali hydroxides from portland cement paste. The reactions are potentially harmful only when
they produce significant expansion and hence cracking of concrete, leading to loss of strength and elastic
modulus. Alkali- aggregate reactions occur in two forms: alkali-silica reaction (ASR) and alkali-
carbonate reaction (ACR). Alkali-silica reaction is the reaction between the alkali hydroxide in portland
cement and certain siliceous rocks and minerals present in the aggregates, such as opal, chert and
chalcedony. The products of this reaction often result in significant expansion and cracking of the
concrete and ultimately, failure of the concrete structure. Alkali-carbonate reaction on the other hand is
the reaction between the cement hydroxides and certain dolimitic limestone aggregates which can also
result in deleterious expansion. Alkali-silica reaction is of more concern than alkali carbonate reaction
because the occurrence of aggregates containing reactive silica minerals is more common. Alkali reactive
carbonate aggregates have a specific composition whose occurrence is relatively rare. Sincere the
occurrence of dolomitic limestone is very rare in Nigeria, more emphasis should be given to alkali-silica
reactions. Abebe et al in a recent study reviewed the mechanisms of alkali-silica reactions and discussed
the potential of such reactions in Ngeriaia by examining: i) the chemical and mineralogical composition
of selected rocks, ii) the oxide concentration of silica sand obtained from different localities, iii) the alkali
content of cements produced in Nigeria and iv) the temperature and relative humidity o Nigerian
conditions. The study emphasized the need for laboratory analysis of aggregate samples with a particular
focus to those aggregates susceptible to alkali silica reactions.

1.3 AIM AND OBJECTIVE

The Aim of the research is to investigate the effects of aggregate size on the Reinforced concrete, with
particular reference;

i. To determine the workability of concrete made from different sized coarse

aggregates.
ii. To assess the compressive strength of different coarse aggregate sizes on

concrete.

1.4 STATE OF PROBLEMS

Since the aggregate is 80 % of the total volume of the concrete and mortar, the characteristic properties of
the aggregate affect the fresh and hardened properties of the concrete and mortar. The characteristic
properties of the aggregate such as the shape, the size and structure affect the properties of the fresh
concrete and the mortar ke workability, settlement, pumping and segregation the properties ot the
hardened concrete and the mortar like the strength the Youn modulus, the shrinkage, the creep, the
density, the permeability and the durabii The grading or the distribution of the aggregate size atfects some
properties ot the concrete such as the density, some pores, workability, segregation ad te durability.
According to some researchers, the mixture with the proper disterbutIR of the aggregate size has the
appropriate workability than the mixtuRe wah he improper distribution of the aggregate size. Moreover,
the grading atteeis th properties of the hardened conerete and mortar. The mixture with the pOPR
distribution has the high density, less permeability and high abrasioa strength Consequently, the mixture
with the proper distribution requires less cement asie thus less perspiration, less creep and shrinkage
occur. Aitein told that high amont of coarse aggregate decreases the free shrinkage but inereases the
miero-eracks n the paste. If the aggregate grain size is low or high, it causes poor vOrkabihty d less
durability. The amount of the coarse and fine aggregate should be cquilibrium. For example, more sand
requires more cement and viscous mixture forms, the pumping is difficult and finish and crack problems
occur. Additionaly perspiration and permeability increase. On the other hand, less sand form leaa
mixtures and finish problems. If the amount of tine aggreogate is high the perspiration, segregation, and
hardening problems oceur. However, it the aggregate is too much fine, the amount of the required water
inereases. The proper siaRS depends on the shape and tissue of the aggregate. The ettect of the gradng the
shape and the size of aggregates on the shrinkage is indirect, but it is important to determine how they
affect the amount of water. On the other hand, the propRrties of the aggregate enrich the bond between
the aggregate and the paste. For exayple the surtace structure, the shape, and the porosity deerease the
deying (tee) According to one of the researchers, the increase in the diameter of the reale increases the
width of the microrerek ar the constant amount of the rate the concrete shrinks due to inner and outer
restraints: The internal pastrament is the main property of the shrinkage and has two types autogenous
shrinkage and a regate restraint. These two constraints occur during the external traints. The effect of the
aggregate restriction on the development of the crack depends on the quantity of the shrinkage of the
paste and the ratio between the Young's modulus or the aggregate and the poste Colterman et al,
investigated the micro crack due to the aggregate restraint and determined that the micro-cracks develop
perpendicular to the boundaries of the grains because of the aggregate restraint. The degree of the thee
shrinkage defines the aggregate restraint. The

autogenous shrinkage form the micro-cracks a little bit depth from the drying surface whereas the
aggregate restraint form the micro cracks in the mass of the concrete and the mortar. Moreover, the
aggregate restraint changes according to the types of the concrete,
Especially, the effect of the size of the aggregate on the shrinkage gets importance to increase the
workability of the cement-based materials. For supplying the required workability of the settlement, the
more water should be added to the mixture of the concrete and the mortar. When this excess amount of
water evaporates, the cement paste shrinka, The concrete and the mortar must have the maximum quantity
of the hard and clean aggregate to restrain the shrinkage of the cement paste. If the dry volume of the hard
and clean aggregate is equal to the volume of the concrete and the mortar, the aggregate restrains the
shrinkage of the cement paste precisely. Using the biggest aggregate grain size supplies tess amount of
the shrinkage. When only the line aggregate is used, the amount of the aggregate should be high to reduce
the shrinkage. Especially, if the quantity of the fine aggregate is four times as the amount of the cement,
the shrinkage in the mortar is lesser than the shrinkage in the concrete. The effect of the maximum

aggregate grain size on the development of the crack is investigated with the comprehensive tests. For
example, Walker & Bloem determined that strength and maximum aggregate grain size are inverse ratio
with the help of the comprehensive test so the bigger aggregate causes weak concrete.

1.5 LIMITATION OF THE STUDY

This research is limited to study effect of aggregate on reinforced concrete and also limited to aggregate
made from crushed granite rock that brought from mayo-belwa quarry crush base of PW Construction
Company. It's also limited to aggregate sizes of 1", %2", 1/2" and 3/8" inch (25.00mm, 19.0mm, 12.5mm
and 9.5mm) aggregate and study is limit to find the slump (workability of concrete) and the compressive
strength made from the aggregate types using the reinforced concrete design mix ratio of 1:2:4 and a
water cement ratio of 0.65 respectively.

CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Kaplan (1959) studied the effects of the properties of 13 coarse aggregates on the flexural and
compressive strength of high-strength and normal-strength concrete. At all ages, flexural strengths for
basalt mixes were higher than limestone mixes with the same mix proportions. The compressive strength
for basalt mixes was also higher than limestone mixes; however, the difference in strength was less
notable in concretes of higher strength. The flexural strength-to-compressive strength ratios for both
basalt and limestone mixes ranged from 9 to 12 percent. Kaplan also observed that concrete with 91-day
strengths in excess of 69 MPa (10,000 psi) yielded lower flexural strengths than mortar of the same mix
proportions; however, concretes below 69 MPa (1 0,000 psi) yielded similar flexural strengths to mortar
of the same mix proportions. Kaplan also observed, contrary to most results, that concrete with
compressive strengths greater than 69 MPa (10,000 psi) was generally greater than mortar of the same
mix proportions, indicating that at very high strengths, the presence of coarse aggregate contributed to the
ultimate compressive strength of concrete. Walker and Bloem ( 1960) studied the effects of coarse
aggregate size on the properties of normal-strength concrete. Their work demonstrates that an increase in
aggregate size from 10 to 64 mm (%to 27. in.) results in a decrease in the compressive strength of
concrete, by as much as I 0 percent; however, aggregate size seems to have negligible effects on flexural
strength. The study also shows that the flexural-to-compressive strength ratio remains at approximately
12 percent for concrete with compressive strengths between 35 MPa (5,100 psi) and 46 MPa (6,700 psi).

tudied the

effects of size and other coarse

Bloem and Gaynor (1963) aggregate properties on the water requirements and strength of concrete. Their
results confirm that increasing the maximum aggregate size reduces the totalsurface area of the aggregate,
thus reducing the mixing water requirements; however, even with the reduction in water, a larger size
aggregate still produces lower compressive strengths in concrete compared to concretes containing
smaller aggregate. Generally, in lower strength concretes, the reduction in mixing water is sufficient to
offset the detrimental effects of aggregate size. However, in high-strength concretes, the effect ot s1ze
dominates, and the smaller sizes produce higher strengths. Cordon and Gillespie (1963) also reported
changes in concrete strength for mixes made with various water-to-cement ratios and aggregate sizes.
They found that, at water-to-cement ratios from 0.40 to 0.70, an increase in maximum

aggregate size from 19 mm (%in.) to 38 mm (I Y. in.) decreases the compressive strength by about 30
percent. They also concluded that, in normal-strength concrete, failure typically occurs at the matrix-
aggregate interface and that the stresses at the interface which cause failure can be reduced by increasing
the surface area of the aggregate (decreasing the aggregate size). If the strength of the concrete is
sufficiently high, such as with high-strength concrete, failure of the specimen is usually accompanied by
the fracture of aggregate particles; therefore,

in high-strength concrete, compressive strength depends on aggregate strength not necessarily aggregate
size. In research on the effects of aggregate content on the behavior of concrete, Ruiz (1966) found that
the compressive strength of concrete increases along with an increase in coarse aggregate content, up to a
critical in the volume of voids with the addition of aggregate.

then decrease. The initial increase is due to a reduction in volume of voids with the addition of aggregate.
Moavenzadeh and Kuguel

14

are less in number, there is greater compatibility between the strength and elastic

properties of the coarse aggregate and the mortar. Improved compatibility also

lowers the stress at the matrix-aggregate interface, reducing the likelihood of

interfacial failure. Thus, micro-cracks are more likely to propagate through the

aggregate, and therefore, the extent of micro cracking is reduced as concrete

strength increases.

2.2 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE

The mechanical properties of concretes with compressive strengths ranging

from 21 to 62 MPa (3,000 to 9,000 psi) were also studied by Carrasquillo, Nilson,

and Slate (1981). Flexural strength tests, using third point loading, were performed

on normal, medium, and high-strength limestone aggregate concrete. The results

show that the amount of aggregate fracture along the plane of failure is

substantially larger for high-strength concrete than for normal-strength concrete.

The authors also conclude that, in high-strength concrete, the greater stiffness of

the mortar constituent and the higher matrix-aggregate tensile bond strength cause

the observed increase in the modulus of elasticity. Tests were conducted by

Nallathambi, Karihaloo, and Heaton (1984) on mortar and concrete beams of

normal strength to examine the influence of specimen dimension, notch depth,

aggregate size (10 mm, 14 mm and 20 mm), and water-to-cement ratio on the

fracture behavior of concrete. They demonstrated that, along with compressive

strength and elastic modulus, fracture toughness increases about 38 percent with a

decrease in water-to-cement ratio of 23 percent. They also showed that fracture

coarse aggregate.

toughness increases with an increase in the maximum size

They stated that microcracking and matrix-aggregate de bonding during the

process of crack propagation consumes considerable energy; therefore, the larger

16

the aggregate, the larger the crack area, increasing the energy demand required for

crack growth.
2.3 CRACK PATTERNS IN AGGREGATE

Bentur and Mindess (1986) compared crack patterns in different types of

plain concrete subjected to bending as a function of loading rate. They observed

that, regardless of the loading rate, cracks in normal-strength concrete tend to form

around the aggregate particles, passing along the matrix-aggregate interface. In

high-strength concrete, the crack path is similar to that of normal-strength concrete

when loaded at a low rate (1 mmlmin) during a three-point bending test. However,

at a higher loading rate (250 mmlmin), cracks propagate through the aggregate

particles, resulting in straight crack paths. This behavior can be explained by

suggesting that when energy is introduced into a system in a very short period,

cracks are forced to develop along shorter paths of higher resistance, thus, resulting

in cracks propagating through aggregate particles. The effects of admixture dosage,

mix proportions, and coarse aggregate size on concretes with strengths in excess of

69 MPa {I 0,000 psi) were discussed by Cook {1989). The two maximum size

aggregates studied were a 10 mm (%in.) and a 25 mm {I in.) limestone. The

smaller sized coarse aggregate produced higher compressive strengths than the

larger sized coarse aggregate. Cook observed that the difference in compressive

strengths due to aggregate size is increasingly larger with a decreasing water-to-

cement ratio and increasing test age. The smaller sized coarse aggregate also

increases the flexural strength of the concrete. The flexural-to-compressive

strength ratio remains constant at approximately 12 percent. The test specimens

exhibited increases in the modulus of elasticity of approximately 20 percent

between 7 to 90 days for the I 0 mm (% in.) limestone, and 13 percent for the 25

mm (I in.) limestone. Gettu, Bazan!, and Karr (1990) studied the fracture

17
since the concrete strength is limited by the aggregate strength. However,

aggregate type did not affect flexural strength. Comparing fractured surfaces for

the concretes shows that nearly all of the exposed coarse aggregate particles are

fractured in the limestone mixes. However, cracks form primarily at the matrix-

aggregate interface, and only a few aggregate particles are fractured in the basalt

mix. The highest modulus of elasticity was achieved in the basalt mix, followed by

limestone and granite. The basalt mix also showed the highest compressive

strength, followed by granite and limestone. The granite mix had the best elastic

compatibility between the matrix and aggregate, but the granite had significantly

lower tensile strength than the basalt. Giaccio, Rocco, and Zerbino (1993)

compared fracture energies for concretes with a wide range of compressive

strengths. Strength levels from 22 MPa (3, 190 psi) to I 00 MPa (14,500 psi).

aggregate type (basalt, limestone and gravel), aggregate size (8 mm, 16 mm and 32

mm), and aggregate surface roughness were included as variables. They concluded

that concretes with weaker aggregates, such as limestone, yield lower compressive

strengths than concrete with stronger coarse aggregate. Fracture energy increases

as concrete compressive strength increases, although the increase in energy of only

4 percent corresponds t an increase of in strength of I 0 percent. They also

concluded that fracture energy increases with increasing aggregate size. Load-

deflection curves for fracture energy were also analyzed. They show that, as the

compressive strength increases, concretes have a greater peak load followed by a

steeper gradient of the softening branch. They also show that the fmal deflection

(at total fracture) is much lower for high-strength mortar than for high-strength

concrete. The mortar specimens had the steepest gradient of the descending branch,

A study of various properties of concrete containing silica fume was

19
followed by concretes containing basalt and limestone coarse aggregates.

reported by Bayasi and Zhou (1993). The effects of aggregate content, aggregate

gradation, water-to-cementitious material ratio, and super plasticizer dosage rate

were also discussed. They concluded that aggregate content seems to have a

relatively negligible effect on the compressive strength of silica fume concrete.

However, aggregates work to arrest cracks when concrete is subjected to flexural

loads; therefore, Increasing aggregate content increases the flexural strength of

concrete. Zhou, Barr, and Lydon (1995) studied the fracture properties of concretes

with compressive strengths ranging from 80 to 115 MPa (11,600 to 16,700 psi).

Mixtures with water-to-cementitious material ratios of0.23 and 0.32 and 10% and

15% silica fume replacements of cement (by weight) were compared. Concretes

made with 10 rnm (0.4 in.) gravel and 10 mnm (0.4 in.) and 20 mm (0.8 in.) crushed

limestone were also compare Zhou et al. concluded that, in contrast to other

studies, increasing the coarse aggregate size from 10 mm (0.4 in.) to 20 mm (0.8

in.) increases the compressive strength of the concrete by about 10 percent. They

also found that, similar to normal-strength concrete, the fracture energy of high-

strength concrete increases with increasing aggregate size. However, also in

contrast to other studies, they observed a decrease in fracture energy with

increasing compressive strength. They concluded that the fracture energy decrease

may be due to the improvement the matrix-aggregate bond which results in cracks

developing through aggregates rather than passing along the matrix-aggregate

interface. Xie, Elwi, and MacGregor (1995) investigated the mechanical properties

of 60, 90, and 120 MPa (8,700, 13,000, and 17,400 psi) concretes. The objective

was to determine the compressive cylinder strength, split-cylinder tensile strength,

fracture energy using notched beams, and the maximum and residual triaxial

strengths. Load-deflection curves for fracture energy were analyzed. They show

that an increase in compressive strength of concrete increases the peak load of the

20

curve followed by a steeper gradient of the softening branch. They also found that

an increase in compressive strength of about 25 percent corresponds with an

increase in fracture energy of only 10 percent.

Perdikaris and Romeo (1995) investigated the effect of beam size, aggregate

size, and compressive strength on the fracture energy of plain concrete. Concretes

with cylinder compressive strengths of 28 MPa ( 4,000 psi) and 55 MPa (8,000 psi)

and maximum aggregate sizes of 6 mrn (Y. in.) and 25 mrn (1 in.) were tested. The

results indicate that aggregate size has a considerable influence on fracture energy.

For both the normal and the high-strength concretes with 25 mrn (1 in.) aggregate,

fracture energy was about twice the fracture energy of the concretes containing 6

mrn (Y. in.) aggregate. They concluded that, for concrete with the larger aggregate,

there is a higher degree of matrix-aggregate interlock, resulting in an increase in

the energy required for crack propagation. Maher and Darwin (1976, 1977)

observed that the bond strength between the interfacial region and aggregate plays

a less dominant role in the compressive strength of concrete than generally

believed. Finite element models were used to evaluate the effect of matrix-

aggregate bond strength on the strength of concrete. They observed that an increase

in bond strength from normal values to perfect bond (no failure at the interface)

resulted in only a 4 percent increase in compressive strength of the model. A

decrease to zero interfacial strength resulted in a decrease in compressive strength

of just 11 percent. The lack of sensitivity in bond strength to changes in water-to-

cement ratio, demonstrated in earlier tests (Hsu and Slate 1963, Taylor and Broms
1964), provides strong support for the matrix, rather than the interface, as the

principal controlling factor in the strength of concrete. Concrete is a composite

material made of aggregate bonded together by liquid cement which hardens over

time (Woodford, 2016). The major components of concrete are cement, water, and

21

aggregates (fines and coarse aggregate) with aggregates taking about 50 to 60% of

the total volume, depending on the mix proportion. The amount of concrete used

worldwide is twice that of steel, wood, plastics, and aluminum combined (Rajith,

and Amritha, 2015). Moreover, according to Yaqub and Bukhari (2006) concrete's

use in the modern world is exceeded only by that of naturally occurring water.

Concrete can be used either singular or reinforced with steel in order to achieve the

required strength. Concrete builds durable, long lasting structures that will not rust,

rot, or burn. It is widely used for making architectural structures, foundations,

brick walls, bridges and many other civil engineering works. Concrete is used in

large quantities almost everywhere mankind has a need for infrastructure because

of its high compressive strength and durability (Ajamu and Ige, 2015). The

compressive strength of concrete is one of its major properties that structural

engineers take into consideration before erecting any structure (Hollaway, 2010).

This property can be affected by many factors including water to cement ratio,

degree of compaction, aggregate size and shape to name a few. Aggregate

gradation plays an important role in concrete mixing. Unsatisfactory gradation of

aggregates leads to segregation of mortar from the coarse aggregates, internal

bleeding, need for chemical admixtures to restore workability, excessive water use

and increased cement use (Loannides and Mills, 2006).

22

CHAPTER THREE

3.0 METHODOLOGY RESEARCH

3.1 INTRODUCTION

These were carried out on the samples of aggregates types obtained in

different sizes of aggregates (course aggregate). Which involves obtaining the

aggregates samples of different sizes and concrete cubes specimen were made on

each sizes of aggregates (course aggregates using the mixing ratio of 1:2:4 and a

water cement ratio of 0.65 were used and compressive strength of cube specimen

were tested to see differences in strength of each size of aggregate (course

aggregate). Also the cubes were made by combining the four different sizes of

aggregate (course aggregate) and test was also conducted on it to find the

compressive strength of it when combined. The different sizes of aggregates which

the research was conducted on it are 1' inch (25.0mm) aggregate, % inch

(19.0mm) aggregate, 1/2 inch (12.5mm) aggregate and 3/8" inch (9.5mm)

aggregate sizes. Also slump test was carried out on each sizes of aggregate and on

one-in-all aggregates to find the workability of the concrete made from each sizes

and that of one-in-all aggregates.

3.2 MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT

The materials used in testing slump, casting of cubes and curing are:-

i. Cement

ii.

Different sizes of aggregate

iii.

Sharp sand and

iv.

water

23

While the equipment used for the practical work of the research are:-

i.

Cubes mould

ii.

Trowel (hand trowel)

Cylinder

iv.

Curing tank

Buckets

Slump cone with base plate

vii. Tamping rod

viii. Measuring tape

ix. Measuring scale/balance

V.

vi.

3.3 METHOD

The methods used in this research work are method which the practical was

carried out, this includes:-

i. Mixing of Materials using mixing ratio of 1:2:4 for the

reinforced concrete mix

ii. Slump Test (workability of concrete)

Casting of cube Specimens

iv. Curing of Specimens

V. Testing of Compressive Strength of Cubes Specimen

24

3.3.1 MIXING OF MATERIAL

The materials were mixed using the mix ratio of 1:2:4 where the weight of

cement of Skg was taken and sharp sand/river sand (fine aggregate) of 10kg were

taken and 20kg of 1" inch (25.0mm) course aggregate were also taken using

measuring balance/scale, the material was mixed thoroughly with shovels where it

turn up to four times.

Then, the water cement ratio of 0.65 were used by

multiplying it with the volume of cement to get the volume of water which gave a

volume of 3.25 liters of water, the water were then added to mixed material and

turn it thoroughly until all the constituent mixed homogeneously as concrete. Ihe

above method was repeated for the other different sizes of course aggregate 3/4,

1/2, and 3/8 (19.0mm, 12.5mm and 9.5mm) and one-in-all aggregate respectively.

3.3.2 SLUMP TEST (workability of concrete)

Fresh concrete was cast into a slump test cone in small amounts that were

compacted per batch to determine its workability before being cast into the

concrete cube moulds. The cone was filled and compacted up to the top of the cone

and the cone was removed slowly and kept close to the concrete shaped cone shape.

Then, the iron rod was placed on the top of slump cone and go across the

concrete cone, measuring tape was used to measure the drop in shape of concrete

cone formed and the reading was recorded as a slump value of the concrete. The

method was also repeated for other SIzes of aggregate and one-in-all aggregate and

the values were recorded as their slump value of concrete.

25

3.3.3 CASTING OF CUBE SPECIMENS

The cube moulds were lubricated with oil and was filled with fresh concrete

at

50mm height and was compacted up to 35 strokes using tamping rod to reduce

air voids

in the mix and these was repeated up

was leveled to maintain its size. The cubes

up to 150mm height. Then, the top of

the mould

aggregate sizes for ease of identification and leave for 24 hours to set,

were coded according to the

3.3.4 CURING OF CUBES SPECIMEN

The curing tank was cleaned and filled with water at normal temperature, the

cube moulds were then carefully removed after 24 hours and the cubes were then

immersed in clean water for a period of 7 days and 14 days for curing

3.3.5 TESTING OF COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF SPECIMEN

The concrete cubes were weighed using a weighing balance prior to testing

and the mass were recorded against the cube reference code. All the concrete cubes

were tested based on the curing days (i.e. 7 & 14 days), using a compression

testing machine. The compressive strength was calculated using the below

equation.

O F/A

Where:

Compressive strength (N/mm2)

Failure load (N)

Area of bed-face (mm)

26

CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 RESULT AND DISCUSSION

4.1 CONCRETE WORKABILITY (SLUMP) TEST RESULT

The results in Table 1 reflected that the workability (slump) for the 3/8 inch

(9.5 mm), %" inch (12.5 mm), " inch (19.0 mm) and 1" inch (25.Omm) coarse

aggregate sizes were 10 mm, 13.5 mm and 20 mm, respectively. It is worth noting

that as the slump increases, so does the workability. However, this occurs while the

compresSive strength is reduced, a condition driven by the water cement ratio

(w/c).

TABLE1:

S/NO.:

Aggregate sizes

Slump value (mm)

Slump types

1" inch (25.0mm)

24

True slump

2.

inch (19.0mm)

21.5

True slump
" inch (12.5mm)

14.5

True slump

3.

12

True slump

3/8" inch (9.5mm)

25

True slump

5.

All-in-one sizes

The results indicated that concrete made with inch (25.0mm) aggregate has

slump of 24mm, concrete made with 3/4" inch (19.0mm) aggregate has slump of

21.5mm, concrete made with " inch (12.Smm) aggregate has slump of 14.5mm

while concrete made with 3/8" inch (9.5mm) aggregate and all-in-one aggregate

S1zes and that of one-in-all aggregate have slump types of true-slump and also,

27

has slump of 12.Omm and 25.0mm respectively. These showed that all aggregate

ndicated

that the concrete wo

rkability

size, meaning that they both increased simultaneoush

(slump) was dire

aggregate siz

tly proportional to
w/c ratio and mix proportion) remain constant

asly. When all her

an increase in coars

ate size led to an increase in workability. This occurs due to the incre

egate size

size, which results in smaller surface area to be wett

aggregate

in

etted. However, there

other straints on the maximum aggregate size.

are

It should also be considered

that as the max

aximum aggregate size increases, the size a

and toughness of the mixers,

and other equipment needed to make and place the concrete also increase.

4.2 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH RESULT

The result for the compressive strength test was carried out for 7 and 14 days

of curing, the below result would indicate both 7 and 14 days reslt based on

different sizes of aggregate and that of one-in-all aggregate respectively. Therefore,

result should be categories on:-

1. 7 Days compressive strength result of concrete made with different

sizes of aggregate and all-in-one aggregate.

2.

14 Days compressive strength result of concrete made with different

Comparison between different sizes and all-in-one aggregate on their

3.

sizes of aggregate and all-in-one aggregate.

compressive strengths.

28