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Translating General Texts: A Textbook (355 pages)

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 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION: TRANSLATING GENERAL TEXTS

1.0 Introduction: Translating General Texts: Definitions and Characteristics

The most popular starting point on the list of courses of many translation programs,
undergraduate or postgraduate, is the translation of general texts, presumably due to
their easiness, simplicity and non-technicality. A general text is defined as a text that is
about a general topic, has no technical or structural complications and is intended to
address a non-specialist readership in the first place. It is a non-technical, non-specialist
text, directed to non-specialist readership and its contents are of general nature. In other
words, its style is simple, employing simple language with respect to choice of words and
grammatical structures of sentences, clauses, phrases, word order, etc. In addition to that,
the subject matter is general and thought and meant to be interesting and addressing the
general public, or audience. Hence, the following characteristics can be suggested as
criteria for describing a text as ‘general’:

(1) Non-technicality
(2) Non-specialism
(3) Simplicity of language
(4) Simplicity of grammar
(5) Simplicity of lexis
(6) Simplicity of style in general
(7) Non-frozen formal tone of language
(8) General subject matter
(9) Interesting topic
(10) Reader-orientation
(11) Non-specialized readership.
(12) Average educated readership
(13) Translation purpose orientation: SKOPOS THEORY

Of these, three characteristics can be singled out as being more basic than the others: (i)
non-technicality/non-specialization; (ii) simple language and style; (iii) general subject
matter. None of these is enough for itself to describe a text as general in the full sense
intended here, but only partly; all of the three characteristics have to be present in a text
to be regarded as general. On the other hand, any specialist text can be changed into
general, or reconsidered as fully general, if it is made to meet these three conditions, or
partly general, if modified to meet one of them. A simple example can be the change of a
technical text into non-technical by replacing its technical terms with non-technical ones:
Compare the following pairs (the technical term, first, followed by the non-technical
counterpart):
(1) Encephalon vs. brain )‫(دماغ‬
(2) Varicella vs. chicken pox (‫(حماؽ (مقابؿ) جدري‬
ُ
(3) Chlorophyll vs. seaweeds )‫(يخضور (مقابؿ) طحالب‬

1
 (4) )‫ التناجش (مقابؿ‬vs. ‫الغش في البيع‬
(5) ‫ ما لكـ تكأكأتـ عمي كتكأكئكـ عمى ذي ِجنة؟ افرنقعوا عني‬vs. )‫(مقابؿ‬
!‫ما لكـ اجتمعتـ عمي كاجتماعكـ عمى مجنوف؟ انصرفوا عني‬
etc. (See further examples and details below).

This begs the question about the difference between translating general texts and general
translation of texts. On the one hand, both involve the same type of translation, general
translation, which has specific characteristics common to all texts when translated
generally. On the other hand, they are different in the reference of the former to
translating a particular type of text, general texts, while the latter opens the door for the
possibility of translating any type of text into a general translation, that is, transferring a
specialist text into a general text for the time being for special purposes of a specific type
of readership (e.g. translating a technical medical text for the public readers into a non-
technical, simplified target translation for purposes of teaching, educating or informing
them of new medical treatment, or technology). A whole chapter (chapter 7) will be
assigned later on in the book to the translation of non-general types of texts into general
translation in the target language on the basis of the purpose of the TL readership.

1.1 Types of General Texts

The types listed below are typical general texts that have met the criteria put forward in
the previous point:

1. Correspondence of different types

2. Website Contents
3. Leaflets, public notices and manuals (religious, tourist, propaganda, etc.)
4. Advertisements and commercials
5. Recipes and meals of different kinds
6. Newspaper and Multimedia presentation of general nature
7. Art: Songs and TV Series
8. Popular Fiction
9. Humour: Popular Jokes and anecdotes.
10. Conversation and Dialects.
11. General Translation of Non-general Texts.

Specialist and other types of texts that can be translated into general translation in the TL
for special purposes are not included in the list. However, they are discussed below in
relation to “Skopos Theory”. Examples of the types on the list are not provided here
because all of the next chapters of the book are about most of them. To make the point
about the types of general texts clearer, the other types of texts in translation can be
discussed in the next point, to be juxtaposed at the end with general texts.

1.2 Text Typology

Many translation books have taken types of texts for granted for readers, or pointed to
cursorily being well-known to them. Hence, there is no need to discuss them. But this is
2
unacceptable for many types of texts are difficult to distinguish clearly by readers. That is
why some informed writers on translation have investigated this issue at length. Anna
Trobsor, for example, wrote a whole book on text typology in relation to translation with
the title: Text Typology and Translation (Trosbor. 1997:3-23). According to her, text types
cut across registers and genres. To Chafe (1982) (in ibid.), text types constitute a closed set
with only a limited number of categories. He proposes a four-way classification of texts,
'involvement-detachment' and 'integration-fragmentation'). Kinneavy (1971, 1980) (in
ibid.), on the other hand, classifies texts in terms of modes of how reality can be viewed.
His text types are cognitive categories offering ways of conceptualizing, perceiving and
portraying the world:

 narration: our dynamic view of reality looks at change

 evaluation: our dynamic view focuses at the potential of reality to be different
 description: our static view focuses on individual existence
 classification: focuses on groups.

Likewise, based on cognitive properties, Werlich (1976) (in ibid.) includes five idealized
text types or modes (adopted by Hatim and Mason 1990, Albrecht 1995, Biber 1989 -
based on linguistic criteria):

 description: differentiation and interrelation of perceptions in space

 narration: differentiation and interrelation of perceptions in time
 exposition: comprehension of general concepts through differentiation by
analysis or synthesis
 argumentation: evaluation of relations between concepts through the extraction
of similarities, contrasts, and transformations
 instruction: planning of future behaviour

o with option (advertisements, manuals, recipes)

o without option (legislation, contracts)

The relationship between text types and genres is not straightforward. Text types may be
defined on the basis of cognitive categories or linguistic criteria.

Biber pinpoints the salient linguistic differences among texts in English (see also Longacre
1976, 1982, and Smith 1985, in ibid).

For two thousands and four hundred years now, there have been two traditions of
classifying texts, deriving from Aristotle's Rhetoric. Rhetoric refers to the uses of language.
More specifically, it refers to modes of discourse realized through text types (narration,
description, exposition, argumentation, etc.) i.e. the classification of texts by type
(Kinneavy 1980:3-4). For others, it refers to communicative functions as rhetorical
strategies (Trimble 1985):

1) Classification according to purpose, in terms of communicative functions, discourse is

intended to:
 inform

3
  express an attitude
 persuade
 create a debate
2) Classification according to type or mode:
 descriptive
 narrative
 expository
 argumentative
 instrumental
(Kinneavy 1980, Faigley & Meyer 1983, in ibid.)

The focus is on functional categories or (rhetorical strategies), which is not normative but
abstract knowledge, whereas genre refers to completed texts, communicative functions
and text types, being properties of a text, cut across genres:

 informative texts:
o newspaper reports
o TV news
o textbooks
 argumentative texts:
o debates
o political speeches
o newspaper articles

Longacre (1976, 1982), Smith (1985) and Biber (1989) (in ibid.) refer to text types as
"underlying shared communicative functions".

To Hatim and Mason, “Text types are a conceptual framework which enables us to classify
texts in terms of communicative intentions serving an overall rhetorical purpose"
(1990:140).

Texts are intended to perform more than one function. There may be text segments or even
utterances aiming at different functions. Therefore, it does not make sense to establish text types
on the basis of predominant source-text functions. Instead, we suggest a functional typology of
translations related to the intended functions of the target text.

In a functional framework, translation units are elements of the source text intended to fulfill a
particular communicative function. Functional translation units are classified among others
on the basis of Bühler's three functions (1965) (referential, expressive, appellative/vocative) and
/ or Jakobson’s functions (1967) (aesthetic, phatic, metalingual).

In pre-translational text analysis, the translator identifies functional translation units and decides
whether a unit can be reproduced as it is or has to be adapted to the target situation defined in the
translation brief. This procedure leads to a functional typology of translations that makes a
distinction between documentary and instrumental translation and their respective
subtypes. (See Nord, 2012 on Academia.com)

4
It is essential to determine the text-type at the beginning of the translation process. A
clear distinction among various types of texts and their language functions is suggested
the following diagram by Newmark (1988: 40) based on Bühler's functional theory of
language, which distinguishes three main functions of language: the expressive, the
informative and the vocative (reproduced partially):

Function Expressive Informative Vocative

Type Serious imaginative Scientific Textbook Notices

Literature Technological Report Instructions
Authoritative statements Commercial Paper Propaganda
Autobiography Industrial Article Publicity
Personal correspondence Economic Memorandum Popular fiction
(involving emotions) Minutes
Figure1: Language functions, text-categories and text-types

According to Newmark (ibid.: 39), the main feature of the expressive function of language
(and, hence, expressive texts) is the mind of the writer. We can consider 'informative'
texts those that embrace external situations, the facts of a topic and reported ideas or
theories. They are usually concerned with any topic of knowledge. Vocative texts are said
to be such texts that focuses on producing a certain effect on the readership.

Ironically, Newmark has dropped ‘general texts’ altogether, either out of forgetfulness, or
intentionally with the implication that any text achieves a special function, and general
texts achieve general functions, or, perhaps, to him, no function. This is not acceptable for
any reason. On the one hand, general texts are a fact (as demonstrated by the list of the
types of general texts above); on the other, general functions do not imply no functions,
but special types of functions that are aimed at, and respond to the requirements of the
general readership. In other words, functions can be sometimes special, sometimes
general. This leads to the next point about specialized vs. general (or non-specialized)
texts and translations.

1.3 Specialized vs. General Texts, Translation and Subject Matter

Encyclopedia Academia provides the following definition for 'specialised texts' in

translation:

"Translation of a specialised text demands absolute loyalty and utmost exactness

in terminology which subordinates its syntactical as well as lexical structure.
Specialised texts contain long complicated sentences, nominal phrases and
terminology excluding emotional colouring of the text."

Specialized texts are those texts that belong to a particular field, genre, mode, type or
register. However, general texts are texts that do not belong to a particular field, genre,
mode, type or register. Further, while the latter are simplified, non-specialized and
directed to the general public, the former is rather complicated, specialized and directed
to a particular readership, or audience.

5
Specialised texts can also be viewed from a functional perspective. They are based on
achieving certain limited functions. Urbanová (1986: 108) identifies characteristic
functions found in technical texts, which are: "defining, classifying, hypothesising, drawing
conclusions, describing processes, describing causes and effect and impersonal point of
view”. To Ghazala (2012:64-65), scientific language is mainly concerned with facts,
scientific facts. Scientific texts provide a description, analysis, composition, synthesis and
experimentation of these facts. Therefore, scientific language is expected to be: accurate
specific, concise, abstract, objective, stable in use and meaning, assigned to a special field
of science, semantically relevant, non-personal, non-exaggerative, non-surmising, non-
suggestive, non-probabilistic, non-ambiguous, clear, straightforward, exact, true,
experimental, empirical, formal, conservative, terminological, as sharp and to the point as
possible, as circumlocutory and detailed as required, non-literary, non-metaphorical, non-
prosodic, non-aesthetic, unimaginative, non-fictional, factual and void of embellishment,
ornamentation or any decorative words, and illustrative (using other media of
communication like figures, tables, diagrams, charts, drawings, computer designs,
statistics, numbers, samples, etc.) (see also Crystal and Davy, 1969; Freeborn et al (1985);
Ghazala, 1994/99; Shaheen, 1986; and others). Thus, scientific terms should have their
own distinctive features that are generally understood as preconditions for describing
them as scientific, with the aims of achieving certain scientific functions.

According to Popovič (1977: 14), we can discern three levels within a specialised text: (a)
the level of a general language, including grammar and syntactical structures common to
both fictional and non-fictional writing, (b) the level of terminology which includes
specialised vocabulary and phrases, (c) the level of formal or scientific language which
includes syntactical structures used principally in non-fictional writing. (See
Translexi.online, 2009). He goes further to single out particular linguistic features of
specialised texts bound by their theme, structure and the ability of a language to express
concepts. The reality and truth are said to be the principal aims of specialised texts. "There
is a tendency towards rationality and stereotype in syntax to be recognised within this
type of texts." (ibid.). Among these features are long and complicated sentences,
enumeration, passive voice, impersonal expressions, linking words (conjunctions and
prepositions), pronouns and parenthesis.

When the text is intended for a specialist audience, technical terms and specialist jargon
tend to be used. For example, a set of instructions might be for a technician (specialist) or
a domestic user (general). Even when working with non-specialist texts, the translators
carry out the same process of documentation and adaptation to the target culture as with
a specialist text. The key to this type of project, as in any job, is the translator’s
understanding of vocabulary and register, which defines the final quality of the
translation.

Newmark divides specialised texts into technical and institutional (1988: 151). To him,
specialised translation, or specialised texts, could be divided into two categories. The first
would be technical texts. These are "non-cultural and therefore 'universal'." (1988: 151).
That is to say they apply TO terms that are common to all languages and are not fixed to
one specific culture. They are specialised terms, usually of Latin origin, which are used in a
subject field and are usually known internationally. For example, biological or medical
terms tend to originate in Latin, therefore the terminology of the subject field can be
6
translated among the languages. The second category would be that of institutional
translation that covers the area of politics, commerce, finance, government, law etc.
Institutional translation is cultural - the terms are more or less transferred. This is due to
the fact that the terms refer to a specific cultural or historical phenomenon typical for a
certain society or culture.

The principal requirement of specialised translation is that the translator should have
some knowledge of the subject field which the source text comes from. The translator
should be acquainted with the subject both within the source language as well as within
the target language. Only then is the translator able to produce a good conversion of the
terminology between the two languages and distinguish the deviations from the form in
the source text. The translator should also have some cultural and historical knowledge
about the field the source text comes from which enables him/her to discover various
translation problems.

Terminology is a dominant component of specialised texts. The level of terminology

secures the exactness of the translation only if there is an appropriate equivalent of the
term in the target language. It is not only the terminology but also grammar, syntax and
style.

As to the translation of non-specialized, general purpose texts, the language and concepts
are accessible to the general public. They are made to measure, as it were, to be
appropriate to the medium educational level of non-specialized readership. Further,
general texts can mix a variety of genres oriented to a layman readership regarding the
subject matter, style and simplicity of language in specific (see above).

1.4 Technical vs. Non-technical Language

Technical language is a type of language that is marked as specialist, difficult, accurate,

abstract, non-figurative, non-emotive, serious, formal and non-aesthetic. By contrast, non-
technical language is non-specialist, popular, informal, emotive, concretized, easier,
general, sometimes figurative and aesthetic. Technical language is usually used to denote
scientific terms of all types (medical, engineering, mathematical, chemical, physical, etc.).
However, “Technical vocabulary” can refer to any word or term that is used especially in a
particular type of text, be it scientific, literary, political, religious, or other. In this sense,
any field of knowledge and type of text has its own technical vocabulary. Unlike technical
language, non-technical language has no such vocabulary that is called technical, only
general, non-specialized vocabulary.

Newmark (1988: 151-2) takes technical translation as one part of specialized non-cultural
and universal translation. He distinguishes technical translation from other forms of
translation by terminology, which makes only 5-10% of a text. Among its characteristics
are passives, nominalizations, third persons, empty verbs and present tenses. He means
by technical texts mainly technical reports. He distinguishes non-technical language, which
is “jazzed up and popularized”, from technical language which is free from emotions,
connotations, sound effects and original metaphors. He also makes a distinction between
technical terms and descriptive terms. Technical terms are concise, unusual and difficult,
so, sometimes, they need be explained by descriptive terms.
7
Newmark states a universal fact about the standardization of scientific terms, that is, each
term should have one single meaning only for reasons of accuracy of reference. He says:
"… the purpose of any new standardization is always to establish a single one-to-one
relationship between a referent and its name". However, he admits that some English
scientific terms do not meet this precondition for they have a duplicated meaning. He
cites two examples:

(a) 'ply' which means: 'a ply of paper' (‫)طية ورؽ‬, or 'a ply of board' (‫)رقيقة لوح‬.
(b) 'sort (out)' which means: 'to examine individually' (ً‫)يفحص إفراديا‬, or 'separate' / ‫)يفرز‬
(‫يفصؿ‬.

He also distinguishes four varieties of technical style of technical language:

(1) scientific (e.g. congealment chamber ‫;)غرفة التخثير‬

(2) workshop level (e.g. refrigeration compartment ‫;)غرفة التبريد‬
(3) everyday usage level (e.g. deep-freeze ‫مجمدة‬
ِّ /‫ ;)فريزر‬and
(4) publicity / sales (e.g. freezer (as a French word) ‫)فريزر‬.

Further, he suggests three levels (or styles / types) of medical terms (1988):

(a) Academic: Transferred Latin and Greek terms associated with academic papers
(e.g. 'phlegmasia alba dolens' ‫ االلتياب الوريدي األبيض‬:‫)فلٌجماسٌا ألبا دولٌنز‬
(b) Professional (or technical): Formal terms used by experts (e.g. epidemic
parotitis (‫)التياب الغدة النكفية الوبائي‬, varicella (‫الح َماؽ‬
ُ ), scarlatina (‫)الحمى القرمزية‬,
tetanus, (‫ )الكزاز‬etc.).
(c) Popular (or non-technical): Layman vocabulary, which includes familiar
alternative terms commonly known to the public (e.g. mumps (‫( )أبو كعب‬for
epidemic parotitis of b), chickenpox ‫ جدري الماء‬/ ‫( )الجدري‬for varicella of b), scarlet
fever (‫ الحرصاف‬/ ‫ القرمزية‬/ ‫( )الحمى القرمزة‬for scarlatina of b), stroke (‫)جمطة‬, lockjaw ‫كزاز‬
‫الفؾ‬, etc.) (See also Ghazala, 2012 for further examples).

(See Newmark, 1988: Ch. 14, and Ghazala's Translation of the book, 2004. See also
Newmark, 1981).

Though useful, this division of technical language is artificial, repetitive and, sometimes,
too difficult to make in practice in many languages in relation to all terms. Therefore, the
scale is usually narrowed down to the two types, technical and non-technical (which is
sometimes termed popular). Ghazala has investigated the point and cited a list of
examples for what he describes as ‘common duplicity’ of scientific English terminology
between the 'technical name' (a specialist, professional and formal term), and the 'non-
technical' (a popular and familiar term) of some scientific terms (Ghazala, 2008 & 2012):

8
Technical term Non-technical/popular term

1. femur thigh bone (‫)عظـ الفخذ‬

2. encephalon Brain (‫)دماغ‬
3. varicella Chickenpox (‫)جدري الماء‬
4. tonsils Glands (‫)الموزتاف‬
5. leucocyte white blood cell ‫ي‬ (‫)كرية دـ بيضاء‬
6. erythrocyte red blood cell ‫اء‬ (‫)كرية دـ حمراء‬
7. termite white ant (‫ أرضة‬/ ‫)نممة بيضاء‬

Double technical terminology in English Language has become a common practice

nowadays, that is, the duplicity of technical terms in British English and American English:
e.g.

B.E. A.E.
ِ ‫)الم‬
silencer (on cars) (‫ كاتـ صوت المحرؾ‬/ ‫سكت‬ muffler(‫ كاتـ صوت‬/ ‫)لفاع‬
ُ
hire purchase (‫ تأجير‬/ ‫شراء باإليجار‬ instalment buying (‫)شراء بالتقسيط‬
spanner (‫)مفتاح ربط‬ monkey wrench (‫)مفتاح إنجميزي‬
match (‫)مباراة‬ game (‫)لعبة‬
Petrol (‫ بنزيف‬/ ‫ وقود‬/‫)بتروؿ‬ gas (‫)غاز‬
ِ
electronic valve (‫)ص َماـ إلكتروني‬ electron tube (‫)أنبوبة إلكترونية‬
handbag (‫)حقيبة يد‬ purse(‫ جزداف‬/ ‫)محفظة‬
sitting room (‫)غرفة جموس‬ living room (‫)غرفة معيشة‬
ground floor (‫)الدور األرضي‬ first floor (‫)الدور األوؿ‬
garden (‫)حديقة‬ yard (‫ ساحة‬/ ‫)فناء‬
sideboard (‫ النممية‬/ ‫)خزانة أدوات المائدة‬ buffet (‫)البوفيو‬
torch (‫ بيؿ‬/ ‫)مشعؿ؛ مشعؿ كيربائي‬ flashlight (‫)ضوء ومضي‬
power point (‫)مفتاح الطاقة‬ socket / outlet (‫ مفتاح كيرباء‬/ ‫)مقبس‬
chemist's (shop) (‫)محؿ الكيميائي‬ pharmacy (‫)صيدلية‬
caravan (‫)كرفاف‬ trailer / mobile home‫ بيت متحرؾ‬/ ‫)ناقمة‬
sleeping car (‫)عربة منامة )في قطار‬ Pullman car (railway) ‫ فاخرة‬/ ‫)عربة قطار بولماف‬
lorry (‫)شاحنة‬ truck (‫)عربة نقؿ‬
truck (‫ نقؿ‬/ ‫)عربة شحف‬ flatcar (railway) (‫)شاحنة مسطحة )في قطار‬
subway ‫نفؽ تحت األرض‬ pedestrian underpass(‫)ممر تحت األرض لممشاة‬
underground railway(‫)سكة حديد تحت األرض‬ subway (‫ تحت األرض‬/ ‫)قطار أنفاؽ‬
(The meaning of each pair is underlined)

9
These pairs of terms mean the same in English. However, they might be understood (or
misunderstood) by translators as two different words with two different meanings, as the
artificial translations above may demonstrate.

A third type of technical/non-technical duplicity in scientific and everyday uses of

language is stylistic (see also below). Stylistic duplicity is a type of stylistic variation among
different scientific terms available in Arabic Language that makes technical and non-
technical terminology available to different types of readers. Following is a list of difficult
technical words for specialists and their simpler, less difficult non-technical versions for
the laymen:

The English term difficult terms less difficult terms

Plasticity ‫مطاوعة‬ ‫ مرونة‬/ ‫ليونة‬
Ductility ‫ممطوطية‬/ ‫مطيمية‬ ‫ السحب‬/ ‫ط ْرؽ‬
َ ‫قابمية ال‬
Polarity ‫قطبية‬ ‫تناقض‬
Auric ‫ذىبيؾ‬ ‫ذىبي‬
Acetic ‫خمّيؾ‬ ‫خمّ ّي‬
Logistic support ‫دعـ لوجستي‬ ‫ إمداد بالمؤف‬/ ‫دعـ غير حربي‬
Sponsor ‫صرفيد‬ ‫كفيؿ‬

Clearly, the second choice is stylistically better in terms of easiness and understandability.
Hence, it is preferable to the native speakers of Arabic. Many do not understand terms like
‫ خميؾ‬،‫ قطبية‬،‫ صرفيؾ‬،‫لوجستي‬, so they go for comprehensible terms such as those of the second
list.

It must be noted that Newmark’s definition and investigation of technical and non-
technical terms are restricted mainly to scientific technology, which represents only a part
– but an essential part - of the sense of technical/non-technical in language in general.
Technical/non-technical are taken to cover all types of technical/non-technical
terminology, not only in scientific texts, but also in different texts, for every field of
knowledge and specialization (including social sciences and humanities) has its own
technical and non-technical terminology.

1.5 Simplicity vs. Complexity of Style: Grammatical and lexical styles

General texts are known for their simple style and language. They use simple, simplified,
clear, direct and unequivocal type of language and style, especially in relation to words
and grammar. Complex style and language is not a part of any general text. But what is
style, first?

1.5.1 The Concept of Style as Choice

Viewing style as choice had gathered momentum a long time ago, and the concept of style
as choice is by no means new (Traugott and Pratt, 1980; Wales, 1989: 436). The reason
why this concept is recalled is its strong presence in today’s stylistic studies from a new
10
standpoint of ideology and mind. Style is a linguistic choice in the first place. A linguistic
choice is made on the basis of options available in language. It is the total options
available in the syntactic, semantic, phonological and pragmatic language systems. The
first three levels of language specify the ranges of structural possibilities which can be
chosen or deviated from. The fourth specifies in part the contextual basis of the use of
language for choice, including factors like intended audience, topic, genre, channel,
degree of formality (ibid.: 33). In this sense, expression and content “can be viewed as a
matter of choice”. The latter is fundamentally semantic/lexical, involving choice of
semantic structures; whereas the former is primarily pragmatic/contextual, involving
choice of pragmatic functions and contextual features. Choice in both components of
language/grammar is the basis for phonological, syntactic and lexical choices (p. 29).

Furthermore, style is given greater status by considering it in relation to language and

meaning. That is, it has a role to play in any aspect of language and, consequently, in any
aspect of meaning. It can be defined now as follows:

Style is the different choices made by writers from the language stock in regard to
grammar, words and sounds, namely, from the major components of language.

This means that there are a number of grammatical structures, words and phonological
features available in language from which the writer of a text makes specific choices.
These choices are the style of the text in question. That is to say, short sentences are not
like long sentences. The passive voice is different from the active voice. A complex,
difficult and ambiguous grammatical structure stands in contrast with an easy, clear and
simple structure. On the other hand, colloquial words and formal words are not used for
the same reason, or to express the same meaning. Likewise, rhythmical language has
different effects and functions from those of ordinary language. This functional view to
style stresses the importance of style in language, being inseparable from meaning.
Therefore, in translation, it should be concentrated on, and its problems require solutions,
as the negligence of the style of SL results in an incomplete meaning in the TL. (For further
details about the concept of style, see Hough (1969), Crystal and Davy (1969), Chatman.
(1971), Enkvist (1973), Widdowson (1975), Traugot and Pratt (1980), Freeman (ed.) (1981),
Leech and Short (1981), Carter (ed) (1982), Carter and Burton (eds.) (1987), Carter and
Long (1987), Ghazala (1987, 1994/ 1999, 2011, 2012a and 2013); Fabb et al (eds.) (1987),
Wales (1989), Carter and Nash (1990), Durant et al (1990), Bradford (1997), Thornborrow
et al (1998), Toolan (1998), (Simpson (2004), (Boase-Beier (2006), Jeffries (2010) and many
others.

Hence, we may conclude from this view of style as choice that language repertoire stores
several types of linguistic components. Each type contains many choices that are made
available to users. The most important components in relation to our discussion of
translating general texts are GRAMMAR and WORDS. Within each component, there are
simple and complex sub-components.

Grammar, to start with, has complex structures and simple structures:

 Complex structures: complex and complicated sentences; complex and

complicated clauses; finite and non-finite clause structures; long sentence and
11
 clause insertions and interruptions; passives; complicated tenses like
present/past/future perfect progressives; disrupted and ambiguous word orders
and sequences; unfinished sentences; ungrammatical structures, etc.
 Simple structures: simple sentences, short sentences, simple clause structure,
absence of insertions and interruptions; actives, simple tenses like
present/past/future simple and present perfect, smooth, normal and
grammatical word orders and sequences, and so on.

Words can also be either complex or simple:

 Complex words: technical terms, scientific terms; unusual/strange words; frozen

formal words; jargon words, buzz words; ‘ism’ words (e.g. dogmatism, jingoism,
etc.); figurative expressions (idioms, metaphors metonyms, puns, synecdoche,
irony, symbolism, etc.); ambiguities; catch phrases; binomials; characteristic
vocabulary; terms of art (in law); foreign words; neologisms (new words); burr
words; concept words; insinuations, etc.
 Simple words: everyday words; common words; non-technical words; popular
words and expressions; one-syllable words; core words; clear words;
unambiguous words, non-metaphorical words, general-reference words; informal
words and expressions; many simple collocations; popular similes and
metaphors; direct words; clichés, simple words, phrases and expressions of all
types, etc.

Needless to say, general texts are characterized chiefly by the simple style of grammar and
words. They avoid grammatical and lexical complications and ambiguities of all types.
Instead, simple clause and sentence structures, verbs, voice, tenses and normal word
orders are overwhelmingly preferred to their complicated counterparts in grammar. In the
same way, common, core, clear, direct and simple words of all kinds are mostly favored to
complicated, ambiguous, jargon, new, strange and figurative words and expressions.
Perhaps the most prominent, recurrent and important type of these is core words, what is
usually described as “CORE WORDS”. Hence, the next point.

1.5.2 Style of Lexical Simplicity of General Texts: Core Vocabulary

In the area of language learning and language acquisition, there are one or two useful
studies of lexical relationships like LEXICAL SIMPLIFICATION- making do with less words
(Blum and Levenston, 1978), FAMILIARITY, FREQUENCY and AVAILABILITY (Richards, 1970),
GENERAL VOCABULARY and the NOTION OF CORENESS (Hutchinson and Waters, 1981, and
McCarthy, 1984). We will investigate the last relationship, being the point of focus here.

Dixon says: “In the domain of lexis, core items are generally seen to be the most basic or
simple” (in Carter, 1987: 33). A comprehensive discussion of this notion in language is
investigated exhaustively in the first Chapter of Cater (1987) who suggests a number of
applied linguistics tests for exploring its eligibility due to its significance in language system
and use:

12
(1) Syntactic substitution: defining a set of synonymous words each of which is defined
using the core word, as illustrated in the following examples (the core word
underlined):
(i) Gobble, dine, devour, eat, stuff, gormandize.
(ii) Guffaw, chuckle, giggle, laugh, jeer, snigger.
(iii) Perambulate, stroll, saunter, walk, hike, march
(iv) Podgy, corpulent, stout, fat, overweight, plump, obese.
(v) Weedy, emaciated, skinny, lean, thin, slim, slender.
(vi) Abode, house, domicile, residence, dwelling.

(2) Antonymy: the less core a word is the more difficult it is to find an antonym for it.
While fat-thin and laugh-cry are clear antonyms, it is problematic to find precise
antonyms for emaciated, corpulent, sob, etc. So, the latter are less core than core
words.
(3) Collocability (also Rudzka et al (1981)): collocability is the company a word keeps.
So we know ‘lean’, for it collocates with ‘meat’. According to this test, the more
core a word is, the more partnerships it contracts with other words. So, among the
words bright, gaudy, radiant, bright is found to be core for it keeps company with
words more than the others as follows (see also Ghazala 2007 & 2014):

(i) Bright smile/sun/light/sky/idea/colors/red/green/future/prospects/child/

wine
(ii) Radiant light/smile/sun/green/prospects
(iii) Gaudy colours

(4) Extension: a core word like run, take and go, is signalled by the way it is extended
into compounds, idioms and multi-word verbs, and the number of its entries in a
dictionary. These and similar core words have a great number of entries and
extensions in language, which is an indication of their coreness.
(5) Superordinateness: core words have more generic properties than non-core words.
For example, car, lorry, coach, van, motor-scooter are labelled under the generic
word VEHICLE.
(6) Culture-free: the more core a word is the less likely it is to be restricted to culture-
specific uses. Examples include a huge number of culture-free words like sleep, eat,
speak, big, sun, sky, earth, come go, run, money, etc.
(7) Summary: the use of a high proportion of core words when summarizing events, or
texts of different types. For example, in a text using cat, kitty, pussy, feline, mog, il
gatto, CAT is found to be replacing all the others by informants.
(8) Associationism: words scaled on evaluation, potency and formality scales, where
core words come out to be around the neutral mid-point along the cline (e.g. thin).
However, non-core words appear mostly on either side of the scale: informal,
positive and strong, on the far left, and formal, negative and weak on the far right
of the cline (e.g. skinny, lean, slender, slim, weedy, emaciated). (See also Osgood,
1976):
(9) Neutral field of discourse: core words do not allow us to identify from which field of
discourse they are taken, whereas non-core words can be identified. For example,
the words galley, port and starboard, fore and aft, knots per hour, recall nautical

13
 contexts, while corresponding words like kitchen, left and right, miles per hour do
not. Hence, the second group is core, whereas the first is non-core.
(10) Non-foreign/non-loan words (Stubbs, 1980): this test relates to formality and
informality. Core words are those which emerge as neutral on a formality scale. In
other words, they are neither formal nor informal. For example, fat appears to
express the greatest neutrality compared to. Say, corpulent and podgy
(11) Non-foreign plural forms: core words will not normally include loan-words, or
foreign plurals (Stubbs, 1986a).
(12) Words of normal and stable spelling and pronunciation. Core words do not normally
include unstable pronunciations and spellings (Stubbs, 1980 and 1986a).
(13) High Frequency of occurrence: (like Stubbs (1986a), Dixon terms core vocabulary as
nuclear words. He defines them as follows: “Nuclear words tend to have greater
frequency than non-nuclear items. … in almost every case a certain nuclear word
will have greater frequency than non-nuclear words that are related to it…”. (1977:
441, in Carter, 1987: 43. See also Nation’s ‘frequency counts’ (1983, in ibid.).
(14) Simplicity: core words are basically and overwhelmingly simple (this is mine).

(See also Carter, 1982a; Carter and McCarthy (eds.), 1988; Carter and Nash, 1990, and
Ghazala, 1987 and 2012).

The first conclusion that can be drawn from this short account of Carter’s tests is that core
words are mainly (1) general, (2) frequent, (3) neutral, (4) simple) and (5) culture-free.
Almost all core words are thought to pass these five tests. Put differently, these tests are
criteria that apply to core words in general. The second conclusion is that any word that may
pass this four-criteria text can be labelled as core in language, whether English, Arabic, or
any other language. The Basic Word List of English Language pointed to in Carter, 1987) is
based hugely on words that are frequent, common, general, neutral and culture-free, that is,
core words.

The same tests and criteria are applicable to Arabic as well. Core words are frequent,
general, simple, neutral and culture-free. Take for example, the group: ،‫ حشا‬،‫ عبأ‬،‫ بمع‬،‫ التيـ‬،‫أكؿ‬
،(‫ تناوؿ)الطعاـ‬،‫ نيـ‬،‫ سؼ‬،‫( مضغ‬colloquialisms are not included), the first only meets these
criteria, while the others do not. Also, in the group ‫ شنَّؼ أذنيو‬،‫ أصاخ بسمعو‬،‫ تنصت‬،‫ أنصت‬،‫استمع‬,
the first one only meets the conditions suggested above. The same applies to the third group
‫ االشتياط غضباً؛ سخط‬،‫ تميُّز مف الغيظ‬،‫ حنؽ‬،‫ غيظ‬،‫غضب‬
َ , out of which the first item meets all the
requirements of core words.

Related to the idea of coreness in language use are words of general reference usually
termed as 'encapsulators' (i.e. summarizers, or superordinate words). They are general,
simple words whose function is to generalize and sum up. The concept of encapsulation in
language embraces those generic and core words used to wind up a whole stretch of
language (e.g. thing, matter, point, aspect, feature, element, phenomenon, statement … :
،‫ قوؿ‬،‫ ظاىرة‬،‫ عنصر‬،‫ سمة‬،‫ جانب‬،‫ نقطة‬،‫ عمؿ‬،‫ أمر‬،‫)شيء‬. This concept is strongly linked with, and
seconds that of 'core vocabulary' and ‘coreness’ discussed here. Yet, the basic difference –
and it is a minor difference - between core words and encapsulators is that the former may
be or may be not of general reference, whereas the later refers solely to simple words of
14
generic reference. Hence, both core words and encapsulators meet at the basic point of the
use of general words in language, which is the point of focus of this Chapter. (See also,
carter, 1987, (see Newmark, 1981: 29; McCarthy, 1984; Carter, 1987; Carter and McCarthy
(eds.), 1988; Carter and Nash, 1990 and Ghazala, 2012 for further details).

1.5.3 Style as tone: Formal vs. Informal

Style can also be understood as ‘tone’, i.e. formal and informal language:

(a) Formality: The style (or tone) of general translation is neutral, ranging between
formal and informal in English. Yet in Arabic, it is certainly not informal, for
informal style is not used in written Arabic. However it is formal, or rather,
Modern Standard Arabic (henceforth MSA). As explained below, MSA is a variety
of modern formal Arabic Language that is characterized with simplicity and
currency of use.

In 1962, Joos suggested a scale of five ‘styles’ (or tones) of English language,
which is general but proved to be widely acceptable by most people:

1. Frozen formal (‫قح‬/‫متصمب‬/ً‫)فصيح جدا‬

2. Formal (‫)فصيح‬
3. Informal (‫شبو فصيح‬/‫)غير فصيح‬
4. Colloquial (‫)عاـ‬
5. Vulgar (or slang) (‫)سوقي‬

There are three notes on this scale:

First, the five styles are sometimes reduced to two main ones only for easiness
of classification and comprehension, as follows:

1. Frozen formal
1. FORMAL
2. Formal

3. Informal
4. Colloquial 2. INFORMAL
5. Slang / vulgar

Such a shortened version of these styles (or tones) of language is adopted in some
language references (e.g. Longman Dictionary of English Idioms, Collins and Webster’s
English Dictionaries). Some of these references use 'colloquial', or 'slang' instead of
'informal'.

Second, sometimes it is difficult to draw a clear-cut line between the following four pairs:
‘frozen formal and formal’/ ‘formal and informal’ / ‘informal and colloquial’ / and

15
‘colloquial and slang’. Some English words and grammatical constructions come at the
borderline. For example, ‘idioms and phrasal verbs’ are classified either as formal or
informal, or both; grammatical contractions like ‘can’t’, ‘don’t’, ‘haven’t’, etc. are
considered by some as informal, and by others as colloquial. The most recurrent difficulty
of distinction is that between formal and informal styles of language.

Third, in Arabic, there are usually four major styles only:

(1) Classical Arabic (i.e. the language of the Holy Quran, the Prophet's Tradition and
classical literature).
(2) Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) (i.e. the formal written Arabic of today).
(3) Colloquial Arabic (i.e. the language of conversation).
(4) Vulgar / slang Arabic (i.e. the very local, unkind and / or bad language).

The English styles can be translated into the following Arabic styles:

(English) (Arabic)
1. Frozen formal } → Classical Arabic

2. Formal → MSA
3. Informal

4. Colloquial } → Colloquial Arabic

5. Vulgar (or slang) } → Vulgar (or slang) Arabic

The most familiar styles in Arabic are the formal and the colloquial ones, used in general
to cover the four styles above as follows:

1. Classical Arabic } → Formal

2. MSA

3. Colloquial Arabic } → Colloquial

4. Vulgar / slang

It must be reasserted that the tone of the general translation is the neutral tone, which is
not on Joos’ scale of formality (but see Newmark’s scale (1988) which includes neutral
tone on the cline), and occupies a position that is between formal and informal in English.
However, in Arabic, there is neither neutral nor informal tone in written Arabic. Therefore,
the tone used in general texts and translation is the MSA, being a modern, current,
frequent and SIMPLIFIED version of contemporary formal Arabic. It is neither classical nor
colloquial tone. To illustrate the point further here is a list of juxtaposed examples:

16
The SL Word Classical Arabic MSA

Swarm ‫خشرـ‬ ‫سرب‬

On credit sale ‫النسيئة‬ ‫بيع بالديف‬
Highway robbery ‫الحرابة‬ ‫قطع الطريؽ‬
Refuge ‫المحجر‬ ‫ممجأ‬
Look in the eye ‫حجَّ مه بعٌنه‬ ‫وضع عٌنه بعٌنه‬
Earring ‫قُرط‬ ‫حلَق‬
Measure ‫صواع‬ ‫مكٌال‬
Blazing heat ‫قٌظ‬ ‫حر شدٌد‬/‫لهٌب‬
Mouthpiece ‫لسان القوم‬ ً‫المتحدث الرسم‬/‫الناطق‬
garrulous ‫المِهذار‬/‫المَذماذ‬ ‫الثرثار‬
etc.

Apparently, general texts and their translations are expected to adopt the MSA versions,
and avoid the Classical Arabic one due to the fact that the TL readership is not familiar
with them. But what is readership? The next subsection will deal with this issue.

1.6 The Readership

Readership is a collective reference to all readers, both SL and TL. Translators do not
translate for themselves, in a vacuum or to ignominious readers. They must know to who
their translations are oriented for they are influential in translation in several ways,
sometimes decisively. At translating any text of any type, they address a particular type of
readership, or audience that has certain characteristics different from other types. Hence
types of readership

1.6.1 Types of Readership

An interesting classification of the types of readership is suggested by Newmark on

educational grounds into three types: highly educated, middle-class educated and low
educated (1988: 14-15). Yet, this classification ignores two other major types of readers:
children and uneducated adults, for a huge material forwarded to them is being translated
nowadays (e.g. T.V. colloquial series for adults, and cartoons for kids). A further
classification can be proposed here, dividing readers into two types only: (i) interested
readers, and (ii) uninterested readers. This reflects the hard task of the translator of
distinguishing the type of readership he/she is going to address in the target language. The
problem becomes critical if he/she fails to make a clear-cut distinction, or if he/she fails to
use the appropriate style of language for the targeted type of readership.

A third, probably, more convenient and reliable classification of the types of readers than
the other two above can be to divide them in general but practical terms into two major
types: specialists and non-specialists readers. Specialists can be addressed by formal
language, specialist/technical terms, figurative language, ambiguous style, insinuations
and all types of special and difficult features of language and style. Yet, non-specialists
require to be communicated through simple vocabulary, familiar expressions, simplified

17
formal language and terminology, popular / non-technical terms, simple and
straightforward style and non-metaphorical language. If the translator is in doubt about
his/her potential TL readership, he/she can go for a middle-ground variety of language, or
if uncertain, the second type of non-specialist readers as specialists are done no harm by
that, whereas the non-specialists might be estranged by a specialist style of language. A
very common example is the Friday Sermon for Muslims the world over, which is
forwarded to the general public who are overwhelmingly non-specialists. In fact many
scholars deliver a very formal, rhetorical and classical style and type of language that leave
most of the audience off shore, and induce them to have a nap! The audience need be
addresses by an ordinary, direct, simplified and comprehensible language and style to be
able to receive the message intended by the sermon (see Ghazala, 2011 & 2014 for full
details and examples).

It must be stressed that all types of texts without exception are in principle forwarded to
either type of readers suggested earlier (i.e. specialist and non-specialist). Writers of any
type of text always have a readership of some type in mind from the very first minute they
start writing. Hence, with few exceptions (including legal and religious texts), no
translation of any type of text should ignore its readership at the expense of loyalty to the
SL text. It is not only Newmark’s vocative texts that take the readership as their target, but
also expressive and informative texts (see above). A literary text, for example, is written to
be read by readers interested in literature, so they are already present in the writer’s back
of the neck more consciously than unconsciously in terms of expectations and anticipation
of his/her prospective readers, i.e. the “putative readership”. In the same way, an
informative textbook is designed to provide a particular group of readers with information
useful and interesting to them, and so on and so forth. The difference between texts in
this respect is only in degree. The SL readership is always hovering over the SL writer’s
mind, and the TL readership is persistently looming over the translator’s head, especially
in texts like general texts.

Many things are to be taken into account regarding the readership’s level of education,
specialism, age, interest, mentality, ideology, national pride, biases of various kinds, and
needs and requirements as much as required by the type of text translated.

(1) Specialism: specialists and non-specialists (or general, laymen, public). Specialist
readers have to be addressed in a way different from non-specialist readers.
While, the latter require a high, sophisticated level of language and style, the
former need be addressed using simple, general, non-technical and non-specialist
language and style. This implies showing respect for both types of readership as
well as suggesting an appropriate way to communicate them properly and make
them understand translation satisfyingly.

(2) Level of education: educated, uneducated, highly educated, medium-educated,

low educated and illiterate. The level of education is decisive in translation, so
translators have to be extra careful about it. It determines many things, especially
the style of different types to be adopted in translation (see above in relation to
simplicity, complexity, grammatical and lexical choices and tones). Any mismatch
between the translation’s style and the readership’s educational level, would lead
to many blunders for we do not address all people in the same way. In the event
18
 of translating general texts, the readership’s factor has a priority over other
factors, and language and style should be appropriately used to fit their general,
non-technical and non-specialist requirements. Many examples are forthcoming.

(3) Age: Children, adults, youngsters, middle-age, old, etc. The language and style
used to address children would be sharply different. No doubt, technical
terminology, symbolism, jargon, figurativeness and frozen formality are expected
to be inappropriate for children. On the other hand, a simple, easy, ordinary and
comprehensible type of language is expected to suit the children’s low level of
education. Hence, for example, the figurative statement (!‫تورد اإلبؿ‬
َ ‫ )ما ىكذا يا سعد‬can
be ludicrous to use in the translation of children’s stories, cartoons or subtitled
children films. Of course, a version of simple language like ‫ما‬/‫)ما ىكذا تدار األمور‬
(ً‫أحسنت صنعا‬. (So also Ghazala, 2015 for more examples and details).

(4) Gender: men, women, boys, girls, etc. The style language used to address ladies
can be sometimes different from that addressing women, at least in some types
of texts, including general texts. Cuisine, fashion, clothing, pregnancy, children’s
health texts and the like are rather more women-oriented than men-oriented.
However, in many other types of texts, drawing a distinction is difficult.

(5) Interest: interested, un-interested, disinterested, careful and careless.

Supposedly, professional translators translate to serious readership. Yet, if the
subject matter of the text is boring, or the translation is bad, readers may not be
seriously interested. Yet, if SL texts have interesting topics, and their translations
are good, readers will have interest in them. That said, an interesting topic can be
made uninteresting to TL readers by a bad translation, and an uninteresting topic
can be made interesting to them by a good translation by means of taking care of
style in the TL text. After all, interesting and uninteresting texts and translations
would be rather a matter of style.

(6) Mentality / ideology: open-minded, narrow-minded, democratic, liberal,

pragmatic, non-pragmatic and dogmatic. Nowadays, writers, translators, texts,
meanings, styles and readerships are viewed principally as ideology-loaded.
Therefore, translators are supposed to attend to their readers’ ideologies and
mentalities inasmuch as the type of text may allow. This relates more to the
mental culture of readers who can be democratic, dogmatic, pragmatic, etc.
Familiarizing themselves with their TL readers’ mental background, translators
can take it into consideration at addressing them accordingly.
(7) politicization: political, politicized, non-politicized, oriented, innocent and
remote-controlled. Almost everything in life and in language is being politicized
these days, so translators are required to bear this in mind at addressing their
readership at translating not only political texts, but also general texts. Political
implications are lurking around in different topic of general as well as special
nature.

(8) National pride: self-centered, nationalist, nationalized, self-conceited,

international, local, localized, snobbish and haughty. Usually readers are sensitive
19
 to their nationality, country, race and perhaps color. Consequently, translators
should not ignore that when translating general texts of sensitive nature, no
matter how embarrassing or demanding they might be.

(9) Biases of various types: cultural, religious, social, political, ideological, etc.
Readers of all types are found to be positively biased with, or negatively against
some cultural, social, political, racist, national, linguistic or other topics and
expressions. It should be admitted that the translator can be in a dilemma
translating texts of pejorative bias to TL readership in particular for it would be
very hard to satisfy it in many cases (see Ghazala, 2003).

(10) Needs and requirements: in regard to translating general texts, translators have
their readers’ needs and requirements top on their list of priorities. They do their
best to respond to them and satisfy them by all possible means when urgent.
General texts are written and designed especially for general readers to meet
their needs in several ways and several types of texts. Accordingly, translators are
expected to address the TL audience in the same way, and for the same aim of
meeting their needs and requirements in their language in the most appropriate
way possible.

In sum, the TL readership is an influential factor in the translation of all types of texts,
particularly in general texts. Translators work hard on producing effect on their TL readers
to impress them. Whether it is an equivalent effect or not is what the next point
investigates.

1.6.2 Producing Effect on the TL Readership: The Notion of Equivalent Effect

Among the basic conditions of achieving faithfulness in translation is the production of

effect on the TL readership equivalent to that produced on the SL readership. The
equivalent effect means the same, or the closest effect. Some call it “equivalent
response”, while Nida describes it “dynamic equivalence”, though with cultural
implications (1964). Newmark deals with the notion of “equivalent effect” at length,
viewing it as “an important intuitive principle” and “an important translation concept
which has a degree of application to any type of text, but not the same degree of
importance” (1988: 49). Yet, he regards it as the “desirable effect”, rather than the “aim”
of any translation. He goes further to disallow it as an unlikely result in two cases: (a) if the
purpose of the SL text is to affect and the TL translation to inform (or the other way
round); (b) if there is a big cultural gap between the SL and the TL.

On the other hand, although Newmark considers the equivalent effect as desirable in the
translation of informative texts, it is essential in communicative translation of vocative
texts as the criterion by which the effectiveness and value of their translation is to be
assessed. In the semantic translation of literature, the focus is not entirely on the putative
readership but, rather, on the translator’s attempt to render the effect the SL text has on
himself, i.e. to empathize with the author. However, the more universal the text, the more
a broad equivalent effect is possible, as the ideals of the SL text go beyond local cultural
boundaries. By contrast, the more cultural a text, the less is equivalent effect conceivable
(ibid.: 48-9).
20
The fact of the matter is that producing the SL equivalent effect in the TL translation on
equal terms on the TL readership is one of the daunting tasks of the translator from the
very beginning of his/her translation. This can be more crucial in particular texts that
involve direct communication with, or address of TL readers, such as political, advertising,
instructional, religious and some literary texts. The translator has no real challenge when
the SL text’s effect is in line with, or harmless to that of the TL translation produced on the
TL readership and the translator. However, he/she may suffer some hardship when the SL
text’s effect clashes with the TL readership’s religious, political, social, moral and mental
values, the translator would render it accurately and fluently. He/she is in a real dilemma
for, on the one hand, he/she has to be faithful to the SL text’s effect, and considerate for
the TL readers' feelings and values. That said, when a clash like that occurs, faithfulness to
TL readership outweighs faithfulness to the SL text’s effect, readership and writer.
Therefore, the production of the same effect of the SL text on the TL readership in such
special cases can have dire consequences, or, more precisely, quite the opposite effect if
translated directly and literally. This is different from producing effect in other normal
cases when no harm is done to the TL readership.

To end up this subsection, in regard to the translation of general texts, the readership is a
prime target for translators. They always bear it in mind as a priority for these texts and
their translations are originally designed for general readers, which entails meeting their
needs and requirements, and taking all other factors related to them into account by
translators (see the list above). Indeed, producing effect on the TL readership is essential
and best achieved in the light of these factors which can be viewed as preconditions for
producing the best effect possible on TL readers.

1.7 Skopos Theory: Toward a Purpose Theory of Translation

A new vision of translation studies is suggested by Vermeer (1996) who localizes

translation within the Action Theory. Translation theory is seen as a part of action theory,
and texts and translations are acts achieving certain purposes. That is why this theory is
called Skopos Theory (i.e. "purpose theory"). The Skopos is the decisive factor in
translation, so that the same text can be translated differently to achieve different
purposes for different readers. Skopos theory is of German origin (i.e. Skopostheorie). It
provides an insight into the nature of translation as a purposeful activity, which is
applicable to every translation project. It was established by the German linguist Hans
Vermeer and comprises the idea that translating and interpreting should primarily take
into account the function of both the source and target texts. Skopos theory forms the
foundation of the German Functionalism's translation approach. Skopos theory has played
an important part in translation theory research, selecting translation strategies and
training interpreters as well as in the evaluation of translated texts .(See Wan-wei et al,
2007, and Flynn, 2010)

Hans Vermeer's Skopos theory (2000) treats translation as a form of (social) action in
which a number of ‘relevant factors’ such as skopos (or purpose), commission, translatum,
and all play vital roles. Vermeer defines skopos as “a technical word for the aim or
purpose of a translation” that is a part of a translational action. Skopos theory provides

21
translation scholars with a framework for exploring significant aspects of translation
without losing sight of their inter‐relatedness. (See Fan Yong, 2005).

Skopos theorie put forward by German Functionalist School offers a new perspective for
translation studies. (See Ai-jun, 2009 for further details).

Skopos theory is a type of theory that is unusual among other theories of translation in
that it has this form of a deductive, “syntactic” theory based on a small number of explicit
axioms. In the 1984 version, these are called “rules”. Here they are explained:

(1) Skopos theory assumes that a translation always has a skopos (a purpose), even
though this may not always be clear. This skopos may often differ from that of
the source text. The skopos is the highest determining factor influencing the
translator’s decisions. Further, the theory assumes that the skopos is oriented
toward the intended target recipients: all translations have such a readership;
even if you cannot always specify them, they are always “there”.
(2) The theory assumes that language is embedded in culture. Translation is seen as
a subtype of more general cultural transfer. The information offers concepts that
relate to the underlying theory of communication, whereby a sender “offers”
information to a receiver. This information is assumed by the sender to be
“interesting” to the receiver. And if the communicative act is successful, it will be
interpreted by the receiver in a way that is compatible with the sender’s
intention and does not give rise to a “protest”.
(3) Translations are not normally reversible; and a given source text has many
possible translations.
(4) Intratextual coherence is assumed to exist to the extent that the text makes
sense to the receiver, that is, it is compatible with the receiver’s cognitive
context, as in any form of communication. Note that rules 4 and 5 have a clear
prescriptive form, unlike the others.
(5) This fidelity rule assumes that the translation represents the source text, in some
way which is relevant to the skopos. The theory recognizes a range of
equivalence types.
(6) This rule is of a different status from the others, and, as a part of a general
theory, problematic. We might at least want to query the order of rules 4 and 5
as being universally valid.

The authors claim that these rules are probably the only general rules of translation. All
further developments of the theory would then be filling in more details, providing rules
for the analysis of the target situation, establishing conditions for the selection of different
translation strategies, and so on.

Vermeer (1996: 12f) contextualizes skopos theory explicitly as a form of action theory.
Here, too, he sets out a number of axioms (now called “theses”), as follows, ending at
about the point where the previous list (above) began:

(1) All acting presupposes a “point of departure”, i.e. an actor’s position in space
and time, convictions, theories, etc., including their respective history.
(2) All acting is goal-oriented.
22
 (3) From a variety of possibilities, action will be chosen under the prevailing
circumstances.
(4) Given the prevailing circumstances, an actor tries to reach the intended goal by
what seems to him / her the optimal way, i.e., for which he/she believes he/she
has the best overall reason(s).
(5) Translating is acting, i.e. a goal-oriented procedure carried out in such a way as
the translator deems optimal under the prevailing circumstances.
(6) Thesis 5 is a general thesis valid for all types of translating.
(7) In translating, all potentially pertinent factors (including the source text on all its
levels) are taken into consideration as far as the skopos of translating allows
and/or demands.
(8) The skopos of (translational) acting determines the strategy for reaching the
intended goal.

We may conclude from this short account that Skopos Theory focuses on translation as an
activity with an aim or purpose, and on the intended addressee, or readership of the
translation. To translate means to produce a target text in a target setting for a target
purpose and target readers in target circumstances. In skopos theory, the status of the
source text is lower than it is in equivalence-based theories of translation. The source is an
"offer of information", which the translator turns into an "offer of information" for the
target audience. Kussmaul says: "the functional approach has a great affinity with Skopos
theory. The function of a translation depends on the knowledge, expectations, values and
norms of the target readers, who are again influenced by the situation they are in and by
the culture. These factors determine whether the function of the source text or passages
in the source text can be preserved, or have to be modified, or even changed (see
Translexi, 2009).

Regarding translation as a type of social action, Vermeer (1989a) states that translation is
produced for particular recipients with specific purpose(s) in a given situation (Skopos). A
translator accomplishes his/her translation assignment with such purpose(s) in mind. The
specification by the client on the translator's task (commission) is treated as an essential
prerequisite for the realization of Skopos. According to Vermeer (ibid.), the goal of the
translational action and the conditions under which the anticipated goal shall be attained
are negotiated between the client and the translator. The translator assumes authority as
an expert, who is consulted with, and has the right to decide what role the source text
could play in his/her professional job. Vermeer (1989b:20 in Nord 1997: 29) explains
Skopos rule as follows: "Translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your
text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who
want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function." Hence, the skopos theory
goes beyond the dichotomy of faithful vs. free translation, positing translators as cultural
workers (Gentzler 2001). The maturing of the skopos theory results in the dethroning of
the source text, and the de-mystification of "equivalence," foregrounding the significance
and implication of the "purpose" that contributes to the translation as a sort of social
construction.

23
Hence, the skopos theory was developed in Germany in the late 1970s. It reflects a
general shift from linguistic and formal translation theories to a more functionally and
socio-culturally oriented concept of translation, it has become "a welcome addition to
translation studies" (Gentzler 2001:71, Wang Baorong, 2009/2014. Initially formulated
by Reiss in the 1970s, the theory was enunciated by Vermeer in the 1980s, and was
further developed in the 1990s by Nord).

The basic principles of the skopos theory can be summarized as follows (see ibid.):

(i) Any form of translational action, including translation itself, may

be conceived as a "purposeful activity" (Nord 1997:12).
(ii)
In skopos theory, translation is viewed not as a process of trans-
coding, but as a specific form of human action.
(iii)
Like any other human action, translation has a purpose, and the
word.
(iv)
skopos, derived from Greek, is used as the technical term for “the
purpose of a translation”.
(v)
Skopos must be defined before translation can begin.
(vi)
In highlighting skopos, the theory adopts a prospective attitude to
translation, as opposed to the retrospective attitude adopted in
theories which focus on prescriptions derived from the source text.

(vii) The action should observe the "skopos rule," which postulates
that the form of a target text, including translation strategies and
methods adopted, should above all be determined by the
purpose or skopos that the target text is intended to fulfill in the
target context.
(viii) Every translation presupposes a commission and is carried out
according to a skopos or commission, which is largely
determined by the commissioner or client--a person, a group, or
an institution. The skopos of the target text and the mode in
which it is to be realized are negotiated between the
commissioner and the translator.
24
(ix) The translator as the "expert" in translational action is
responsible for the final translation (Vermeer 2000:221-230).
Translation is the production of a functionally appropriate target
text based on a source text.
(x) While the translator is entitled to decide what role a source text
plays in the translation process, the decisive factor is the
precisely specified skopos. The source text is only one
constituent of the commission and an "offer of information."
(xi) The skopos theory recognizes the importance of translation
commission and the crucial role played by the
commissioner/client. "Every translation presupposes a
commission" which is largely determined by the client; and the
commission "should explicitly or implicitly contain a statement of
skopos in order to be carried out at all" (Vermeer 2000:228).
(xii) The skopos theory calls for redefining the relationship between
source text and the target text. Since general texts are "content-
focused" rather than "form-focused" (Reiss 2000), the translator
should transmit the source text’s conceptual content and does
not have to preserve its linguistic form or original style insofar as
the target text fulfils its intended skopos or function.
(xiii) The source text-target text relationship is specified by the skopos
of the translation.
(xiv) The content, form or skopos of the source text may not suit the
target context and the target readership with their culture-
specific world knowledge, expectations and communicative
needs (Nord 1997:12).
(xv) Where the target text’s skopos disagrees with that of the source
text, the translator should not stick to the latter, but he/she
should produce a functionally appropriate target text based on
the source text.

25
(xvi)
The source text is deprived by the translator of its primary and
sacred status whenever he/she thinks this is appropriate for the
achievement of the designated Skopos. The source text merely
serves as one of various information sources utilized by the
translator, not the first and foremost criterion in translator's
decision-making (Aveling 2002).
(xvii)
"The source text should no longer be seen as the 'sacred original’,
and the purpose of the translation can no longer be deduced from
the source text, but depends on the expectations and needs of the
target readers." (Hönig (1998: 9).
(xviii)
The Skopos theory allows the translator to have freedom to take
responsibility for his/ her approach.
(xix)
In the Skopos theory, the way a target text is intended to be
received basically determines which translation strategy is the most
suitable one.
(xx)
There are three major kinds of purposes: (i) the general purpose as
to why the translator performs this translation; (ii) the
communicative purpose (e.g. to inform); (iii) the strategic purpose
aimed at in employing a particular procedure (e.g. literal vs. free
translation) (Hatim 2001).
(xxi)
Here "the end justifies the means" in translation (Nord 1997:29). In
other words, That is, the translation method is determined by the
intended function of the target text, which may not be same as that
of the source text.
(xxii)
As a "cross-cultural event," the target text (a "translatum") could
assume a different sociolinguistic and pragmatic significance in a
different sociocultural context (Vermeer 1998).
(xxiii)
Skopos theory focuses on translation as an activity with an aim or
purpose, and on the intended addressee or audience of the
translation. To translate means to produce a target text in a target
setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target
circumstances.
(xxiv)
In skopos theory, the status of the source text is lower than it is in
equivalence-based theories of translation.
(xxv)
The source is an "offer of information", which the translator turns
into an "offer of information" for the target audience.
(xxvi)
skopos theory is a functional approach to translation.
(xxvii)
Kussmaul (Paul Kussmaul (1995) writes about this theory: "the
functional approach has a great affinity with Skopos theory. The
function of a translation depends on the knowledge, expectations,
values and norms of the target readers, who are again influenced by
the situation they are in and by the culture. These factors determine
26
 whether the function of the source text or passages in the source
text can be preserved or have to be modified or even changed.
(xxviii)
According to skopos theory, then, translation is the production of a
functionally appropriate target text based on an existing source text,
and the relationship between the two texts is specified according to
the skopos of the translation.
(xxix)
In the application of skopos theory to translator training and practice,
the acceptability of translation purposes is limited by the translator's
responsibility with regard to her/his partners in the cooperative activity of
translation (principle of loyalty). (Nord 1989)
(xxx)
One practical consequence of this theory is a re-conceptualization of
the status of the source text. (See Schaeffner, 2013 and Ning, 2008).

Simply put, in translation, especially of general texts, Skopos Theory is a social theory of
purpose, action, function, promotion of TL readership and relegation of the source text.
No doubt, and as Vermeer (ibid.) asserts, “the target text is "functional" to fulfil the
expectations and needs of target audience”. As far as the translation of general texts are
concerned, this statement might be the gist of skopos theory that delineates accurately
what translators do, and should do at translating these texts. The focus is entirely on how
the target translation responds to the needs and requirements of the TL readers, taking
the purpose of translating the SL text to them as a prime target to be achieved
appropriately by translators. The purpose can be simply identified with the answer to the
following questions:

(a) what for is the SL text translated? And to achieve what aim? (to enjoy,
inform, attract, persuade, provoke, propagate, sell, encourage, discourage,
promote, attack, defend, praise, criticize, deride, cherish, insinuate, publicize,
accept, or refuse?).
(b) For what TL readership? (average, highly educated, low educated, middle-
class, ignominious, specialized, non-specialized, pro-, con-, interested
uninterested, curious, uncurious, young, old, men, women, …?)
(c) In what way? (by means of applying an appropriate method of translation,
appropriate style of choice of words and grammatical structures, simple
language, non-technical terminology, non-complication, non-figurativeness,
smoothness of style, local style, cultural equivalence, non-foreignization,
non-jargonization, direct communication and mode of address,
appropriate local register, genre and variety of language, …?)

The previous discussion of readership will enable the translator to deal with these
questions appropriately.

Thus, in the translation of general texts, the readership is the centre around which
everything else in the translation process rotates. Moreover, even the translation method
adopted by the translators is based on the TL readership, as the coming section
demonstrates.

27
1.8 Translation Methods of General Texts

There are several methods of translation hustling and bustling around in the field of
translation theory and practice these days. In one, short and frustrating chapter entitled
Translation Methods, Newmark (1988: 45-53), introduces fast-meal thirteen methods of
translation, none of which has been discussed extensively. He divides them into two
groups, one major (including eight methods: word-for-word, literal, faithful, semantic,
communicative, adaptation, free translation, and idiomatic); another minor (including five
methods relegated to an insignificant position: service, plain prose, information, cognitive
and academic). The only two methods he picks up to comment on are the semantic
translation and communicative translation methods. They are his own two methods that
are regarded by many translation theorists to be his major contribution to translation
theory (well?). He does not add much about them probably because he investigated them
in minute details in two long chapters in a previous book of his (Approaches to Translation,
1981). His concentration on his two methods only implies that he prefers them to the
other methods which are relegated to periphery by him. This is not fair for other pairs like
literal translation and free translation, the oldest and most established methods over
time, are no less popular and important than his semantic and communicative pair.
Moreover, he demoralizes a basic, self-evident method, free translation, on purpose or
not, perhaps to shop for his methods, nobody knows. He provides this pitiful definition for
free translation: “Free translation reproduces the matter without the manner, or the
content without the form of the original. Usually, it is a paraphrase much longer than the
original, a so-called ‘intralingual translation’, often prolix and pretentious, and not
translation at all”.

This is the queerest definition ever given to a respectable method of translation. Free
translation is a well-established method beyond any doubt. I personally believe that
Newmark’s communicative method is derived from, based on, and implied in free
translation. The same can be said of his other method of semantic translation which is a
version of literal translation of meaning. The good thing about Newmark’s pair is his
detailed account of them, as highlighted below:

1.8.1 Semantic and Communicative Translation Juxtaposed:

Communicative Translation Semantic Translation

- smoother - more complex

- simpler - more awkward
- clearer - more detailed
- more direct - more concentrated
- more conventional - pursues thought-process not the
- confirms to a particular register intention of the transmitter
- undertranslates - overtranslates
- specific - more specific than the original
- TL text-oriented - SL Text-oriented
- TL readership-oriented - SL author-oriented
- concerned more with effect on TL - concerned more with accuracy of
Readership Meaning of SL text.
28
 -emphasizes the 'force' of the
original
- better than the original.
- involves a gain in force and clarity
- required to translate the vast
majority of texts, especially non-
literary like: journalism, inform-
ative texts, textbooks, reports,
scientific and technological texts,
non-personal correspondence,
propaganda, publicity, public
notices, standardized writing,
popular / non-imaginative /
scientific fiction.
- emphasizes the content of the
original.
- inferior to the original
- involve a loss of meaning
- required to translate texts where
style and meaning are equally
important and require to be
translated closely as much
lexically as grammatically, such
as: literary, religious, philosophic-
al, political, scientific (?) and
technical (?) texts.
(1981: chs. 3 &5)

Right after this juxtaposition, Newmark makes a serious confession that "there is no one
communicative nor one semantic method of translating a text … A translation can be
more, or less semantic – more, or less, communicative – even a particular section or
sentence can be treated more communicatively or less semantically" (ibid.: 40). This
confuses the two methods completely, for it is quite hard to imagine how the same
sentence, which represents one idea, can be translated half semantically, half
communicatively. Are these methods based on word-for-word translation so that some of
the words of the sentence are translated semantically, others are translated
communicatively? This is really hard to digest in application.

More surprising is his abandoning of the two or any other methods in favor of the
importance of the language of the text. He says: "I unify my dual theory of semantic and
communicative translation with three propositions …". They are based on the importance
of the language of the text; (1) the more important, the more closely translated; (2) the
less important, the less closely related; and (3) the better written a text, the more closely
translated whatever its degree of importance might be. (1993: 36-37). A further
contradiction and confusion is caused by (3) which gives precedence to the good style of
writing over importance. One is confused as to which to give priority at translating:
importance, good writing, or communicative-semantic translation? The application of any
of the three will invalidate the remaining two.

Ironically, Newmark attends unprecedentedly and enthusiastically to a third method of

translation he assigns a long chapter for in his most celebrated book (1988: ch.7) as the
one he defends and adheres to strongly more that he did to his semantic and
communicative pair, that is, LITERAL TRANSLATION, the old-new method of translation
(see next point).

1.8.2 Literal and Free Translation

LITERAL TRANSLATION, to start with, is seriously mistaken as a reference to only one

method of translation, the infamous word-for-word translation, concerned with
translating individual words more out of context than in context. Although we translate
words, “words alone do not carry meaning", as declared by Raffel (1994: 4).
29
In an attempt, probably, for the first time, to simplify, disambiguate and elaborate literal
translation, and at the same time to deny Newmark’s relegation of it to a second position,
Ghazala (2008) suggests dividing it into three sub-methods, following Newmark (1988:
69): (1) word-for word translation; (2) one-to-one translation and (3) literal translation of
meaning. He discusses every method in detail with numerous illustrative examples
(English-Arabic), pointing out the disadvantages of the first two, which disqualify them as
reliable methods of literal translation. However, the third method, he argues, overcomes
the demerits of the previous two and is, therefore, an appropriate method of literal
translation of meaning closely, completely and accurately, describing it as ‘direct
translation’ in the sense that the translator commits himself/herself to the referential
meaning in a straightforward way for many types of texts.

Hence, literal translation is normally taken to mean in simple terms, SL-oriented accurate
translation of meaning. There are no deletions, no additions, no unnecessary
exaggerations or groundless digressions from denotative meaning. Thus, literal translation
is "the SL-committed accurate translation of meaning as closely, directly and completely as
possible" (see also Ghazala, 2008 /2012: 9). This is also the sense meant by Newmark in
his discussion of the term in chapter 7 (1988). He describes himself as 'literalist', that is, a
partisan of literalness of meaning, not words. In the Preface, he declares: "I am somewhat
of a 'literalist', because I am for truth and accuracy … words as well as sentences and texts
have meaning, … you only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic
and pragmatic reasons for doing so…" (1988: xi & 73). Therefore, the literal translation of
meaning is after sense in the first place, as accurately and closely as possible, be it
figurative, non-figurative, denotative, connotative, cultural, non-cultural or other.

FREE TRANSLATION, on the other hand, is, again, misunderstood to be a method that
allows the translator to add, delete, drop, shorten, expand, adapt or change meaning or
any part of meaning at will. Another possibility of misunderstanding free translation is
that it is concerned with the message, which is reshaped and reconstructed in the
translator's own way. In other words, freedom of translation is freedom of language and
style, not freedom of rendering the message. There is no play with the message, but a
play with wording it, usually, for good reasons. In other words, the translator is free to
change the style, but not free to change the message. And here lies the big mistake, the
mistake that a difference of the style of expression does not affect the message.

A third mistaken common practice of free translation is the tendency on the part of some
translators to over-exaggerate, overemphasize, be over-expressive, classical / frozen
formal, or rhetorical with the aim to provoke greater effect and be more impressive on
the part of the target readers. This is due to their misapprehension of good translation to
be as much effective, rhetorical, expressive and impressive as possible, regardless of the
types of text, context, readership, topic, historical background and register.

To avoid any shade of misunderstanding, I would define free translation as:

"a method concerned more with the message than the fine details of meaning and its
componential constituent words in context. It is target-reader oriented. Its focal point is
the production of (a stylistic-semantic) effect of some kind on the TL readers to impress
30
them more justifiably than unjustifiably by means of exaggeration, provocation, prejudice,
rhetoric, expressiveness, classical / frozen formality, understatement, overstatement,
aesthetic, pragmatic, religious, cultural, social, ideological or other factors". These are
features of style and tone before anything else.

Ghazala divided free translation into two types (2008, ch. 1):

(a) Bound Free Translation: a little free translation that might somehow exaggerate,
undermine, etc. more than the original without going far away from its lexical /
referential meaning, with the aim of impressing the TL readers, or making effect
of some kind on them. e.g.

- Stop backbiting your friends! ‫( وال يغتب بعضكـ بعض ًا‬cf. !‫(كؼ عف اغتياب أصدقائؾ‬ ّ
(translating the statement into a verse from the Holy Koran to produce greater
effect).
- Parsimony is not advisable ‫( التقتير شر مستطير‬a classical collocation more rhetorical,
emphatic and effective than normal (cf. ‫)التقتير غير محمود‬
- You are quite right. ‫ ( الحؽ أبمج والباطؿ لجمج‬a proverb: rhetoric and metaphorical)
(cf. ‫ عمى حؽ‬/ ‫)أنت محؽ‬.

(b) Loose Free Translation: a greater space of freedom is exercised here by the
translator who may go beyond the referential meaning to explore the inferential
meaning, which is, in other words, a pragmatic meaning, allegedly tracing the
author’s/speakers’ intentions. Here are illustrative examples:

- With due respect, you are not telling the truth !‫ أنت تكذب‬،‫( بصراحة‬cf. ،‫مع كؿ االحتراـ‬
)‫ جانبت الصواب‬/ ‫أنت لـ تقؿ الحقيقة‬
- He keeps a low profile ‫( يكاد المريب يقوؿ خذوني‬cf. ً‫)يتوارى عف األنظار؛ قميؿ الظيور عمنا‬
- It was inexcusable of him to blurt that out ‫ما أوقحو!؛ يا لوقاحتو!؛ لسانؾ حصانؾ إف صنتو‬
‫( صانؾ واف خنتو خانؾ‬cf. ‫ في‬/ ‫لـ يكف لو مبرر في تفمتو بالكبلـ؛ ال عذر لو في أف ييرؼ بما ال يعرؼ‬
‫)تمفظو بكبلـ ال يميؽ‬.
(See further examples and details in Ghazala, ibid.)

Although these cannot be described as common in all types of translation, we have to

admit that no one denies their recurrence in the translation of one or two types of text
like literary and political texts. Both types of free translation method are widely applied
due to their relevance to style, tone, rhetoric, pragmatic implications and, most
importantly, TL readership.

It is high time to introduce an alternative table to that of Newmark introduced earlier with
a view to combining, outlining, simplifying and merging the major methods of translation
and their characteristic features juxtaposed:

31
 Free/Communicative Translation Literal/Semantic Translation Method
Method
- priority to meaning
- priority to message - priority to accuracy
- priority to effect - faithful to SL norms and culture
- faithful to TL norms and culture - Faithful to SL readership
- faithful to TL readership - insists on referential / lexical / surface
- tends to translate expressive, meaning
pragmatic meaning and intentions - non-creative
- creative - non-pragmatic
- pragmatic - less literary
- more literary - normal concern with SL style and tone
- special concern with TL style and tone - committed to SL text
- committed to TL translation -attempts to render sense
- attempts to render the spirit

This table may confirm my claim made earlier in this section that semantic translation and
communicative translation are ‘Newmarkian’ version of free translation and literal
translation, however with one or two minor differences and greater details. Indeed,
broadly speaking, the same can be said to apply to other pairs suggested, or termed
differently, but with not dissimilar implications, including the following:

1. Formal correspondence vs. textual equivalence (Catford, 1965)

2. Formal equivalence vs. dynamic translation (Nida, 1964, Nida &Taber, 1969)
3. Non-pragmatic vs. pragmatic translation (Bell, 1991; Hatim&Mason, 1990 &1997,
Baker, 1998; Snell-Hornby, 1988; and others).
4. Non-creative vs. creative translation (Beylard-Ozeroff and others, 1998, Boase-
Beier, 2006 and Ghazala, 2013).
5. Non-idiomatic vs. idiomatic translation (Newmark, 1988).

Other methods of translation include Gutt’s DIRECT TRANSLATION vs. INDIRECT

TRANSLATION (2000 & 2005), which are developed by Ghazala (2011) as style-based
Methods. Direct translation attempts to preserve not just what the source text said, but
also how it said it. It pursues all nuances of style and stylistic choices. The translator is
concerned more with what goes on in the people's mind beyond the actual words on the
page than what they referentially mean in context. Faithfulness is to content as much as
to style. Gutt suggests that direct translation regards features of style as ‘communicative
clues’ and meanings are what these clues point to. This is clearly a cognitive stylistic
translation practice. In this sense, direct translation is an interpretive activity which retains
what features of style might mean at the overall context of the literary text, not only their
formal shape. Therefore, Gutt declares that direct translation is more difficult for the
reader to process, yet it is rewarding for it provides more cognitive and emotional effects
(2000) (see also Boase-Beier, 2006 and Ghazala, 2011: ch.4).

Gutt puts forward suggestions about how translation might be explained by means of
using relevance theory (see Boase-Beier, 2006: 44). The first is translation in
communication that works under the assumption of relevance, that is, what the translator
communicates to the readership is relevant enough to them to render processing it
32
worthwhile. Secondly, a translated text is an interpretive, not descriptive, use of language
(the translator says what someone else means). A third suggestion made by Gutt is that
texts, in which style – the way of saying – plays an important role, require direct
translation, as opposed to indirect translation, which just gives the substance, exactly like
indirect quotation. More so, one thinks in a different way in every language, for one
adopts the particular mindset of that language. This ‘think-in-a-different-way’ proposition
is what I am exactly concerned with here through the adoption of Nord’s (1997), Gutt’s
(2000) and Boase-Beier’s (2004a, 2004b and 2006) two types of translation, Direct and
Indirect.

Like direct quotation, direct translation attempts to preserve not just what the source text
said, but also how it said it (Gutt, 2000). Indirect translation, on the other hand, is like an
indirect quotation. Thus, indirect translation is not to be confused with Landers’ (2001)
and Toury’s (1995) indirect translation, which refers to a translation from another
translation (such as the translation of The Holy Koran into French from an English
translation of it, not directly from the Arabic original)). His distinction between the two
types of translation is based on the degree and manner of resemblance. To Boase-Beier,
direct translation is specifically concerned with the style of the source text (2006: 46).

Yet, both types can be treated as possible and acceptable versions in the target language,
one with more concern in style in cognitive terms, another with more concern in meeting
the intended audience’s demands and the purpose of translation. So they are
recommended to be two possible variations and differences in the style of the translated
text, not as two identical or opposite versions of translation to be judged as either correct
or incorrect. The best judgement perhaps is in terms of a grading scale of good, acceptable
and possible translation, or of more convenient or less convenient to the occasion (or
purpose) and to the target readership.

These last two factors, which end up this brief investigation of major translation methods,
are the very core factors to be attended to carefully by any method of translating general
texts. Due to the wide range of these texts in regard to topics, functions, purposes,
readerships, occasions, styles, the clients’ requests, needs and requirements, any method
of translating them is recommended to combine in most cases a pair of two methods:
literal-free, semantic-communicative’ direct-indirect, formal-dynamic. They are viewed as
necessary and complementary to one another as the translator may resort to either
possible needs for both in most of these texts. That is, a general text may be translated
into a summary for special purposes required by the clients or readers. Or, perhaps, it is
required to be translated eclectically for good reasons, as not everything in it is important.
Another text may be translated into the gist, or the headlines only for nothing else would
interest the TL readership. A fourth text may demand an accurate translation due to its
importance from beginning to end for the client. A fifth text can be insinuating, and,
hence, should be translated functionally, connotatively or pragmatically, rather than
literally and denotatively, and so on and so forth.

That said, whatever the function, purpose and requirements of the TL readership may be,
any translation of a general text should meet the following conditions (which are, in other
words, common denominators among all translations of general texts): simplicity, non-
technicality, generality and smoothness of language and style (see above).
33
1.9 The Layout Organization of the Book

After this introductory chapter which, as usual, sets the theoretical argument about the
topic of this textbook, several chapters will follow in a row not in a priority order. Each
chapter treats one genre of general texts, more practically than theoretically in the light of
the argument claimed here. Four major lines of argument will be consistently applied to
the texts of all chapters: (i) the translation’s purpose; (ii) the type of TL readership; (iii) the
SL text’s translation problems; and (iv) the translation strategies (or procedures) employed
to sort them out.

1.10 Summary

This chapter has introduced shortly to the translation of general texts and the chapters
forthcoming. Several basic points have been investigated including definitions of general
texts and their types, text typology, technical vs. non-technical language, simplicity vs.
complexity of style, style as choice, the readership, producing effect on the TL readership:
the notion of equivalent effect, skopos theory as a crucial purpose theory of translation,
and, finally, translation methods of general texts. The conclusions drawn from the
discussion of these points stress that general texts have specific characteristics and
typology of their own that have to be taken into account by translators, especially their
general nature in terms of language and style, purpose of translation, the TL readership’s
types, education, specialization, biases, needs and requirements. The points of discussion
and theorization triggered in this chapter will be extended both in theory and application
in the next parts of this textbook.

34
EXERCISES

1. Newmark’s table of text types (1988) does not recognize general texts as one of
these types. What do you think, can these texts be distinguished as an
independent type of texts or not? Why?
2. Point out the main types of texts, and how important they are compared to
general texts.
3. What is the difference between technical and non-technical language? Give three
illustrative examples.
4. How many types of readership are there? Which type do we address at
translating general texts, and why?
5. Explain ‘skopos theory’. How important and convincing is it to adopt in translating
general texts in particular, and why?
6. How important is style in the translation of general texts, and why?
7. Explain the concept of style as choice in brief.
8. Why is the TL readership the most important factor in the translation of general
texts? Do we always made concession to them, and why?
9. In your opinion, which pair of translation methods suggested earlier in the
chapter is more appropriate to the translation of general texts? Why? Can one
particular method cover the translation of all types of general texts? Say why.
10. What is the difference between general translation and the translation of general
texts?

35
 CHAPTER 2

CORRESPONDENCE TEXTS
2.0 Introduction: Correspondence: Definitions and Boundaries

This chapter investigates the translation of one of the basic and most recurrent genres of
general texts, Correspondence texts of different sub-genres, which we may call genres, or
types for reasons of simplification of language and reference.

Hence, our investigation will proceed in terms of these sub-genres alongside with the four
factors to be in focus: (i) purpose; (ii) type of TL readership; (iii) translation problems; and
(iv) translation strategies. Finally, conclusions will be drawn from our discussion toward
the end of the chapter.

Correspondence is defined by Merriam Webster’s Dictionary generally as the activity of

writing letters or e-mails to someone; the letters or e-mails that people write to each
other; communication by letters; the letters exchanged; and the news, information, or
opinion contributed by a correspondent to a newspaper or periodical. Here are examples
of correspondence:

1. They communicated by telephone and correspondence.

2. E-mail correspondence has become extremely important for modern businesses.
3. The two men began a correspondence that would continue throughout their
lives.
4. A book of the author's personal correspondence was published early last year.
5. A formal tone is always used in business correspondence.

MacMillan (2013-15) describes correspondence as the process of communication: turn,

communication, interaction, contact, liaison, articulation, correspondence, discourse, self-
expression, cross-fertilization. Also, it is the letters that someone sends and receives and
the file where he kept his personal correspondence; any written or digital communication
exchanged by two or more parties. Correspondences may come in the form of letters,
emails, text messages, voicemails, notes, or postcards. Correspondences are important for
most businesses because they serve as a paper trail of events from point A to point B.
"The law firm required all employees to archive their correspondences so that they could
be retrieved as a reference point for pending cases."

Correspondence is after all a mode of written communication that people need,

sometimes urgently for the following reasons:

1. Maintaining a proper relationship.

2. Serves as evidence.
3. Create and maintain goodwill.
4. Inexpensive and convenient.
5. Formal communication.

36
The correspondence is generally of widely accepted formats that are followed universally:

1. Business correspondence

Business correspondence is the communication or exchange of information in a written

format for the process of business activities. Business correspondence can take place
between organizations, within organizations or between the customers and the
organization. (Wikipedia). Business correspondence is of different categories:

(1) Business letters

Business letters are the most formal method of communication following specific formats.
They are addressed to a particular person or organization. Business letters are of several
kinds on the basis of their context:

1. Letters of inquiry
2. Letters of claim/complaints
3. Letters of application
4. Letters of approval/dismissal
5. Letters of recommendations
6. Letters of sales.

Official letters can be handwritten or printed. Modernisation has led to the usage of new
means of business correspondence such as E-mail and Fax.

(2) Email

Email is the least formal method of business communication. It is the most widely used
method of written communication usually done in a conversational style.

(3) General correspondence

It includes all forms and formats contained in this regulation and other special purpose
correspondence or forms used in conducting business of different types. The general
correspondence may be produced, reproduced, or transmitted manually, electronically, or
by magnetic media.

(4) Official letter

The official letter is used for correspondence addressed, for example, to official persons or
official bodies like presidents, ministers, rectors, members of Parliament, judges, heads of
departments and agencies, mayors, government officials, etc. Also, letters are used for
correspondence to individuals inside the department or agency when a personal tone is
appropriate, for official personal correspondence by military and civilian personnel, and
for letters of welcome, appreciation, commendation, and condolence.

The letter consists of three major parts: the heading, body (text), and closing:
37
A. HEADING.

The heading consists of four elements: the date, subject line (if used), address, and
salutation:
(1) Date. Express the date in civilian style (for example, January 4, 2013) centered two
lines below the last line of the letterhead.

(2) Subject line. Type the subject (if used) on the second line below the seal.
(3) Address.
(a) Abbreviations are not used in the address. Exceptions include DC, U.S., PO
Box, Mr., Mrs., Ms., Dr., Jr., Sr., 2d., II, III, etc. and authorized English
abbreviations.
(b) The letter is evenly spaced on the page. No set number of lines is required
between the seal and the address.
(4) Salutation. Type the salutation on the second line below the last line of the
address.

B. BODY (TEXT).

(1) Type the first line of the body of the letter on the second line below the
salutation.
(2) Have at least a 1-inch margin at the right, left, and bottom of multiple-page
letters.
(3) For more than one page, type a minimum of two lines on the continuation page.
Center the page number 1 inch from the top edge of the paper, typing a hyphen
on each side of the page number.
(4) Start the first line of text on the fifth line below the number of the page, keeping
margins the same as those of the preceding page(s).
(5) Do not number or letter paragraphs in a letter. Avoid subparagraphs when
possible. When more than one subparagraph is needed, use letters of the
alphabet (a, b, c, d) to indicate subparagraphs. Do not create more than four
subparagraphs. If only one subparagraph is needed, use a hyphen to indicate
the subparagraph. Use single spacing even when a letter contains
only one paragraph. For effective paragraphs, do not use more than 10 lines.
(6) The POC may include the person's surname, commercial telephone number,
fax number, and email address. This information is usually placed in the last
paragraph of the letter.

C. CLOSING:

The closing has three sub-elements: complimentary close, signature block, and enclosure:

(1) Complimentary close. Start the closing on the second line below the last line of
the letter. Begin at the center of the page.
(2) Signature block.
(a) Type the signature block on the fifth line below the closing, beginning at the center of
the page.
38
 (b) Type the signature block in uppercase and lowercase letters. Do not use
abbreviations in the signature block. Use the title "Jr." and the individual's full title to
improve clarity. Do not use a title whenever the SA signs on his or her own letterhead.
(3) Enclosure. Type "Enclosure" at the left margin on the second line below the signature
block. Do not show the number of enclosures or list them. For more than one
enclosure, show the plural form "Enclosures." Be sure to fully identify
enclosures in the text. Do not use the words "as stated" or the abbreviation "as."

(5) Memorandum

It is a format for corresponding within and between activities of the same corporation,
department or administration. The memorandum may be used for notification of legal,
civilian, military or other personnel actions; for showing appreciation or commendation
for employees; and for forwarding nontransmitting forms, as an enclosure or attachment,
outside the installation or command.

In conclusion to this introduction to the definitions and types of correspondence, there

are several genres of correspondence texts which are growing in popularity and need
worldwide, especially electronic types. The translation discussion of correspondence texts
in the next parts of this chapter will be dealt with in terms of these genres which are
reclassified into two main categories: FORMAL and INFORMAL.

2.1 Translating Formal Correspondence

Formal letters cover all types of letters forwarded from and to the public by official
authorities, be it political, administrative, individual, public, or business authorities. Here
are these types:

2.1.1 Official Letters

By official letters, I mean those forwarded to and from governmental authorities,

departments or individual officials: Here is an example of an exchange of letters between
an American citizen and the American President, Mr. Barak Obama (see also APPENDIX 1
for an exchange of letters between two leaders):

Student selling letter from Obama to pay for tuition

[In 2011], a formerly homeless student who wrote a letter to President Obama to share his
story and get some advice is selling a handwritten response to pay off his tuition.
Jesse Grainger wrote to Mr. Obama: “As a child I had big dreams of going to college and
doing great things . . . I came from a small town where most people were poor, especially
my mother and me. My mom adopted me when I was one day old. She raised me to believe
that education was the most important thing that I could ever get. My adopted mom died
when I was 13.”

39
‫("في عاـ ‪ ،2011‬كتب الطالب جيسي جرينجر رسالة إلى السيد باراؾ أوباما قائبلً‪" :‬عندما كنت طفبلً كانت أحبلمي‬
‫كبيرة بدخوؿ الجامعة وفعؿ أشياء عظيمة‪ ...‬أتيت مف مدينة صغيرة معظـ أىميا فقراء وبالذات أنا وأمي‪ .‬تبنتني أمي‬
‫إلى أف كبرت يوماً‪ .‬ربتني عمى أف التعميـ ىو أىـ شيء في حياتي‪ .‬أـ ماتت عندما كنت في الثالثة عشرة مف عمري‪)".‬‬

‫‪[At the age of 17], he was ultimately taken in by a family in South Carolina while attending‬‬
‫‪junior college and admitted to Winthrop University for a degree in social work.‬‬
‫("في سف السابعة عشرة‪ ،‬تبنتو في النياية عائمة مف كاروالينا الجنوبية أثناء دراستو في المعيد العالي ثـ انضـ إلى‬
‫جامعة وينثروب لمحصوؿ عمى شيادة في مجاؿ الخدمة اإلجتماعية‪)".‬‬
‫‪But Grainger wrote, “I do not know how I am going to pay for it,” even after taking out‬‬
‫("لكف كتب جرينجر في رسالتو يقوؿ‪" :‬ال أدري يا سيادة الرئيس كيؼ أسدد رسوـ الجامعة‪ ،‬حتى ‪$10,000 in loans.‬‬
‫بعد حصولي عمى قروض وصمت إلى ‪ 10,000‬دوالر‪).‬‬
‫‪Three years later, Grainger’s selling the response for $9,500 through Moments in Time to‬‬
‫(بعد ثبلثة أعواـ‪ ،‬باع جرينجر رد الرئيس أوباما عمى رسالتو في دقائؽ معدودة بمبمغ ‪ 9,500‬دوالر ‪use for tuition.‬‬
‫ليغطي نفقات الجامعة)‬
‫‪Obama adds some career advice about working with the homeless, and ends, “I’m proud‬‬
‫‪of you. Stay determined!”. Here is the original:‬‬

‫‪40‬‬
("Jesse- Thanks for the letter and your inspirational story. The best advice I can give you
right now is finish your education, and find the best organization that you can find that's
helping the homeless—then start working with them, even if it's just as an intern or
volunteer at first. That will give you the best foundation for achieving your dream. I'm
proud of you. Stay determined! Barack Obama.")

(New York Post, 28, 7, 2014)

This letter by the President of the United States, Barack Obama, is in reply to a layman
citizen, a homeless American student. Naturally, the translator of this letter should take
care at translating it into Arabic simply because it is from the highest and most powerful

41
official in the world. Well, probably the case is so when political issues and personalities
are involved, but when an ordinary citizen is involved, the whole thing changes. The letter
here is written in formal, but simple language and style. Hence, it can be translated into
Arabic in formal, simple language and style as well:

‫ وتجد‬،‫ أفضؿ نصيحة أقدميا لؾ اآلف ىي أف تكمؿ تعميمؾ‬.‫ أشكرؾ عمى رسالتؾ وعمى قصتؾ المؤثرة‬،‫(عزيزي جيسي‬
‫ مما‬،‫ حتى ولو كمقيـ أو متطوع في بداية األمر‬،‫ ثـ ابدأ العمؿ معيـ‬- ‫أفضؿ جية تساعد األشخاص الذيف ال مأوى ليـ‬
(.‫ كف قوي اإلرادة والعزـ‬.‫ أنا فخور بؾ‬.‫يوفر لؾ أفضؿ أساس لتحقيؽ حممؾ‬

‫باراؾ أوباما‬
‫رئيس الواليات المتحدة األمريكية‬
)‫(التوقيع‬

2.1.1.1 Purpose of the Translation

Usually, the purpose of the translation is reflexive of, or derived from that of the SL text.
Yet, in general texts, the purpose could change in the TL translation regarding the target
language and readership in particular. The cultural factor can be influential in this respect,
especially in regard to our text here. That is, the purpose of the translation is, first, to
inform the Arab readers of this type of correspondence which may never take place in any
Arab country. The culture of sending the president or the king by a poor citizen and
expecting him to respond to it in person, handwritten and signed is alien to them. Second,
the purpose of the translation is to make the TL readership sympathize as deeply as
possible with the case of the poor American citizen, on the one hand, and to show how
sympathetic the President is with his citizen’s case, on the other. So, culturally speaking,
the TL translation has adopted the TL culture in addressing the President in full titles as a
critical sign of respect and, probably, of fear in Arabic political culture.

The translation has tried to achieve this purpose without leaving the original, by means of
using simple and sympathetic language and expressions in the translation of the student’s
letter (e.g. ‫عندما كنت طفبلً كانت أحبلمي كبيرة؛ أتيت مف مدينة صغيرة معظـ أىميا فقراء؛ وبالذات أنا وأمي؛ ربتني‬
‫(أمي) عمى أف التعميـ ىو أىـ شيء في حياتي؛ أمي ماتت؛ عندما كنت في الثالثة عشرة مف عمري؛ ال أدري كيؼ‬
)‫ دوالر ليغطي نفقات‬9,500 ‫أسدد رسوـ الجامعة؛ باع جرينجر رد الرئيس أوباما عمى رسالتو في دقائؽ معدودة بمبمغ‬
‫ ;الجامعة‬and in the translation of the President’s letter like: ‫قصتؾ المؤثرة؛ أفضؿ نصيحة أقدميا لؾ‬
.).‫؛ مما يوفر لؾ أفضؿ أساس لتحقيؽ أحبلمؾ؛ أنا فخور بؾ؛ كف قوي اإلرادة والعزـ‬... ‫اآلف ىي أف تكمؿ تعميمؾ‬

2.1.1.2 Type of TL Readership

The type of TL readership expected to be interested in reading this translation is the

general public as well as the educated readers, especially students. Therefore, language,
style and tone regarding grammar, choice of words and formality/informality have all
been simple, clear, easy and of MSA tone which suits all types of readership. On the one
hand, the sentence and clause structures are mainly short and simple. On the other, word
42
and phrase choice is made familiar and popular. Difficult, special and classical expressions
are avoided (cf. ‫ قوي اإلرادة والعزـ‬and ‫شديد الشكيمة‬/‫(ثابت القمب والقدـ‬. Very formal, unfamiliar words
and expressions are also dropped for their inappropriate tone and use in such simplified
text (cf. ‫ أتيت‬and ‫ ماتت ;تحدرت‬and ‫عزيمة ;قضت نحبيا‬/‫ عزـ‬and ‫شكيمة‬, etc.). In this regard, the
target translation is very much reflexive of the source text which is simplified in all
features of language and style. Its words and phrases, sentence structure and style are
made as simple as possible to be convenient to read and comprehend by all readers. Take,
for example, the style of repetition, which is used comfortably by the President (e.g. ‘find’
(2), ‘give’ (2), ‘best (3), etc.). So, it is inappropriate to change its simple language and style
into rhetorical, literary or lofty style just because it is written by the President of the
United States. We cannot assume the culturally hypocritical, official and very formal
political style of Arabic Language, which is based on the false claim that when we address
the president or the king in Arabic, we must address him with a highly official, classical and
complicated language and style.

2.1.1.3 Translation Problems

The problems of translating this text (or two texts?) into Arabic are not many, due to
simple language and style. Apart from ‘intern’ )‫ (مقيـ داخؿ مؤسسة ما‬in the President’s letter,
words are common and familiar to readers. In the same way, sentences are generally
short and simple – apart from one long sentence with simple structure, though – and
tense is either the present simple or the present progressive (e.g. ‘it’s helping’), the voice
is active and the imperative mood is overwhelming in the original. As to style, it is simple
in terms of word choice, formality (formal and informal in English (e.g. the use of
contractions), repetition (several simple words are repeated more than once in a very
short text), informal direct address (e.g. the use of second person pronoun and direct
style), colloquial words (e.g. ‘mom’) and alternatives (e.g. ‘intern’ or ‘volunteer’). All these
are features of simple language and style that are appropriate for simple, straightforward
and clear message.

The only problem of translation is the cultural difference in addressing people between
the two languages and cultures concerned. That is, English culture allows for addressing
people of different social and political ranks directly and informally by their first names,
without using full names or titles of any type. However, in Arabic culture, the case is
different for we are more formal and respectful than the westerners. Hence, some words
and expressions have been added to compensate for this missing cultural element in the
translation, using ،‫ رئيس الواليات المتحدة األمريكية‬،‫ السيد باراؾ أوباما‬،‫ عزيزي جيسي‬،‫يا سيادة الرئيس‬. The
TL readership will feel more comfortable at using such complimentary cultural terms.
Another cultural problem of translation is the religiously sensitive issue of ‘adoption’
)‫(التبني‬, which is prohibited in Islam, in which case the readers may not sympathize deeply
with the poor child. Yet, it is translated literally and directly without any comments or
footnoting for it is well-known to most Muslim and Arab readers that adoption is not
forbidden in the SL religion and culture. Hopefully, the fact that the child is poor and
helpless may push target readers to sympathize deeply with him.

43
2.1.1.4 Translation Strategies

The translation strategies employed in the translation of this text are as follows:

(1) Transliteration of proper names and places (e.g. ‫ جامعة‬،‫ كاروالينا‬،‫ جيسي جرينجر‬،‫أوباما‬
‫)وينثروب‬
(2) Translation of proper names exceptionally (e.g. )‫)الواليات المتحدة األمريكية‬
(3) Cultural compensation (e.g. ‫ السيد باراؾ أوباما‬،‫)(عزيزي؛ سيادة الرئيس‬
(4) Cultural correspondent (e.g. ‫ التبني‬for ‘adoption’).

2.1.2 Business Letters

Business letters are of various types, commercial, business, job (application, acceptance,
rejection, offer, etc.), relations and other letters related to business in general, with
special focus on commercial letters. Here is a sample example to translate and discuss:

January 11, 2005

Brian Eno, Chief Engineer
Carolina Chemical Products
3434 Pond View Lane
Durham, NC 27708

Dear Mr. Eno:

Enclosed is the final report on our instalment of pollution control equipment at Eastern
Chemical Company, which we send with Eastern’s Permission. Please call me (ext. 1206) or
email me at the address below if I can answer any questions.

Sincerely,
Nora Cassidy,
Technical Services Manager,
ncassidy@company.com
Enclosure: Report

‫ كبير الميندسيف‬،‫السيد براياف إينو‬

‫ المممكة المتحدة‬،‫ مدينة درىاـ‬،‫شركة كاروالينا لممنتجات الكيمائية‬

‫السيد إينو المحترـ‬

44
‫ نرجو االتصاؿ بنا عمى الرقـ‬.‫تجدوف طياً التقرير النيائي لتركيبنا ألجيزة التحكـ بالتموث في الشركة الكيميائية الشرقية‬
.‫ أو راسمونا عمى البريد اإللكتروني المبيف أدناه لئلجابة عمى استفساراتكـ‬، 1206 ‫كذا – تحويمة‬

‫ولكـ الشكر‬

‫الداعي‬
)‫ والمرفقات‬،‫(االسـ والتوقيع والعنواف البريدي واإللكتروني‬
2.1.2.1 Purpose of the Translation

The purpose of translating business letters is to make clear the message, product,
company, trademark, prices, figures, numbers, terms and conditions of trade, selling,
buying, freight charges, etc. The translator is expected to be concerned with these
business details in the business letter. Other details about the correspondence address
(postal or electronic) come next in importance. Full details about a product or any other
business topic are not supplied in the translation unless urgently required. Focus is usually
on the main points of the message to be delivered. That is why the unnecessary detail
“which we send with Eastern’s Permission” )‫ (الذي نرسمو بإذف مف الشركة‬is dropped altogether
being ‘it-goes-without-saying phrase’, with no harm done to the gist of the letter, or the
message intended to be sent to readers/customers.

2.1.2.2 Type of TL Readership

The type of readership is educated and interested in the business concerned. However, it
may not be quite educated in the business or the product he/she trades with. Therefore,
the language and style are supposed to be made as simple as possible. Of course,
terminology is preferred to be non-technical, or at best, semi-technical. So, the technical
term “instalment of pollution control equipment” is translated conveniently into ‫تركيب أجيزة‬
‫ التحكـ بالتموث‬with no fuss about using a technical term, if and when. As to the legal technical
word )ً‫(طيا‬, it is used because of its familiarity to readers. A good alternative nowadays at
the age of electronics is )‫في المرفقات‬/ً‫(مرفقا‬.

2.1.2.3 Translation Problems

As far as words, terms and grammatical structures are concerned, the translation
problems of this text are not many, except for those quoted in the previous point.
However, the real problems lie in two points: the first is the translator’s discretion in what
to leave and what to drop in the message, the addresses and the names of the letter; in
other words, how to judge what is important, what is less important and what is
unimportant in the letter. An example is demonstrated by the words, names, parts of the
message and the addresses dropped in the translation of this letter: Street and code
numbers of the addressee; the name and address of the sender; and the axiomatic clause
“which we send with Eastern’s Permission )‫(الذي نرسمو بإذف مف الشركة‬. The second point is the
traditional and cultural Arabic opening and closing of letters like this one here including
45
the addition of the title of respect )‫(السيد‬, the equivalent cultural closing )‫ (الداعي‬and the
general reference words replacing the name, title, signature, attachments and address of
the sender )‫ والمرفقات‬،‫ (االسـ والتوقيع والعنواف البريدي واإللكتروني‬due to their uselessness in Arabic
for Arab readership.

2.1.2.4 Translation Strategies

The translation strategies used in the translation of this business letter are as follows:

(1) Transliteration (e.g. names, places, addresses, etc. that need not be translated,
but transliterated).
(2) Arabization of scientific terms (e.g. instalment of pollution control equipment at
Eastern Chemical Company ‫)تركيب أجيزة التحكـ بالتموث في الشركة الكيميائية الشرقية‬
(3) Naturalization of technical terms (e.g. ‫ إلكتروني‬،‫(كيميائية‬
(4) Cultural equivalent (e.g. sincerely )‫((الداعي‬
(5) Cultural additions (e.g. title terms like ‫ السيد‬are added)
(6) Deletion of unnecessary words and expressions (e.g. in addresses and the body of
the letter when unnecessary. Check the example quoted above)
(7) Linguistic Cultural equivalent (e.g. the change of first personal phrase into general
reference cultural phrase: if I can answer any questions →)‫لئلجابة عمى استفسا ارتكـ‬
(8) Transposition of verbs into nouns, etc. (e.g. email us (v.) →‫(راسمونا عمى البريد اإللكتروني‬
(9) summary (e.g. of addresses of sender and receiver, etc.).

2.1.3 Formal Letters

This format of letter-writing refers to those letters that are traditionally assumed to be
written in formal tone of language due to the formal body, or person to receive it. Hence,
the sender (say, an applicant, or an employee writing to his/her superior) is required to be
careful that his/her language be formal. Accordingly, the translation of such letter is
supposed to be formal as well. Here is an example of ‘Job Application’:

Dear Sir,

I wonder if you would consider me for a job as a news reporter on The Daily Mail. I have
recently returned from the Middle East where I have been working for the last nine months
as a reporter. My previous journalist experience includes six months on the Lancashire
Evening Telegraph in Blackburn, three months in the London Office of the Manchester
Evening News writing about women’s fashion, and eight months on the Daily Sketch Diary.
I am 23 and a graduate (BA Hons. In English) of Trinity College, Dublin, where I also wrote
and contributed articles.

I have always admired your newspaper and what it represents

And I would be very happy to be part of your team.

46
I look forward to hearing from you.

Yours sincerely,

Susan McHarg
(BBC Television and The Letter Writing Bureau, 1985).

‫(سيدي العزيز‬

‫مف بعد التحية‬

‫ فقد عدت‬."‫أرجو إفادتي بإمكانية دراسة طمبي المقدـ لكـ لوظيفة صحفي في صحيفتكـ اإلنجميزية الموقرة "الديمي ميؿ‬
:‫ تشمؿ خبرتي الصحفية السابقة عمى ما يمي‬.‫لتوي مف الشرؽ األوسط حيث كنت أعمؿ صحفياً لمدة تسعة أشير ىناؾ‬

.‫ أشير في صحيفة التمجراؼ المسائية في مدينة ببلكبيرف اإلنجميزية‬6 )1(

.‫ أشير في صحيفة أخبار مانشستر المسائية بمكتبيا بمندف أكتب مفاالت حوؿ األزياء‬3 )2(
.‫ أشير في مفكرة الرسوـ المصورة اليومية‬8 )3(

،‫ بإيرلندة‬،‫ وأحمؿ شيادة البكالوريوس بالمغة اإلنجميزية مف جامعة ترينيتي كوليج بمدينة دبمف‬،ً‫ عاما‬23 ‫أبمغ مف العمر‬
.‫حيث كتبت مقاالت وساىمت في أخرى‬

.‫ ويسعدني جداً أف أكوف جزءاً مف فريؽ عممكـ‬،‫في الواقع كنت دائماً معجباً بما بصحيفتكـ وما تمثمو‬

.‫ ولكـ الشكر‬.‫بانتظار ردكـ الموقر‬

‫الداعي‬

‫سوزاف ماكيارج‬

2.1.3.1 Purpose of the Translation

The purpose of this letter is to show a sample of how to submit a good job application that
can be acceptable, appropriate and convincing to the employer. Therefore, the
translator’s main concern is strongly recommended to be in making the necessary details
about the applicant prominent in the TL translation in formal tone of language and style.
This entails that any minute detail relevant to the applicant’s career, experience and
education (or Curriculum Vitae (CV)) should be taken care of in the target translation.
Hence the previous translation. Formality of style of writing goes hand in hand with the

47
contents about the applicant due to the fact that this tone reflects seriousness and
interest on the applicant’s behalf.

2.1.3.2 Type of TL Readership

The type of the TL readers expected to read in such a text is those educated and
interested in hunting for a job. Consequently, the style can be only formal, but the
grammatical and word choices are advisably uncomplicated, and a part of Modern
Standard Arabic (MSA) dialect: formal, but not classical, current in use, and simplified, but
neither complicated nor informal, or colloquial. Therefore, old, classical, incomprehensible
and ambiguous terms and expressions are not a better choice by any means. The message
and exact details about the applicant should be indelibly clear. Further, the layout (or
format) of the target translation is localized and standardized in terms of the TL standards
and norms. That is why the main details about the applicant have been laid out in
numbers, as usually the case in Arabic Language in such type of text.

2.1.3.3 Translation Problems

The main problems of translating this letter are cultural, concerning in particular the letter
opening phrases which are different in Arabic culture. First, ‘Dear’ is translated into ‫سيدي‬
‫ الموقر؛ السيد فبلف الموقر؛ عطوفة السيد فبلف‬/‫ المحترـ‬/‫ العزيز‬and not necessarily literally into ‫عزيزي‬
‫العزيز‬/ because we do not start letters with this latter word. Second, a complimentary
cliché )...‫ السبلـ عميكـ‬/‫ (مف بعد التحية‬is inevitable in Arabic letter writing, but in English it does
not exist at all. Third, the first line of the letter has certain clichés in Arabic culture, which
are different from English culture. Hence, the translation of the initial cliché is translated
culturally into a TL equivalent as ‫(أرجو إفادتي بإمكانية دراسة طمبي المقدـ لكـ لوظيفة صحفي في صحيفتكـ‬
)‫الموقرة‬, for translating it literally into: ( ‫(أتساءؿ ما إذا كاف بإمكانكـ أخذي في اعتباركـ لمعمؿ كناقؿ أخبار‬
‫ لمديمي ميؿ‬renders a strange English culture not familiar to target readers (i.e. comparing the
two would confirm the point. The respect word )‫( (الموقر‬Esq.) is added as usually done in
Arabic culture. On more than one occasion, an explanatory word (i.e. classifier) is added to
define the location, country, type, etc. of a term (e.g. ‫مدينة ببلكبيرف اإلنجميزية؛ صحيفة الديمي ميؿ‬
)...‫اإلنجميزية؛ بدبمف بإيرلندة‬. The overall tone of the language and style of the target translation
is simplified formal, or MSA. Cordial expressions and terms are used formally, not
informally, as may sometimes be the case in English. Finally, the format of the target text
is changed in response to the TL cultural norms.

2.1.3.4 Translation Strategies

The strategies employed to sort out the translation problems of this text are the following:

(1) Transliteration of proper names, geographical and other names that are usually
transliterated, not translated
(2) Classifier (e.g. Blackburn ‫ ;مدينة ببلكبيرف اإلنجميزية‬Daily Mail ‫(صحيفة الديمي ميؿ اإلنجميزية‬.

48
 (3) Cultural equivalent (e.g. ‘Dear’ ‫(سيدي العزيز‬
(4) Cultural addition (e.g. addition of terms of respect and compliment ‫(الموقر(ة)؛ مف بعد‬
))‫التحية‬
(5) Naturalization: (e.g. BA ‫(بكالوريوس‬.

2.1.4 Formal Occasions’ Letters

People exchange letters and messages of congratulations nowadays on formal occasions

like job promotion, job appointment, getting a job, weddings, engagements, passing
exams, graduation from universities, starting a new career, business, etc., and personal
achievements of different kinds. Usually such letters are formal and informal in English,
whereas they are formal MSA in Arabic. Here is an example, followed by translating and
discussing it:

Dear George,

Congratulations on your promotion to Vice President of Seb Bank. You have done a fine job
there for many years, and you deserve the recognition and responsibility of the position.
Best wishes for continued success in your career.

Yours sincerely,

John
‫سيدي العزيز جورج الموقر‬

‫مف بعد التحية‬

‫ وانؾ‬،‫ لقد أديت عممؾ عمى أكمؿ وجو في البنؾ لسنوات طويمة‬.‫ألؼ مبروؾ عمى الترقية إلى نائب رئيس بنؾ ساب‬
.‫تستحؽ ىذا التميز وعمى قدر المسؤولية الكبيرة ليذا المنصب‬

.‫مع أصدؽ تمنياتي لؾ بالنجاح الدائـ في مسيرة حياتؾ الوظيفية‬

‫الداعي‬

‫جوف‬

2.1.4.1 Purpose of the Translation

Generally, the basis and purpose of such letter are emotional, expressing one’s happiness,
sadness, or sympathy with someone on a special personal occasion. Hence, the focus of
the translator is commended to be on the emotional part of the message in particular,
using in the TL translation as expressive and emotive words and tone of language and style
49
as possible in formal but modern language, as usual, to sound natural and sincere.
Normally, social letters avoid pompous classical expressions, though maybe very
expressive, for they might sound rather artificial, official and, perhaps, hypocritical.
Accordingly, classical clichés like ‫(أرفع إليكـ أسمى آيات التبريؾ والتياني؛ لِتُ ْين ْئؾ الترقية؛ عـ السرور أرجاءنا‬
)...‫بترقيتؾ‬. By the same token, colloquial expressions like ‫(ألؼ مبروؾ عقباؿ المنصب الكبير؛ يا سعدنا‬
)...‫ويا ىنانا بترقيتؾ يا منانا‬. are not recommended for they bring the tone of the letter down to
colloquial language which is not appropriate in standard written Arabic.

2.1.4.2 Type of TL Readership

The type of readership of occasion-letters is multiple, so we go for addressing the average

public type which is a common denominator among readers. This means that the language
and style should match the formal simplified tone or, in other words, the MSA in Arabic.

2.1.4.3 Translation Problems

The translation problems are not so much with the individual words and expressions, nor
in the grammatical structures as in the translator’s appropriate choice of the equivalent
cultural phrases that fit the occasion in natural, simple and modern formal Arabic. So, the
key term ‘congratulations’)...‫ أصدؽ التياني‬/‫ أىنئكـ‬/‫ تيانينا‬/‫مبارؾ عميكـ‬/‫مبروؾ‬/‫(ألؼ مبروؾ‬, not
literally into )‫(تياني‬. The same applies to the translation of ‘you have done a fine job’ into
cultural clichés suchlike: )...‫ أديت األمانة أحسف تأدية‬/‫عمى خير ما يراـ‬/‫( أديت عممؾ عمى أكمؿ وجو‬,
rather than the dull literal version: )ً‫(عممت عمبلً جميبل‬. ‘Best wishes” is not )‫(أفضؿ التمنيات‬, but
rather the cultural )‫(أصدؽ تمنياتي‬. (See also purpose above).

2.1.4.4 Translation Strategies

Top on the list of the translation procedures employed to deal with the cultural problems
of a letter like this is ‘cultural equivalent’. Here are the strategies put in use:

(1) Cultural equivalent (see several examples in the previous point)

(2) Transliteration of names, etc. (e.g. George; Seb Bank, etc.)
(3) Addition of cultural and/or respectful clichés and terms (e.g. ،‫سيدي؛ مف بعد التحية‬
.)...‫الداعي‬
(4) Literal translation: cultural adoption (e.g. Vice President → ‫)نائب رئيس‬
(5) Standard collocations (e.g. done a fine job → ‫عمى أكمؿ وجو‬...)
(6) Transposition: plural → singular (e.g. congratulations → ‫)مبروؾ‬
(7) Transposition: adj. phrase → prep. Phrase (e.g. fine job → ‫)عمى أكمؿ وجو‬

50
2.1.5 Letters to the Editor

The public may send letters to the editors of the leading newspapers of the country. They
are published in a special column of the newspaper under the heading “Letters to the
Editor”. The letter could be dealing with any type of topic of public interest, sent by a
reader who raises an objection, a problem, an issue of some kind to be published and
discussed in the newspaper concerned. Here is an example and its translation into Arabic:

Dear Editor /SIR

The author guidelines for Oxford University Press have not recently changed, and there is
no ban on the mention of pigs in children’s books.

OUP believes that if we are to make the biggest impact on the educational performance of
children in the 200 countries we publish for, we must also reflect children’s cultural needs.
Our priority with all our publishing is that we uphold high academic standards, while
ensuring our titles do not cause offence that is either unnecessary or would get in the way
of our educational objectives.

Kate Harris
Managing Director, Oxford Education Oxford University Press (UK)
(The Telegraph, 19, 1, 2015)

‫ األستاذ العزيز المحرر‬/ ‫سيدي‬

‫مف بعد التحية‬

‫ وال يوجد حظر عمى ذكر الخنازير‬،‫أود التنويو إلى أف دليؿ المؤلؼ لمطبعة جامعة أكسفورد لـ يتغير في اآلونة األخيرة‬
.‫في كتب األطفاؿ‬

‫نعتقد نحف في مطبعة جامعة أكسفورد أنو إذا ما أردنا أف نحدث أكبر قدر ممكف مف التأثير التعميمي عمى األطفاؿ في‬
‫ تتمثؿ أولويتنا في كؿ منشوراتنا أف نبرز تمسكنا‬.‫ عمينا أيض ًا أف نعكس حاجات األطفاؿ الثقافية‬،‫ بمد ننشر ليا‬200
‫ وفي الوقت ذاتو أف نضمف أف عناويننا ال تسبب إىانة ال داعي ليا أو تقؼ في طريؽ أىدافنا‬،‫بالمعاير األكاديمية العميا‬
.‫األكاديمية‬

‫الداعي‬

)‫ مطبعة جامعة أوكسفورد – المممكة المتحدة‬- ‫(كيت ىاريس – المدير العاـ لقسـ أوكسفور التعميمي‬

51
2.1.5.1 Purpose of the Translation

The purpose of translating such text to the target readership is to make prominent the
main issue of the letter for which it was sent to the Editor of a well-known national
newspaper in the first place. That is, Oxford University Press denies accusations of banning
pigs culture from its children’s books, and restresses the cultural implications of the
English people, without meaning any harm to others. The TL readers are perhaps
interested in such an issue and the argument raised by the sender of the letter, which
makes the translator concerned with rendering it with care. So the SL text has to be
translated closely, rather than freely.

2.1.5.2 Type of TL Readership

The readers expected to be interested in such text are medium and highly educated, in
which case the language of the target translation can be formal and well-written, but
NATURAL. Hence, no complicated, ambiguous or obsolete words and phrases are
recommended; only MSA.

2.1.5.3 Translation Problems

The problems of translating this letter could be in the individual words and the
appropriate equivalent in the target language, i.e. collocability and habitual use in Arabic
language and structure. For example, ‘guidelines’ is recurrently translated into )‫(إرشادات‬,
yet, due to collocational habitual reasons, it is translated as a part of the collocation ‫(دليؿ‬
)‫المؤلؼ‬. Further, ‘recently’ is one word translated into the familiar three-word collocation
)‫(في اآلونة األخيرة‬, which is clearer and more popular than )‫حديث ًا‬/‫ (مؤخ اًر‬. On the other hand,
although ‘unnecessarily’ is translated into a familiar collocation as )‫(ال ضرورة ليا‬, a better
option is available and more fitting in this context: )‫(ال داعي ليا‬. For the same reason, ‘get in
the way’ is translated better into )‫ (تقؼ في طريؽ‬than into )...‫تأتي‬/‫تقع‬/‫(تحصؿ‬. A final
translation snag could be the starting point of some sentences, which may need
reconsideration by the translator to make sentences more sensible and better connected.
That is why the following phrases have been added throughout: ‫(أود التنويو؛ إذا ما أردنا؛ تتمثؿ‬
)‫ أف نبرز‬.... Finally, the term ‘our titles’ is translated literally into )‫ (عناويننا‬for its recurrent
use in such text and context (though ‫ منشوراتنا‬is not bad).

2.1.5.4 Translation Strategies

Here are the main translation strategies applied to translating this text:

(1) Transliteration of names, cities, etc.

(2) Modulation: abstract → concrete (e.g. ‘publishing’: ‫)منشورات → نشر‬.
(3) Transposition: plural → singular (e.g. ‘guidelines’ (plural) → ‫( دليؿ‬singular)).

52
 (4) Cultural equivalent: (‘managing director’ → ‫( مدير عاـ‬not ...‫)مدير إداري‬.
(5) Cultural equivalent clichés of address and salutation (e.g. ‘Dear’ ...‫(سيدي العزيز‬

2.1.6 Recommendation / Reference Letters

These letters are purely academic, recommending a person by his/her supervisor,

manager, teacher or superior for a job, a higher degree, etc. So, its language and style
would be highly academic and formal. Here is a sample example, first:

To Whom It May Concern

I am pleased to write a letter of recommendation for [name of student]. I highly

recommend [name of student] to your Department for reading for an MA degree in the
Specialism of ……………… .

I have known [name of student] for the past two years as he has taken the following
courses that I teach [course titles]. As his professor, I have had an opportunity to observe
his participation and interaction in class and to evaluate his knowledge of the subject
matter. He is an outstanding student in all respects. He has proven that through hard
work, follow-through, and team work, he can accomplish tasks in a courteous and timely
manner. He never dropped a class or failed to submit an assignment on time. He was
brilliant at attacking problems in seminar discussions.

In addition, [Name of student] is well equipped to grow from challenges that he is

presented with. Chief among them are patience, research skills and teaching abilities.

Accordingly, I strongly endorse joining him to your Department for he will be a credit to
your Program in his specialization.

Sincerely,

[Professor’s Name]
Postal Address
Email Address,
Phone number.

‫إلى من يهمه األمر‬

‫ فإننً أزكً بقوة الطالب المذكور‬........................................... ‫ٌسعدنً أن أكتب رسالة توصٌة للطالب‬
...........................‫لالنضمام إلى قسمكم الموقر لدراسة الماجستٌر فً تخصص‬

......................... :‫ منذ سنتٌن حٌث درسته المقررات التالٌة‬......................... ‫أعرف الطالب‬

‫ سنحت لً فرصة متابعة مشاركاته وتفاعله فً المحاضرة‬،‫ وبصفتً أستاذه‬........................ ...................
‫ فقد أثبت أنه بالعمل الجاد‬.‫ وأستطٌع أن أقول إنه طالب متمٌز بكل المقاٌٌس‬.‫وتقوٌم مدى إلمامه بموضوع الدراسة‬
ً ‫ كما كان بارعا‬.‫ وفً الوقت المناسب‬،‫ والعمل الجماعً ٌستطٌع إنجاز ما ٌوكل إلٌه من مهام بطرٌقة مثلى‬،‫والمثابرة‬
.)‫فً االنقضاض على المشاكل فً مناقشات حلقات البحث (السٌمٌنار‬

53
‫ على رأس هذه التحدٌات‬.‫زد على ذلك أن الطالب المذكور على أتم االستعداد للتطور من خالل التحدٌات التً تواجهه‬
.‫ وقدرات التعلٌم على سبٌل المثال ال الحصر‬،‫ ومهارات البحث‬،‫الجلَد‬

‫ فإننً أؤٌد بقوة أن تضموه إلى قسمكم الموقر ألنه سوف ٌكون مكسبا ً كبٌراً لبرنامجكم فً مجال‬،‫ وبناء علٌه‬،‫لذا‬
.‫تخصصه‬

:ً‫ ٌرجى االتصال على عنوانً البرٌدي أو برٌدي اإللكترونً التال‬،‫لمزٌد من المعلومات عن الطالب المذكور أعاله‬

ً‫الداع‬

‫االسم الكامل‬

ً‫اللقب األكادٌم‬
‫العنوان البرٌدي‬
ً‫البرٌد اإللكترون‬
‫الجوال‬/‫رقم الهاتف‬
2.1.6.1 Purpose of the Translation

The purpose of translating such a type of letter into Arabic is to demonstrate ostensibly
the contents of a reference, or recommendation letter. These contents highlight the
academic merits and talents of a student, a candidate, a job applicant, etc. Consequently,
the ultimate objective of the translator is to take care of these merits of the
recommended person as dictated in the letter by the recommending professor, etc. Prior
to that is the stating and spelling of the names of both parties accurately and clearly.

2.1.6.2 Type of TL Readership

Only educated, especially academic readership would be interested in such type of letter.
Hence, formality is required, but only MSA language and style can be recommended to
use by translators. However, expressive and rhetorical phrases are occasionally allowed as
they may be favourable to the educated target readers (see examples below).

2.1.6.3 Translation Problems

The problems of translating a recommendation letter like this are not easy, but can be
solved appropriately if the translator has in the back of his neck the target readers while
translating. The translator has to communicate them in the natural way, the way they say
it in Arabic language and style, and avoids addressing them literally as the source text
dictates. Hence, ‘To whom it may concern’ is not translated literally into )‫(إلى من قد ٌتعلق به‬,
nor into )...‫إلى أصحاب الشأن‬/‫إلى أصحاب العالقة‬/‫(إلى من ٌخصه األمر‬, but only into the natural cliché
expression )‫ (إلى من ٌهمه األمر‬which has no variations. This is the way they say it in Arabic.
By the way, this cliché statement is used in the letter when the name of the addressee is
not known to the sender, otherwise, it is replaced by the former’s name and address.

However, an expression such as ‘I am pleased’ )ً‫ (ٌسعدن‬has other variations like ‫من‬/ً‫(ٌسرن‬
)‫دواعً سروري‬. By analogy, ‘in all respects’ )‫ (بكل المقاٌٌس‬can also be translated into ً‫(بكل ما ف‬
)‫ الكلمة من معنى‬both of which are expressive and exaggerative as required in both languages.
54
Other phrases of exaggeration include ...‫ مكسب كبٌر‬،‫ بطرٌقة مثلى‬،‫ متمٌز‬،‫على سبٌل المثال ال الحصر‬.
The translator has to attend to such expressions enthusiastically due to their heavy weight
impact on the employer to-be. Other collocational translations are to be borne in mind by
the translator. Examples include: ...‫ على رأس هذه التحدٌات‬،‫ سنحت فرصة‬،‫ٌو َكل إلٌه من مهام‬. A final
kind of translation problem is the use of figurative language. Two main metaphors are
employed in the translation: the first is the translation of the original metaphor, ‘attack
problems’ )‫ (ٌهاجم المشاكل‬is translated into an original metaphor in Arabic as ‫(ٌنقض على‬
)‫ ;المشاكل‬and the second is the translation of the original ‘credit’ )‫ (رصٌد‬into )‫(مكسب كبٌر‬.
Other options are available for the first like: ‫ ٌحل المشاكل‬/‫ٌتعامل مع‬/‫ٌتصدى‬/‫ٌعالج‬, and for the
second such as:...‫ ضافة مهمة؛ رصٌد كبٌر‬. Other cliché metaphors like: ‫ على رأس هذه التحدٌات؛‬can
also be discussed as figurative expressions that the translator may invest in his/her
translation. The respectful popular term )‫ (الموقر‬is added in two places in the letter as
culturally and habitually done in Arabic letters like this.

Finally, the term ‘seminar’ has double version of translation into Arabic term ‫حلقة بحث‬,
alongside with transliterations into ‫( سٌمٌنار‬and informal naturalization in plural as ‫)سٌمٌنارات‬
due to its popularity among target readers. However, the better version is the former,
being a literal, but clear translation of the original English, by way of adopting it into
Arabic Language.

2.1.6.4 Translation Strategies

The main translation strategies used to fix translation problems are:

(1) Punctual transliteration of proper names, especially of the student and the
professor.
(2) Cultural equivalent (e.g. To whom it May Concern → ...‫(إلى من ٌهمه األمر‬
(3) Cultural correspondent (e.g. recommendation letter → ‫خطاب توصٌة‬/‫(رسالة‬
(4) Literal translation (calques): (e.g. postal address → ‫ ;عنوان برٌدي‬e-mail → ‫برٌد‬
ً‫ ;إلكترون‬seminar ‫(حلقة بحث‬
(5) Naturalization (e.g. MA → ‫ ;ماجستٌر‬seminars → ‫)سٌمٌنارات‬
(6) Translation + naturalization (e.g. email → )ً‫برٌد إلكترون‬
(7) Transliteration of foreign terms (e.g. seminar ‫(سٌمٌنار‬

In conclusion to this part, we may say that translating formal letters demands the
translator to be on the alert about the tone of language and style in the target language.
He/she has always to bear in mind two factors: purpose of the translation, and the type of
TL readership. Everything is oriented toward meeting the requirements and needs of the
target readers, with insistence on the formality of Arabic language which is Modern
Standard Arabic (MSA) being the simplified dialect that is in currency in the written Arabic
of today. Now we may consider translating informal letters.

2.2 Translating Informal Correspondence

Generally, correspondence between friends, relations and lovers are usually informal in
both languages, English and Arabic. So, in terms of purpose and readership, the focus of
translation of informal letters has to be entirely on the TL readership and purpose, with an
appropriate tone of language of style, which would be expected to be as simple, easy, and
clear as possible. Other types are complaint letters, Readers’ comments’ Letters, personal
55
business letters, letters to get action, etc. Following are the different types of informal
letter translated and commented on in terms of purpose readership, translation problems
and translation strategies.

2.2.1 Personal Letters

Personal letters are letters between friends, relations, family’s members, etc. They are
characterized by flooding emotions of cordiality, friendliness, love and intimacy.
Subsequently, they are supposed to be of informal tone, though with reservations in
Arabic. Here is an example to translate and discuss (informal expressions underlined):

Dear Rashid,

It was great to hear from you and I’m really glad that things are working out for you down
under. It sounds as if you have landed on your feet!

Many thanks for your kind invitation to come and stay with you in Perth, but I’m going to
have to turn you down this time. The problem is that I’m just too busy studying for my final
exams and I don’t have enough time in the day as it is. Perhaps I can take you up on your
offer some time next year, when I hope that I’ll have got that magic band score 8.0.

My other news is that Acme have offered me a promotion and soon I should be the senior
accounts manager. Obviously, that means more money but the downside is that I’m almost
certainly going to have to work much longer hours too. There’s a cloud to every silver
lining!

Anyway, I must get down to work again. So thanks once more for your kind invitation and I
do hope that we can get together some time in the not too distant future.

All the best

Mike
‫صديقي العزيز رشيد‬

‫ حقيقي أنا مبسوط جداً أف أمورؾ ماشية عاؿ العاؿ في آخر الدنيا في‬.‫وصمتني رسالتؾ الغالية وفرحت بيا كثي اًر‬
.‫ عمى ما يبدو وقفت عمى رجميؾ أخي اًر‬.‫أستراليا‬

‫ لكف سأخيب أممؾ ىذه المرة! المشكمة ىي أنني غرقاف‬،‫شاكر ومقدر دعوتؾ المطيفة لي لئلقامة معؾ في مدينة بيرث‬
‫ ربما أعمميا وأقبؿ عرضؾ المغري يوم ًا ما السنة‬.‫في الشغؿ وأذاكر الختباراتي النيائية وما عندي وقت في النيار‬
.’‫أمنت عمى المعدؿ السحري ‘ممتاز‬
َّ ‫القادمة بعد أف أكوف‬

.‫أما أخباري األخرى فقد حصمت عمى ترقية مف شركة أكمي وسوؼ أكوف في المستقبؿ القريب مدير حسابات كبير‬
.’‫ وقالوا في المثؿ ‘الفرحة ما تكمؿ‬.‫طبعاً ىذا يعني زيادة في الراتب لكف النكبة ىي دواـ أطوؿ‬

56
‫ وأرجو مف كؿ قمبي أف‬،‫ أشكرؾ مف األعماؽ مرة أخرى عمى دعوتؾ الطيبة‬.‫ عمي اآلف أف أعود إلى المذاكرة‬.‫الميـ‬
.‫يجمعنا اهلل معاً يوماً ما في المستقبؿ القريب ال البعيد‬

.‫مع أصدؽ تمنياتي‬

‫صديقؾ المشتاؽ مايؾ‬

2.2.1.1 Purpose of the Translation

The main purpose of translating such personal letters is to demonstrate the volume of
cordiality of relations and how expressive the sender is. Put differently, Emotions and
feelings of intimacy are involved heavily, and the translator is expected to make them
his/her target of translation in an informal, simple and expressive language and style. In
Arabic, the style can combine both tones of formal and informal style into semi-formal,
but to a certain limit. That is, Local, very colloquial or slang expressions are disallowed;
only semi-formal ones that are close to formal and acceptable to target readers.

2.2.1.2 Type of TL Readership

The target readers expected to be interested in such letters are average readers in
particular who like to read, write or learn how to write letters to friends. The translator’s
best way to respond to the TL readership appropriately is to assume the sender’s position
addressing the receiver of his/her letter. Indeed, the emotive factor is the key to the
hearts of the target readers at translating personal letters. It goes without saying that the
language and style used in this type of letters should be a simplified formal and semi-
informal tone as formalities have no space between friends and relations.

2.2.1.3 Translation Problems

At the level of individual words and phrases, there are not many difficulties in terms of
technical vocabulary. However, problems are posed by some English colloquial
expressions, as the case may be here in our example. Yet, the translator has a way out of
these problems, if and when, by checking reference and specialist dictionaries. Still, the
real problems lie in the appropriate choice of words and expressions in Arabic, for, unlike
English, colloquialisms are not allowed in written Arabic. Further, the literary and
rhetorical expressions would jeopardize the whole translation, rendering it into either
ironical or snobbish type of language. This can be made clear by suggesting in the
following table three translations for some of the expressions of the letter, the one
proposed above, and two more hypothetical versions: rhetorical, and colloquial, to be
juxtaposed later:

57
‫‪Rhetorical trans.‬‬
‫‪ .1‬حقاً أثمج صدري نبأ‬
‫ارتقاء أمورؾ إلى الجوزاء‬
‫‪ .2‬في ببلد نائية عمميا‬
‫عند ربي‬
‫‪ .3‬إخاؿ أنؾ اآلف سمطاف‬
‫زمانؾ‪.‬‬
‫‪ .4‬أرفع إليكـ أسمى آيات‬
‫الشكر‬
‫‪ .5‬بيد أني سأقمب الطاولة‬
‫عميؾ ىذه المرة!‬
‫‪ .6‬المعضمة ىي أنني‬
‫غارؽ في الدراسة حتى‬
‫أخمص قدمي‬
‫‪ .7‬ألتيـ الكتب استعداداً‬
‫ليوـ يقرر فيو مصيري‬
‫‪ .8‬وما في جعبتي ساعة‬
‫مف نيار‪.‬‬
‫‪ .9‬لعمي أُقدـ عمى خطوة‬
‫كيذه‬
‫أمنت‬
‫‪ .10‬بعد أف أكوف َّ‬
‫عمى المعدؿ السحري‬
‫ممتاز‪.‬‬
‫‪ .11‬مدير حسابات رفيع‬
‫الدرجات‬
‫‪ .12‬لكف الطامة الكبرى‬
‫إطالة في الدواـ‪.‬‬
‫‪ .13‬وكما يقوؿ المثؿ‬
‫العربي‪ :‬لكؿ شيء إذا ما‬
‫تـ نقصاف‬
‫‪ .14‬ميما يكف مف أمر‪.‬‬
‫‪colloquial trans‬‬
‫‪ .1‬يا سبلـ كـ أنا مبسوط‪.‬‬
‫يا بختؾ نقشت معاؾ‪.‬‬
‫‪ .2‬في ببلد الواؽ الواؽ‬
‫ببلد الكنغر‪.‬‬
‫‪ .3‬واضح انؾ نبرشت‬
‫أخي اًر‪.‬‬
‫‪ .4‬ممنونؾ‬
‫‪ .5‬لكف حخيب ظنؾ ىذي‬
‫المرة!‬
‫‪ .6‬المشكمة ىي اني ماني‬
‫عارؼ راسي مف‬
‫رجمي‪/‬مطمور بالشغؿ‪/‬‬
‫غرقاف لشوشتي‬
‫‪ .7‬طايح في الدراسة عمى‬
‫شاف عندي فحص‬
‫‪ .8‬وما فيش وقت فاضي‬
‫عندي في النيار‬
‫‪ .9‬تره ممكف أسوييا‬
‫‪ .10‬بعد أف أكوف حطيت‬
‫يدي ورجمي بماء باردة‬
‫وحصمت الممتاز‪.‬‬
‫‪ .11‬حاجة كبيرة في‬
‫الحسابات‬
‫‪ .12‬لكف النكبة ىي الدواـ‬
‫المي ما يخمص‪.‬‬
‫‪ .13‬زي ما يقوؿ المثؿ‪ :‬يا‬
‫فرحة ما كممتش‪/‬الحمو ما‬
‫يكممش‪.‬‬
‫‪ .14‬ما عمينا!‬
‫‪58‬‬
‫‪Formal (MSA) trans.‬‬ ‫‪‘Semi-formal’ trans.‬‬
‫‪ .1‬حقاً أنا سعيد جداً أف‬ ‫‪ .1‬حقيقي أنا مبسوط جداً‬
‫أمورؾ تسير عمى ما يراـ‬ ‫أف أمورؾ ماشية عاؿ‬
‫العاؿ‬
‫‪ .2‬في أستراليا البعيدة‬ ‫‪ .2‬في آخر الدنيا في‬
‫أستراليا‪.‬‬
‫‪ .3‬يبدو أنؾ وقفت عمى‬ ‫‪ .3‬عمى ما يبدو وقفت‬
‫قدميؾ أخي اًر‬ ‫عمى رجميؾ أخي اًر‪.‬‬
‫‪ .4‬أشكرؾ جزيؿ الشكر‬ ‫‪ .4‬شاكر ومقدر‬
‫‪ .5‬لكنني لف أستطيع تمبية‬ ‫‪ .5‬لكف سأخيب أممؾ ىذه‬
‫دعوتؾ ىذه المرة‬ ‫المرة!‬
‫أنني‬ ‫ىي‬ ‫النقطة‬ ‫‪.6‬‬ ‫‪ .6‬المشكمة ىي أنني‬
‫مشغوؿ جداً‬ ‫غرقاف في الشغؿ‬
‫الختباراتي‬ ‫ِّ‬
‫أحضر‬ ‫‪.7‬‬ ‫‪ .7‬أذاكر الختباراتي‬
‫النيائية‬ ‫النيائية‬
‫‪ .8‬وليس لدي وقت أثناء‬ ‫‪ .8‬وما عندي وقت في‬
‫النيار‬ ‫النيار‪.‬‬
‫‪ .9‬لعمي أفعميا‬ ‫‪ .9‬ربما أعمميا‬
‫‪ .10‬بعد أف أضمف معدؿ‬ ‫أمنت‬
‫‪ .10‬بعد أف أكوف َّ‬
‫الممتاز‬ ‫عمى المعدؿ السحري‬
‫ممتاز‪.‬‬
‫حسابات‬ ‫مدير‬ ‫‪.11‬‬ ‫‪ .11‬مدير حسابات كبير‪.‬‬
‫بمنصب عاؿ‬ ‫طبعاً‬
‫‪ .12‬لكف المشكمة أف الدواـ‬ ‫‪ .12‬لكف النكبة ىي دواـ‬
‫أطوؿ‬ ‫أطوؿ‪.‬‬
‫‪ .13‬وكما يقاؿ‪ :‬الفرحة ال‬ ‫‪ .13‬قالوا في المثؿ‪:‬‬
‫تكتمؿ‬ ‫الفرحة ما تكمؿ‪.‬‬
‫‪ .14‬عمى أية حاؿ‬ ‫‪ .14‬الميـ‪.‬‬
 ‫ عمي اآلف أف أعود‬.15 ‫ الزـ أرجع انطـ‬.15 ‫ يجب عمي اآلف أف‬.15 ‫ عمي اآلف أف أعود‬.15
‫أدراجي إلى أروقة البحث‬ ‫بالمذاكرة‬ ‫أعود لمدراسة‬ .‫إلى المذاكرة‬
.‫والدراسة‬
‫ أشكرؾ مف حشاشة‬.16 ‫ ما أدري كيؼ أشكرؾ‬.16 ‫ أشكرؾ مف أعماقي‬.16 ‫ أشكرؾ خيرات اهلل‬.16
‫قمبي عمى دعوتؾ العطرة‬ ‫عمى دعوتؾ المي ما تنرد‬ ‫عمى دعوتؾ المطيفة‬ ‫عمى دعوتؾ الطيبة‬
‫ عاجبلً غير آجؿ‬.17 .‫ بكرة ومش المي بعدو‬.17 ‫ قريباً إف شاء اهلل‬.17 ‫ في المستقبؿ القريب‬.17
.‫ال البعيد‬

A quick comparison between these dialectal choices would prove that the first proposed
translation tone is closer than the colloquial one (the third) to formal Arabic (the second),
but far from the rhetorical tone of the fourth, which is rather literary and figurative.
Although ‘semi-formal’ could be unrecognized tone of language and style in both
languages, I put it forward here to be recognized as acceptable in such context of personal
letters’ translation in the sense that it is a middle ground between the unacceptable
colloquial tone, and the very official formal one. (See, for example, the difference
between ‫كممتش‬/‫تكمؿ‬/‫( تكتمؿ‬13), ‫أسوييا‬/‫أعمميا‬/‫( أفعميا‬9), etc.). The fourth rhetorical version
seems bizarre in such a simple, friendly and informal context. Overall, it may sound
sarcastic, so, it is not strongly recommended.

2.2.1.4 Translation Strategies

The translation strategies used in the translation of this letter into Arabic are:

(1) Cultural equivalent (e.g. 2, 5, 6, 13)

(2) Literal translation (e.g. 10, and many other examples).
(3) Cultural correspondence (1, 3, 14)
(4) Religious culture (e.g. 16 ‫ أشكرؾ خيرات اهلل‬and ‫)دعوة طيبة‬
(5) Exaggerations (e.g. 6, 11)

59
2.2.2 Love Letters

Love letters are affectionate, sentimental type of language. Lovers do everything to

express the flooding of their own passion and love feelings to one another. They are
usually informal in tone, but at times, their language can be literary, symbolic figurative
and especially expressive. Here is the English original followed by its translation into
Arabic:

My Sweetheart / My Darling,

I feel sad and lonely. I miss you a lot. I’ve been thinking about you all the time. I'm missing
you like crazy and I think I’m going mad. I simply can't stop thinking of the special times we
had. Each moment lasts an hour and each hour lasts a day, just because you went away.

I need you here beside me. You are always in my mind, by the time I wake up till I close my
eyes. I just want to see your face. I want to feel your warm body, hear your precious
heartbeat and be lost in your embrace. I gaze out of the window and look up at the moon. I
miss you, My Darling. Please come back to me, come back to me soon. They say hope
springs eternal. Well, I only hope it's true for I can't bear the emptiness that comes from
missing you.

I Miss You!

Amanda
(LoveLettersDo.com . Contact Privacy)

‫حبيبي‬

.‫ أنا مجنونة عميؾ‬،‫ وأنا مشتاقة لؾ كثي اًر وأىيـ كالمجنونة‬.‫ أفكر بؾ عمى طوؿ‬.‫أشعر أنني حزيف ووحيد مف دونؾ‬
‫ كؿ لحظة أصبحت عندي ساعة وكؿ‬.ً‫بصراحة ال أستطيع أف أتوقؼ عف التفكير باألوقات الرائعة التي قضيناىا معا‬
.‫ساعة يوـ ألنؾ فارقتني‬

‫ منذ المحظة التي أفتح فييا عيني حتى‬،ً‫ إنؾ تسكف في عقمي دائماً وأبدا‬.‫كـ أنا بحاجة إلى وجودؾ معي ىنا بجانبي‬
‫ أتمنى أف أحس بجسدؾ الدافئ وأسمع دقات قمبؾ الغالية وأعانقؾ‬.‫ ما أريد شيئاً سوى رؤية وجيؾ‬.‫أناـ وأغمؽ عيني‬
‫ يقولوف‬.‫ عد إلي بسرعة‬،‫ ياحبيبي! عد إلي أرجوؾ‬،‫ كـ أنا مشتاقة إلي ؾ‬.‫ أطؿ مف النافذة وأنظر إلى القمر‬.ً‫عناقاً طويبل‬
.‫ وأتمنى أف يكوف ذلؾ حقيقة ألني ما عدت أطيؽ الفراغ الذي يتركو غيابؾ‬.‫األمؿ ربيع دائـ‬

‫المشتاقة‬

‫أماندا‬

60
2.2.2.1 Purpose of the Translation

The translation of love letters is to render the huge emotional charge and the flow of love
feelings, senses and passions to the TL readers in the most expressive language and style,
with the ultimate purport of influencing them at heart as much as possible.

2.2.2.2 Type of TL Readership

The readers who may read love letters can be mainly young people who are educated,
average, or low educated as love is everybody’s right. Consequently, expressions of love,
tenderness, passion, emotion, affection, sentimentality, warmth, attraction and fondness
are rated high here. They are a combination of formal and semi-formal tones in Arabic to
make sure that they touch the hearts of the TL readers.

2.2.2.3 Translation Problems

There are not many translation problems at translating such a love letter with respect to
words and expressions. Yet, some polysemous words can be problematic. A case in point
is the word ‘miss’, which might mean ‫أخسرؾ‬/‫أضيعؾ‬/‫ أفتقدؾ‬or ‫مشتاؽ إليؾ‬/‫أشتاؽ‬. However, in this
context of love and passion, the second is more likely. Further, it is more common than
‫ أفتقدؾ‬which is more formal and less affectionate than the latter. Yet, the most difficult
problem the translator has to handle with care is the appropriate collocable TL
expressions that can have greater impact on the target readers. So literal translation could
be sometimes harmful. For example, ‘they say hope springs eternal’ cannot be translated
literally into )ً‫(يقولوف األمؿ ُيربع أبديا‬, but rather into )‫(يقولوف األمؿ يشرؽ إلى األبد‬, or ‫(يقولوف األمؿ ربيع‬
)‫دائـ‬. Also, ‘I miss you, my darling’ is translated into !‫ ياحبيبي‬،‫ كـ أنا مشتاقة إليؾ‬, not literally into
‫أنا أفتقدؾ يا حبيبي‬.

On the other hand, there is a unique point about the style of repetition which
characterizes such letters of love. Due to their naturalness and special importance in a
context of love, they have to be retained as reflexive of the lovers’ habit of reiterating the
words of affection and love now and then in their message without feeling bored of them.
Hence, it would be a big mistake to truncate such repetitions. Examples include ‘I miss
you’ (5); ‘thinking’ (2), ‘come back to me’ (2), etc. Parallel to these repetitions are the pairs
of close synonyms used frequently in the letter, none of which would be dropped even
though some of them are translated into the same word in Arabic. They include:
‘crazy/mad’ )‫ ;(مجنوف‬sweetheart/darling’ )‫‘ ;(حبيبي‬gaze/look up’, )‫ينظر‬/‫ (يطؿ‬etc.

2.2.2.4 Translation Strategies

The strategies of translation employed here are as follows:

(1) Transposition (miss (v.) → ‫( مشتاقة‬n); springs (v.) → ‫( ربٌع‬n.), etc.)
(2) Cultural correspondence (e.g. ‘hope springs eternal’ → ‫)األمل ربٌع دائم‬
(3) Expansion (e.g. ‘you are in my mind’ → ً‫‘ ;إنك تسكن فً عقل‬I feel sad and lonely’ →
‫أشعر أنني حزيف ووحيد مف دونؾ‬, etc.
61
 (4) Literal translation (most of the letter).
(5) Transliteration (of proper names, etc.: e.g. Amanda →‫)أماندا‬
(6) Vocative (e.g. my darling → ‫)يا حبيبتي‬

2.2.3 Complaint Letters

Writing a formal letter of complaint remains an effective way to alert a company to a

problem. Customers seek positive outcomes from writing letters of complaint. The
principles apply to complaints emails and phone calls too, although letters remain
generally the most reliable and effective way to complain, especially for serious
complaints. Effective complaints letters (and any other way of complaining) should be:

 concise
 authoritative
 factual
 constructive
 friendly
(See OxfordUniversity Press 2015 & Businessballs 2015)

Translators are required to attend to these points when translating a complaint letter of
some kind about a customer’s dissatisfaction with something faulty, not up to standards,
etc. Following is a sample complaint letter to translate and discuss in terms of purpose, TL
readership, translation problems and translation strategies:

62
 ‫(عنواف الشركة بالتفصيؿ)‬
‫(عنواف المرسؿ (صاحب الشكوى)‬
‫(التاريخ)‬
‫السادة ‪/‬اإلخوة األعزاء‪،‬‬
‫(رقـ الحساب)‬
‫(قانوف بيع السمع عاـ ‪ 1979‬وتعديبلتو)‬

‫‪63‬‬
‫ (ألؼ وخمسمائة) جنيو إسترليني‬1500 ‫ اشتريت طقـ مفروشات ثبلث قطع بمبمغ‬،‫ نوفمبر مف السنة الماضية‬25 ‫في‬
‫ لكنني اكتشفت أف الطقـ فيو ثبلثة‬.‫ حيث قاـ بترتيب االعتماد معكـ‬،‫ فرع مدينتي‬،‫مف شركة إكس واي زد لممفروشات‬
:‫عيوب‬

.‫) ذراع الكنب مخموعة‬1(

.‫) عدد مف المسامير خارجة مف الكرسييف والكنب‬2(
.‫) إحدى وسادات الطقـ خاسفة‬3(

‫قدمت شكوى حوؿ ىذه العيوب إلى الشركة بعد يوـ واحد مف التوصيؿ فقالوا لي إف أحد موظفي الشركة سوؼ يتصؿ‬
.‫ ولكف لـ يتصؿ بي أحد منذ ذلؾ الوقت‬،‫بي‬

.‫ أو استرجاع فموسي‬/ ‫أتمنى أف أرد البضاعة وأطمب استبداليا‬

.1974 ‫ مف قانوف االعتماد لممستيمؾ عاـ‬75 ‫وانكـ تتحمموف مسؤولية قانونية تحت البند‬
.‫ أياـ‬7 ‫أرجو منكـ الرد عمى شكواي في غضوف‬

‫الداعي‬

‫ بيرسوف‬.‫آ‬

2.2.3.1 Purpose of the Translation

The translation of such a letter has the purpose of rendering the complaint intended to be
expressed as precisely and culturally as possible. As far as the target readership is
concerned, names of peoples, companies, or addresses are not all that important; what is
important is the message aimed to be forwarded to the receiver in clear terms.

2.2.3.2 Type of TL Readership

The target readers interested in complaint letters are mainly the average public readers
who might have a similar situation one day. However, educated and other types of
readership are not uninterested in such type of letters, though to a lesser extent. Hence,
the tone of language and style would be simplified, polite and formal MSA, as normally
and naturally the case with complaining about something to higher, official or respected
authorities in a respected way. In other words, it is inappropriate to complain in harsh,
impolite style of language, if we want the other party to cooperate and respond positively.

64
2.2.3.3 Translation Problems

The problems of translation of this text are not in the individual words and expressions,
but in finding the appropriate equivalent in the target language, i.e. collocation. Also,
problems may arise at choosing the proper tone which can tune formal, simple, polite and
natural tones at the same time, which may not be as easy as some might think. For
example, ‘suite’ can be translated in this context into ‫ غرفة‬،‫ مجموعة‬،‫طقـ‬. However, the first
has been preferred to the other two for its popularity and specificity, especially when
collocating with ‫مفروشات‬. The latter is better than the very formal ‫أثاث‬. As to tone, the most
important problem to sort out appropriately, it has to be polite, lenient, decent, respectful
and low, which can be very helpful for the complainer to receive a positive response and
cooperation from the other party. Examples include using words like: ‫ عيوب‬،‫(اشتريت؛ اكتشؼ‬
‫ ووسادة خاسفة)؛ شكوى؛ لـ يتصؿ بي أحد؛ تتحمموف مسؤولية قانونية؛ أرجو منكـ‬،‫ ومسامير خارجة‬،‫(ذراع مخموعة‬
)...‫ الرد‬. This is the normal lexicon expected to be used in such letters. Harsh, impolite,
dirty, swearing and disrespectful words are out of question here. Here are examples: ‫تورطت‬
‫ ومخدات زبالة)؛‬،‫ ومسامير خارجة كرؤوس الشياطيف‬،‫واشتريت؛ انفجعت باكتشاؼ؛ ثبلث مصايب (كنب مكسر تكسير‬
‫عريضة طويمة عريضة؛ لـ يعبرني حد مف الشركة التعبانة؛ أرفع عميكـ قضية وأممكـ المسؤولية وأخرب بيتكـ؛ ردوا عمي‬
‫واال حتشوفوا مني شيء ما يرضيكـ‬. Such colloquial, indecent, threatening, provocative and
unfitting vocabulary can have serious consequences of negative and angry reaction from
the other party, which spoils everything.

2.2.3.4 Translation Strategies

The strategies employed in the translation of this letter are:

(1) Cultural correspondent (e.g. ‘Dear Sirs’ ‫(السادة األعزاء‬

(2) Cultural equivalent (e.g. ‘Dear Sirs’ ‫‘ ;اإلخوة األعزاء‬Yours faithfully’ ‫(الداعي‬
(3) General translation (e.g. ‫(عنواف المرسؿ (صاحب الشكوى)؛ رقـ الحساب‬
(4) Calques (e.g. credit → ‫(جنيو إسترليني؛ اعتماد‬
(5) Transliteration of names, trademarks, acronyms, etc. (e.g. XYZ → ‫(إكس واي زد‬
(6) Popular translation (Furniture → ‫)مفروشات‬

2.2.4 Letters to Get Action

Letters of action are not dissimilar from letters of complaint. However, they are more
concentrated, less personal and more serious than the latter. They are letters of provoking
official and governmental departments to get action about a public issue of some kind.
Here is a sample letter, followed by its translation into Arabic and discussion.

65
Director of ________________,
Federal Government Agency,
Street Address,
City, State Zip Code.

Dear Director _______________,

I am concerned about the spread of the devastating disease known as white-nose

syndrome, a disease that has killed more than a million bats in the Eastern United Sates
during the last four winters and urge your agency to close all bat caves and mines on
federal lands in the contiguous 48 states to help curtail the spread of it.

Closing the caves will give scientists time to determine how the white-nose syndrome
disease is being spread and if humans play a role in transmitting it. Therefore, I urge your
agency to keep these caves closed until all data are analyzed and steps have been taken to
protect bats and their habitat.

Thank you for your time and attention to this matter and for protecting the animals and
the environment by closing these caves.

Sincerely,
………………..

)‫(مدير الجية والعنواف‬

.....................‫سعادة السيد مدير‬

‫ وىو المرض الذي‬،‫أكتب إليكـ ألعبر لكـ عف قمقي بشأف انتشار المرض المدمر الذي يدعى متبلزمة األنؼ األبيض‬
،‫تسبب في قتؿ أكثر مف مميوف مف طيور الخفاش في شرقي الواليات المتحدة في فصوؿ الشتاء األربعة الماضية‬
‫ لممساعدة في‬48 ‫ؽ كؿ كيوؼ الخفاش وأنفاقو عمى أراضي الدولة بوالياتيا الػ‬
َ َ‫وأطالب وكالتكـ الموقرة بإلحاح أف تغم‬
.‫الحد مف انتشار ىذا المرض‬

‫ وما إذا لعب العنصر البشري‬،‫سوؼ يمنح إغبلؽ الكيوؼ العمماء مزيداً مف الوقت لتحديد أسباب ىذا االنتشار السريع‬
‫ أطالب وكالتكـ الموقرة أف تبقي عمى ىذه الكيوؼ مغمقة حتى االنتياء مف تحميؿ كؿ البيانات‬،‫ لذا‬.‫دو اًر في انتقالو‬
.‫واتخاذ كؿ اإلج ارءات لحماية الخفاش وسكنو الطبيعي‬

.‫أشكركـ عمى تفضمكـ بتخصيص وقتكـ وانتباىكـ لحماية الحيوانات والبيئة بإغبلقكـ ليذه الكيوؼ‬

‫الداعي‬

66
2.2.4.1 Purpose of the Translation

The purpose of translating letters of taking action is, first, to make clear the issue which
urges to draw the attention of the authority concerned; and, second, to show how serious
and interesting that issue is to TL readers in formally simple MSA. The unpronounced
purpose might be to incite those readers to do the same, if and when, in their community.

2.2.4.2 Type of TL Readership

The type of the TL readers expected to read such letters of getting action is the educated,
middle or highly. Yet, in principle, any interested reader whether low, medium or highly
educated, can read them, which entails that the translator should take care of the tone of
language and style to be formal, but not very formal. By the same token, it cannot be
colloquial for the people involved are educated enough to use colloquialisms at addressing
official and formal bodies.

2.2.4.3 Problems of Translation

The problems of translating this particular action letter are not many. They are mainly
problems of individual words and expressions, which are not insuperable. For example,
the ‘white-nose syndrome’ is a kind of disease that infects bats, but it is not known to
people, so it is translated literally into its direct, non-technical and popular sense as ‫(متبلزمة‬
)‫األنؼ األبيض‬. In any case, let the translation flow as natural, formal and simple as possible.
The second major type of problems relates to appropriate collocability of Arabic phrases
and expressions by means of matching the proper word with the proper word together.
We start with ‘getting action’ which is probably ‫يقوـ بعمؿ‬, but ‫ اتخاذ إجراء‬is more fitting a
collocation here, for in such context we talk in terms of ‫ إجراء‬rather than just ‫عمؿ‬. ‘Human’,
though not a collocation, is translated into a collocation in Arabic that is quite recurrent in
this context. That is, rather than translating into ‫الناس‬/‫البشر‬, it is translated into a singular
collocation as ‫ العنصر البشري‬with a collective reference to everybody with a negative
implication of warning those involved in transmitting the disease among people.

2.2.4.4 Translation Strategies

Among the translation strategies used here are the following:

(1) Cultural equivalent (e.g. ‘ Dear Director’ )...‫‘ ;(سعادة السيد مدير‬sincerely’ )‫((الداعي‬.
(2) Calques/literal translation (e.g. ‘white-nose syndrome’ )‫)(متبلزمة األنؼ األبيض‬.
(3) Cultural respectful additions (e.g. addition of the word )‫)(الموقرة‬.
(4) Recurrent synonymy (e.g. ‘caves’ are translated into the more frequent ‫كيوؼ‬
rather than ‫ مغارات‬though both are equally formal and known to TL readership.
(5) Expansion (e.g. spread → ‫)انتشار واسع‬
67
 (6) Generalization (e.g. ‘federal lands in the contiguous 48 states’ is translated
generally into (48 ‫)عمى أراضي الدولة بوالياتيا الػ‬, not word by word, with ‘contiguous’
)‫ (مجاورة‬being dropped as unnecessary).

2.2.5 Personal Business Letters: Invitation Letters

These letters are usually serious, formal, cordial and written on personal business
considerations and relationships. They are intended to strengthen business relations
between companies and individuals involved in business with them. Here is an example:

A Letter of Invitation

PJ Party,
22 Yew Street, Cambridge, Ontario,
Tel: 416-223-8900.
April 7th, 2014

Dear Valued Customer:

Our records show that you have been a customer of PJ Party Inc. since our grand opening last year.
We would like to thank you for your business by inviting you to our preferred customer Spring
Extravaganza this Saturday.

Saturday's sales event is by invitation only. All of our stock, including pajamas and bedding will be
marked down from 50-80% off.* Doors open at 9:00 AM sharp. Complimentary coffee and donuts will
be served. Public admission will commence at noon.

In addition, please accept the enclosed $10 gift certificate to use with your purchase of $75 or more.

We look forward to seeing you at PJ's on Saturday. Please bring this invitation with you and present it
at the door.

Sincerely,

Linda Lane

Store Manager
pjpartyinc@shoponline.com
*All sales are final. No exchanges.
Enclosure: Gift Certificate (not redeemable for cash)

68
 ‫عميمنا العزيز‬

‫ ونود‬.‫جيو بارتي منذ افتتاحنا الكبير في العاـ الفائت‬-‫ثبت لنا مف خبلؿ سجبلتنا أنؾ مف العمبلء الدائميف لشركتنا بي‬
‫أف نشكرؾ عمى نجاحؾ في أعمالؾ مف خبلؿ دعوتنا لؾ إلى حضور ميرجاف الربيع الضخـ عمى شرؼ عمبلئنا‬
.‫المميزيف يوـ السبت القادـ‬

‫ فكؿ بضاعتنا بما في ذلؾ البيجامات ولوازـ‬.‫إف حضور المناسبة الكبرى لمبيعاتنا يوـ السبت ىو لممدعوييف حص اًر‬
.ً‫ وسيتـ فتح األبواب في تماـ الساعة التاسعة صباحا‬.%100-50 ‫السرير سيكوف مخفضاً بنسبة خصـ تصؿ إلى‬
.‫ وسيبدأ السماح بالدخوؿ لمعامة عند الظير‬.‫وسيقدـ لمعمبلء القيوة والدونات مجاناً كضيافة‬

75 ‫ نرجو منؾ أف تتفضؿ بقبوؿ قسيمة مجانية بقيمة عشرة دوالرات الستخداميا عند شرائؾ بمبمغ‬،‫إضافة إلى ذلؾ‬
.‫دوال اًر فما فوؽ‬

.‫ أحضر ىذه الدعوة معؾ وأبرزىا عند الدخوؿ‬، ‫ لوتكرمت‬.‫بانتظار تشريفؾ لنا في الميرجاف يوـ السبت‬

)‫الداعي (اسـ المرسؿ وعنوانو‬

‫*البضاعة التي تباع ال تستبدؿ وال ترد‬

‫ قسيمة مجانية غير قابمة لبلسترجاع نقدًا‬:‫*المرفقات‬

2.2.5.1 Purpose of the Translation

Invitation letters of all types are normally formal, cordial and patronizing. They aim at
showing how important, dear and special a person is to those who invite him/her on a
special occasion of theirs. In other words, they invite him/her for he/she is a VIP, which
would please him/her. They also aim at demonstrating the special importance of their
occasion. These two main aims are the purpose of translating such letters to an Arab
readership as a sign and a sample of inviting others on special events.

2.2.5.2 Type of TL Readership

The type of TL readers to be aimed at by the translation are usually those interested and
educated, though average and low educated readers can be targeted on social occasions
like weddings. Hence, they need be addressed as formally as the original, on the one hand,
and as naturally as possible in Arabic by means of using MSA only, even when informal
English is involved.

69
2.2.5.3 Translation Problems

The most prominent problems of translation to be fixed by the translator of this letter are
those expressions that are to be used in the target language in an appropriate way
linguistically as much as culturally. These expressions relate to cordiality and patronization
in particular: ‘Our records show that you have been a customer of…’ ‫( ثبت لنا مف خبلؿ سجبلتنا‬
)‫( ;أنؾ مف العمبلء الدائميف لشركتنا‬the addition of ‫‘)الدائميف‬We would like to thank you for your
business by inviting you to our preferred customer Spring Extravaganza this Saturday’ ‫(ونود‬
‫أف نشكرؾ عمى نجاحؾ في أعمالؾ مف خبلؿ دعوتنا لؾ إلى حضور ميرجاف الربيع الضخـ عمى شرؼ عمبلئنا‬
)‫( ;المميزيف يوـ السبت القادـ‬addition of ‫‘ ;) عمى شرؼ عمبلئنا المميزي… نجاحؾ‬Saturday's sales event is
by invitation only’ )‫( ;(إف حضور المناسبة الكبرى لمبيعاتنا يوـ السبت ىو لممدعوييف حص اًر‬addition of
‫‘ ;)لممدعوييف حص اًر …الكبرى‬please accept the enclosed $10 gift certificate’ ‫أف تتفضؿ ;(نرجو منؾ‬
)‫( ;بقبوؿ قسيمة مجانية بقيمة عشرة دوالرات‬addition of ‫‘ ;)نرجو منؾ أف تتفضؿ‬We look forward to
seeing you at PJ's on Saturday. Please bring this invitation with you…’ ‫(بانتظار تشريفؾ لنا في‬
)‫ أحضر ىذه الدعوة معؾ‬، ‫ لوتكرمت‬.‫( الميرجاف يوـ السبت‬addition of ‫ تشريفؾ لنا‬and ‫)لوتكرمت‬. These are
key cultural and linguistic additions for achieving a maximum cordial response on behalf of
the TL readership the way they do it.

Other translation problems relate to some terms and phrases that may pose some
difficulty at translating them into Arabic, especially when no ready-made equivalent is
available. A case in point is the term ‘gift certificate’ (i.e. voucher) which is not translated
literally into )‫ (شيادة ىدية‬for it is quite vague to TL readership, but into )‫ (قسيمة مجانية‬- rather
than into the transliterated term )‫ (فاوتشر‬that might equally be accepted by the public Arab
readers. However, we go here for a well-known Arabic term. Another Arabic translation
(i.e. ‫ )سند‬is suggested by some, but it is not preferred here to avoid confusing it with other
financial terms and concepts. By contrast, ‘donuts’ is translated into semi-formal trans-
naturalization (a blend of transliteration and naturalization) )‫(دونات‬, which is usually
familiar to TL readers in its plural form. This term is preferred to the Arabized one ‫(فطيرة‬
)‫ محبلة‬more for its popularity than accuracy. However, the latter is also good. As to
‘extravaganza’, it is translated into a general but expressive and popular word as ‫ ميرجاف‬in
preference to a long paraphrase like ‫ حدث استثنائي عجيب وغريب‬and the unknown Arabization
into ‫( الغمَواء‬Al-Mawrid Al-Akbar, 2004: 693)). A special, non-lexical problem is posed by the
translation of the two statements ‘Sales are final. No exchanges.’ Translating them directly
and literally into )‫ ممنوع التبديؿ‬.‫ (المبيعات نيائية‬is possible but awkward and somehow
insulting. Hence, they are translated into one expression by resorting to a widely known
cultural equivalent in such context as: )‫(البضاعة التي تباع ال تستبدؿ وال ترد‬. Finally, and as
indicated earlier, ‘gift certificate’ is a respectful word for ‘voucher’, and it is not translated
literally due to its vagueness to Arab readers, but into a familiar term suggested earlier
(see above).

70
2.2.5.4 Translation Strategies

Several strategies have been invested in solving the problems of the translation of this
letter, including:

(1) Transliteration of proper names and currencies.

(2) Trans-naturalization (transliteration + naturalisation) (e.g. ‘donuts’ ‫( الدونات‬in the
plural)).
(3) Arabization (e.g. ‘voucher’ ‫(قسيمة مجانية‬
(4) Generalization (e.g. ‘extravaganza’ ‫(ميرجاف‬
(5) Overtranslation (e.g. ‘not redeemable for cash’: ‫( غير قابمة لبلسترجاع نقدًا‬c.f. ‫غير نقدية‬
which is shorter but not clear enough)
(6) Cultural equivalent (e.g. ‫)البضاعة التي تباع ال تستبدؿ وال ترد‬

2.3 E-Letters

Electronic letters (or E-Letters) take various shapes and vary, sometimes widely, in length,
ranging from one tiny word like ‘yes’/’no’ to several pages, and in tone, from very formal
to slang in both languages, especially in English . They are sent and exchanged through
electronic devices like mobiles, E-mails, the Web, Facebook / Twitter / Youtube,
‘WhatsApp’, ‘Skype’, and several others. In principle, the letters and messages sent by
these E-devices can be similar in their linguistic features, tones, grammatical structures
and layout, especially in regard to their translations into the target language (i.e. Arabic
here). Therefore, suffice it to pick up examples from two main devices: E-mail letters, and
Web Letters.

2.3.1 E-mail Letters

Although electronic mail (e-mail) letters are characteristically short and informal, they may
be long and formal when necessary. They have become increasingly popular and most
reliable for, as everybody knows, everything and any kind of file of any size can be sent
through the email including official documents, articles, projects, books or any other kinds
of material. The investigation of the translation of email letters will be done through giving
two sample examples, one formal; another informal.

2.3.1.1 Formal Email:

NEW DEADLINE FOR APPLICATIONS!!!

(20th October 2014)

Centre for Translation Studies (CenTraS)

University College London

Cloud-based Translation Tools Online Course

rd th
NEW DATES!!! Monday 3 . November - Friday 16 January 2014
71
 This e-course has been designed to introduce translators and project managers to the
world of online translation solutions.

You will gain an insight in Cloud-based Translation Technologies and practise using
software with a variety of guides, instructional videos, group and one-to-one online
sessions in an alternative multimodal interactive online course.

For more details on the course and how to apply, please visit:
Online Course in Cloud-based Translation Tools
Email: e.patiniotaki@ucl.ac.uk

‫) لتقديـ الطمبات لمركز‬2014 ‫ يناير‬16 ‫ نوفمبر – يوـ الجمعة‬3 ‫"موعد نيائي جديد (وىو اعتبا اًر مف يوـ اإلثنيف‬
."‫ "برنامج وسائؿ ترجمة عبر التشبيؾ الحاسوبي‬:‫ بريطانيا‬،‫دراسات الترجمة بجامعة لندف كوليج‬

‫ سوؼ تطمع‬.‫صمـ ىذا البرنامج الحاسوبي ُليعرؼ المترجميف ومديري البرامح بكـ ىائؿ مف حموؿ الترجمة عبر الشبكة‬
ُ
‫عف كثب عمى تقنيات الترجمة عبر "التشبيؾ الحاسوبي" واستخداـ البرامج الحاسوبية مف خبلؿ مجموعة مف كتب‬
.‫ وفيديوىات تعميمية وجمسات جماعية وفردية عف طريؽ برنامج بديؿ تفاعمي ومتعدد القنوات عمى الشبكة‬،‫الدليؿ‬

"....:‫ قـ بزيارة موقعنا التالي‬،‫لمزيد مف المعمومات حوؿ البرنامج وتطبيقاتو‬

2.3.1.1.1 Purpose of the Translation

The purpose of translating this promotional email is to render the academic information,
dates and details about the course clearly to the TL readership in formal, standard modern
Arabic. The layout of the TL translation is not necessarily identical with that of the SL text.
It can be just as normal as any form of text. The important point is to achieve the purpose
of the translation just pointed out. The source text layout is not all that important to that
purpose.

2.3.1.1.2 Type of TL Readership

The readership is exclusively educated and academic that can be interested in such
academic information and details. Hence, the formal tone of language and style is
fundamental for this type of text and readership. Yet, naturalness should be always there
in the TL language and style.

2.3.1.1.3 Translation Problems

The translation problems of this email are three main types: the first relates to individual
terms which may be new to the Arab translator and have no ready equivalent. Examples
include ‘cloud-computing’ which is Arabized here conditionally as )ً‫)تشبٌك حاسوب‬. However,
‘videos’ is translated informally into its colloquial trans-naturalized popular term )‫(فٌدٌوهات‬
due to the absence of a satisfactory Arabic term up to now. ‘Course’, on the other hand, is

72
translated into )‫(برنامج‬, not into )‫ (دورة‬for it is the term that is frequently used to imply a
reference to something larger than the latter.

The second type of translation problems here concerns the placement of the new dates at
the beginning of the translation, and the deletion of the old dates. This is done to help the
TL readership avoid confusing dates, so only the new dates are retained.

The third type of translation problems is the translator’s hard task to translate some SL
terms, especially opening and closing statements into TL cultural and recognized
equivalents. A case in point is the translation of the closing statement: “For more details
on the course and how to apply, please visit” (i.e. ‫لمزٌد من التفاصٌل حول البرنامج وكٌفٌة استخدامه‬
... :‫ )من فضلك قم بزٌارة‬is translated into its recognized Arabic cultural equivalent ‫(لمزيد مف‬
)‫ قـ بزيارة موقعنا التالي‬،‫المعمومات حوؿ البرنامج وتطبيقاتو‬.

2.3.1.1.4 Translation Strategies

Several translation strategies have been applied to solve the translation problems of this
text:
(1) Translation Label (a conditional translation suggested in inverted commas for the
time being. e.g. ‘cloud-computing’: "ً‫("تشبٌك حاسوب‬
(2) Trans-naturalization (i.e. transliteration + naturalization) (e.g. ‘videos’ )‫((فٌدٌوهات‬.
(3) Cultural equivalent (e.g. ‘for more details…” ...‫(لمزيد مف المعمومات‬.
(4) Deletion: used exceptionally when information is unnecessary for emails normally
tend to be short (e.g. deletion of the old date and deadline).
(5) Amplification (e.g. the normal ‘course’ )‫ (دورة‬into the amplified )‫((برنامج‬.

73
‫‪2.3.1.2 Informal Email‬‬

‫(العنوان)‬

‫التارٌخ)‬
‫أختً الغالٌة ‪ /‬العزٌزة مٌمً‬

‫كٌف حالك ٌا أختً العزٌزة؟ أرجو أن تكونً بخٌر‪ .‬ال ٌنشغل بالك علً فأنا بخٌر‪ .‬أنا اآلن رجّال بعجبك‪ .‬كٌف حال‬
‫إخوتً الرائعٌن؟ بلغٌهم سالمً وتحٌاتً‪.‬‬

‫وصلتنً رسالتك‪ .‬أشكرك من أعماق أعماقً على رسالتك‪ .‬كل اإلخوة واألخوات معً هنا بخٌر‪ .‬لكن حزنت عند‬
‫سماعً الخبر أن أخً باندا ما زال مرٌضاً‪ .‬أتمنى له الشفاء العاجل‪.‬‬

‫كانت رحلة العودة إلى هنا طٌبة رغم أنها كانت طوٌلة جداً‪ .‬أردت السفر بباصات شركة محترمة‪ ،‬لكن تخٌلً كل‬
‫باص اتها التعٌسة كانت ملٌانة ال ٌوجد محالت‪ .‬لذلك لم ٌكن عندي خٌار آخر سوى السفر بمٌكروباص‪ .‬أخذت الرحلة‬

‫‪74‬‬
‫ ٌاه! أعدك فً المرة القادمة سوف لن أركب‬.‫ كانت أرجلً تعبانة جداً ومؤخرتً موجوعة‬،‫ وعندما وصلنا‬.‫سبع ساعات‬
!‫بهذه المٌكروباصات الصغٌرة التعٌسة‬

ً‫ طبق‬.‫ أنا واثق ملٌون بالمٌة من إمكانٌاتك‬.‫ شدي الهمة فً دراستك ٌا مرٌم‬.‫الحمد هللا أنه عند ك مدرس أدب جدٌد‬
‫ هل أخبرتك‬.‫ وأنا مبسوط أنك لٌبرالٌة‬.‫ وأنا متأكد أنك ستنجحٌن‬.‫الخطة التً أعطٌها لك وكرسً وقتك لها من قلبك‬
‫أننً أنا لٌبرالً أٌضاً؟‬

ً‫ أحبك جدا‬.‫ ال تنسً ذكر هللا‬.‫أخٌراً أتمنى لك ٌا مرٌم كل التوفٌق فً دراستك وكل ما تقومٌن به من محاوالت طٌبة‬
.‫ ما عدت أطٌق بعدك عنً وٌا ربً متى أشوفك مرة أخرى‬.ً‫وأنا مشتاق إلٌك كثٌرا‬

.‫دٌري بالك على حالك‬

‫أخوك المشتاق ماٌكل‬

.ً‫ أرجوك ردي على رسالت‬:‫مالحظة هامة‬

2.3.1.2.1 Purpose of the Translation

The purpose of translating such an informal, intimate email is to render the important
personal news about the sender in a language as affectionate as possible to reflect his true
feelings and emotions toward his beloved sister. So, the translator has to be as
affectionate as he/she can to be able to achieve the purpose of the translation of the
original in the best way required for the TL readership, using mainly semi-formal and
tolerated informal Arabic (as suggested in the translation above).

2.3.1.2.2 Type of TL Readership

The readership is expected to be the average public as well as other types. In any case, the
tone, which is usually derived from that of the original if and when allowed in Arabic, is
exceptionally informal and semi-formal, but not slang or colloquial, to touch the TL
readers’ hearts and feelings. That is why words of exaggeration are at times added in the
translation suggested here.

2.3.1.2.3 Translation Problems

The translation problems are not many in this email as far as difficult words and phrase
and grammatical structures are concerned. In fact, only simple language is used. The real
problem for the Arab translator is in the tone of language he/she would go for in such an
informal original text and context. Since written Arabic, unlike English, does not allow
using colloquial language freely, the translator might be in a difficult situation for the
email letter is mainly informal, and informal tone implies functions of intimacy, emotive
charges and closeness. Consequently, an informal tone that could be described as semi-
formal, or close to formal tone is suggested in the translation above. Several of these
informal/semiformal expressions that can be described as popular among many Arab
readers are used throughout. Here is a list with them, juxtaposed with their formal
counterparts:

75
Less Affectionate Simplified Formal (MSA) Affectionate Informal & Semi-formal Arabic

... ‫يؼ حالُ ِؾ‬

َ ‫) َك‬1(
... ‫) ال تقمقي عمي‬2(
‫) أنا اآلف شاب قوي‬3(
‫؟‬...‫يؼ حا ُؿ إخوتي‬
َ ‫) َك‬4(
...‫) كانت رحمة ممتعة برغـ أنيا‬5(
...‫) أردت السفر بحافبلت‬6(
‫) لكف كانت كؿ حافبلتيا ممتمئة‬7(
‫) ال يوجد أماكف شاغرة‬8(
‫) السفر بحافمة صغيرة‬9(
... ‫) استغرقت الرحمة‬10(
‫) كانت رجبلي متعبتيف ومؤخرتي متقرحة‬11(
!‫) يا إليي‬12(
‫) ىذه الحافبلت الصغيرة التعسة‬13(
‫) سرَّني وجود مدرسؾ الجديد لؤلدب‬14(
...‫) ِج ّدي واجتيدي في دراستؾ‬15(
‫) أنا عمى ثقة تامة بقدراتؾ‬16(
‫) سعدت أنؾ ليبرالية‬17(
‫) محاوالت ناجحة‬18(
‫) متى يا ترى أراؾ ثانية‬19(
‫) انتبيي لنفسؾ‬20(
‫يؼ حالِؾ يا أختي العزيزة؟‬
ْ ‫) ِك‬1(
.‫) ال ينشغؿ بالؾ عمي فأنا بخير‬2(
.‫رجاؿ بيعجبؾ‬
ّ ‫) أنا اآلف‬3(
‫) كيؼ حاؿ إخوتي الرائعيف؟‬4(
.... ‫ طيبة رغـ أنيا‬... ‫) كانت رحمة‬5(
‫) أردت السفر بباصات شركة محترمة‬6(
‫) تخيمي كؿ باصاتيا التعيسة كانت مميانة‬7(
.‫) ال يوجد محبلت‬8(
.‫) السفر بميكروباص‬9(
.‫) أخذت الرحمة سبع ساعات‬10(
.‫) كانت أرجمي تعبانة ومقعدي موجوع‬11(
!‫) ياه‬12(
!‫) ىذه الميكروباصات الصغيرة التعيسة‬13(
.‫) الحمد هلل أنو عندؾ مدرس أدب جديد‬14(
.‫) شدي اليمة في دراستؾ يا مريـ‬15(
‫) أنا واثؽ مميوف بالمية مف إمكانياتؾ‬16(
.‫) أنا مبسوط أنؾ ليبرالية‬17(
.‫) محاوالت طيبة‬18(
‫) ويا ربي متى أشوفؾ مرة أخرى‬19(
.‫) ديري بالؾ عمى حالؾ‬20(

Although the two versions are acceptable, the informal one is more affectionate and
touching in tone, which is in tune with the original and the TL readers’ demands. That said,
in Arabic standards of writing, the formal version could be favoured by some translators
and readers. The little, but tricky problem facing the translator at going for the informal
version is which Arabic dialect he/she is going to adopt, own, Saudi, Syrian, Egyptian,
Jordanian, Lebanese, or other (the list is very long indeed!). I suggest he/she goes for an
informal Arabic dialect that is not very local but can be as neutral and close to formal
dialect as possible, which may be comprehensible to his/her native readers as well-as non-
native Arab readers. The translation proposed here can be taken as a sample example for
such neutral informal Arabic dialect.

76
2.3.1.2.4 Translation Strategies

(1) Transliteration of names including pet names (e.g. ‘Mimi’, which stands for
‘Mariam’).
(2) Transliteration + naturalization (e.g. ‫باصات‬/ ‫ليبرالية؛ باص‬/‫ميكروباصات؛ ليبرالي‬/‫(ميكروباص‬
(3) Arabization (e.g. ‫حافبلت‬/‫(حافمة‬
(4) Calques (e.g. ‫ليبرالي‬/‫(ليبرالية‬
(5) Cultural equivalent (e.g. )‫(أتمنى لك التوفٌق؛ محاوالت طٌبة؛ ال تنسً ذكر هللا؛ أخوك المشتاق‬
(6) Deletion of unnecessary terms (like addresses, ‘CR’)

2.3.2 Reader Comments’ Letters

These letters are usually informal and do not observe English grammatical and lexical
rules. They are usually comments on a piece of news of any type, sent to a newspaper on
the Web, to express one’s opinion about the topic concerned. They tend to be sharp and
to the point, using personal and recognized acronyms and abbreviations, however,
sometimes, at the expense of accuracy of meaning, grammar and spelling. As a
consequence, the translator’s task is by no means easy. Neither is it in regard to tone of
language and style, as illustrated in the following example which starts with the item of
news, then followed by a comment letter on it:

(1) The Item of News

Cameron Defends ‘Reasonable’ Letter To Mosques

David Cameron has rejected criticism by some Muslims of a letter sent to mosques in
England urging them to do more to root out extremists and prevent young people being
radicalised.

The Muslim Council of Britain (MCB) said it wanted Communities Secretary Eric Pickles to
clarify the request – and asked if, like “members of the far right”, he was suggesting that
Islam is inherently apart from British society.

In the letter sent to more than 1,000 Islamic leaders, Mr Pickles and communities minister
Lord Ahmad stressed that he was “proud” of the way Muslims in Britain had responded to
the Paris terror attacks but added that there was “more work to do”.(BBC News, 19, 1,
2015)
‫كاميرون يدافع عن الرسالة العاقمة إلى المساجد‬
‫"رفض السيد ديفيد كاميروف رئيس وزراء بريطانيا النقد الذي وجيو إليو بعض المسمميف لمرسالة التي وجييا إلى المساجد‬
.‫في إنجمت ار لحثيـ عمى بذؿ مزيد مف الجيد الستئصاؿ جذور المتطرفيف ومنع الشباب مف التوجو لمتطرؼ‬

‫ وتساءؿ ما إذا كاف‬،‫صرح ال مجمس اإلسبلمي في بريطانيا برغبتو أف يوضح وزير األقميات السيد إيريؾ بيكمز الطمب‬
.‫يعني ما قالو "أعضاء أقصى اليميف" إف اإلسبلـ أصبلً ليس جزءاً مف المجتمع البريطاني‬
77
‫ أكد السيد بيكم ز ونائبو المورد أحمد أنيما فخوراف‬،‫ إماـ مف المسمميف‬1000 ‫ففي رسالتيما التي أرسبلىا إلى أكثر مف‬
‫بردة فعؿ مسممي بريطانيا عمى ىجمات باريس اإلرىابية عمى مقر صحيفة شارلي لنشرىا صو اًر ساخرة حوؿ النبي محمد‬
.)2015/1/19 :‫سي نيوز‬-‫بي‬-‫ ولكنو أضاؼٌ قائبلً ما زاؿ ىناؾ الكثير لمقياـ بفعمو" (بي‬،]‫[صمى اهلل عميو وسمـ‬

(2) Readers’ Comment on the Web.

Defend nothing, tell them, demand it. Sick of this namby pamby kids gloves #$%$. We
know they are brain washing muslims in the UK. You would think they would want to
protect their kids from them.....after all why would they not want to protect the innocent?
End of the day if they 42on’t like it then they are free to leave the UK. Its about time the
safety of all UK citizens was put ahead of upsetting a handful of muslims.

‫ نحف نعرؼ أنيـ مسمموف تعرضوا لغسيؿ دماغ في‬.‫ قرفنا مف ىذ ه الرخاوة‬.‫َمر عمييـ‬ ّ ‫ تأ‬،‫ قؿ ليـ‬،‫"يدافعوف عف ال شيء‬
‫ إذا‬،‫ وقبؿ كؿ شيء لماذا يريدوف أف يحموا األبرياء؟ في النياية‬...‫ تظف أنيـ يريدوف أف يحموا أطفاليـ منيـ‬.‫بريطانيا‬
‫أعجبيـ ذلؾ فميـ مطمؽ الحرية أف يغادروا بريطانيا ومع السبلمة! ىذا ىو الوقت المناسب لوضع سبلمة كؿ المواطنيف‬
)‫" (المرجع نفسو‬.‫البريطانييف فوؽ قضية إزعاج خاطر حفنة مف المسمميف‬

2.3.2.1 Purpose of the Translation

The purpose of translating a readers’ comment on the news on the Web is to inform
informed readers of the attitudes and opinions held by the SL public about them or topics
related to them, especially those counter to theirs. Further, another purpose can be
general and sought for by some readers who have the curiosity to know about others’
views of the world with an aim to further their knowledge of the other.

2.3.2.2 Type of TL Readership

The type of TL readers expected to read the readers’ comments are those well-informed,
educated and, probably, average readers who may have a special interest and curiosity to
know about other peoples’ views and arguments about currently hot points. Hence, the
translator has to bear this in mind in relation to the translation of the message of the view
expressed, but with care. Sensitive and insulting views have to be treated with utmost
care to avoid hurting the TL readers. As to the informal tone of the original, it cannot be
imitated verbatim; only occasionally can few informal, or semi-formal expressions be
tolerated in Arabic (as suggested in the above translation).

2.3.2.3 Translation Problems

The translation problems of Mr. Pickles’ letter to Muslim leaders of the UK Mosques are
different from those of the reader’s comment. In the first, the translator has to be
committed to the SL text more than in the second for it is about official statements and
declarations by official people, so, we take care of their words. However, in the second,
we feel freer for the commitment is not official and not as sensitive as of the first text. In
addition, informality is characteristic of the source text’s tone of language and style. First,
78
there is an unusual problem of bad grammar and spelling in this text, which might need
fixing before translating. This is one way of doing that (corrections underlined):

They Defend nothing, tell them that, demand it. We got sick of this namby pamby kids
gloves #$%$. We know they are brain washing Muslims in the UK. You would think they
would want to protect their kids from them?.....after all why would they not want to
protect the innocent? At the end of the day if they don’t 79on’t like it then they are free to
leave the UK. It’s about time that the safety of all UK citizens was put ahead of upsetting a
handful of Muslims.

This is optional. The important thing is the translator does not commit a mistake
misunderstanding or misspelling a word or an expression of the original because of bad
grammar or spelling. Yet, these mistakes may reflect either a low level of education on the
part of the writer, or the focus on the message more than anything else, or both.
However, here, the second reason may be applicable, in which case the hint to the
translator is that the contents are what he/she is to focus on.

Now to the problems of translating some individual words and expressions. The trickiest
of them is the colloquial expression ‘this namby pamby kids gloves which is an insinuation
to over-leniency and, hence, has no relation to kids or gloves. So, it is translated loosely
into its sense in Arabic as)‫ (رخاوة‬, which is rather semi-formal. On the other hand, ‘brain
washing Muslims’ is a serious word in the source text and expressive of the blatant bias of
the writer against Islam. So, the translator has to attend to it accurately (as done above,
translating directly it into the normal cliché )‫ – )غسيؿ دماغ‬rather than literally into ‫مسمموف‬
‫مغسولو األدمغة‬. Several other informal expressions are translated rather semi-formally into
Arabic including the cliché metaphor ‘at the end of the day’ )‫( (في النياية‬c.f. the formal ‫في‬
)‫ ;نياية المطاؼ‬the catch phrase ‘it’s about time’ )‫آف األواف‬/‫(ىذا ىو الوقت المناسب‬, etc. On the
other hand, ‘they are free to leave the UK’ is translated into overstranslation as ‫(ليـ مطمؽ‬
)‫ ومع السبلمة‬،‫الحرية أف يغادروا بريطانيا‬, with )‫ (مطمؽ‬and )‫ (ومع السبلمة‬being added by implication to
be expressive of the intended meaning, and to be received clearly by the TL readership.

Finally, the trickiest problem of all is the sarcastic tone implied between the lines, which
the translator has to explore. It is implied in two expressions: (a) ‘namby pamby’ which is
sarcastic in sense as well as sound-effect, which might be expressed better in Arabic by
very colloquial phrases like (‫رخرخة‬/‫(سخسخة‬, but neither is used due to their slang and local
origin. (b) “upsetting a handful of Muslims” which is a minimization of the number and
status of the Muslims in the UK who are over 3 millions now (%5 of the British population)
(2011 census: Huffington Post, Feb, 2015). So, it is translated equally sarcastically into
)‫ (إزعاج خاطر حفنة مف المسمميف‬with ‫ إزعاج خاطر‬being used ironically in everyday conversation,
and ‫ حفنة‬which implies undermining the number and the status of the Muslim in England,
thus, reflecting the insidious insinuation of the writer of the source text.

79
2.3.2.4 Translation Strategies

(1) Transliteration of proper names

(2) Transliteration of political titles (e.g. Lord → ‫)اللورد‬
(3) Cultural equivalent (e.g. secretary → ‫وزٌر‬, minister → ‫وكٌل وزٌر‬/ ‫نائب‬, and Muslim
leader → ‫(إمام‬
(4) Classifier (e.g. Cameron → ‫السيد ديفيد كاميروف رئيس وزراء بريطانيا‬
(5) Familiar Alternative (UK → the familiar ‫ بريطانيا‬rather than into the less familiar
‫(المممكة المتحدة‬
(6) Overtranslation (they are free to leave the UK → ‫ ومع‬،‫مطمؽ الحرية أف يغادروا بريطانيا‬
‫السبلمة‬
(7) Transposition: verb phrase → noun phrase (e.g. brain washing → ‫)غسيؿ دماغ‬
(8) Cultural additions (e.g. ‫(مع السبلمة‬
(9) Ironical insinuations (e.g. namby pamby → ‫ ;رخاوة‬upsetting a handful of Muslims
→ ‫)إزعاج خاطر حفنة مف المسمميف‬
(10) Minimization (e.g. handful of Muslims → ‫)حفنة مف المسمميف‬

2.4 Summary

This chapter has investigated in some details the translation of a major type of general
texts, correspondence. Samples of many types and subtypes of letter writing are
exemplified for, translated and discussed from four main translational points: purpose of
the translation, type of TL readership, problems of translation and translation strategies.
More than one conclusion can be drawn from the foregoing discussion. First, some letters
are characterized by being formal, others informal, or semi-formal in tone, which is
essential in the translation for the TL readership in the first place. A second conclusion is
that at translating any type of letters, the TL readership is always borne in mind by the
translator. The third conclusion is that the translator has to identify the purpose of
translating the letter before anything else. A fourth conclusion is that the translation
problems of all types of correspondence are solvable by several means including, first and
foremost, translation strategies which are numerous indeed.

80
EXERCISES

(1) What is correspondence? Is it useful as a means of communication? How useful is

to translate English correspondence and why?
(2) How many types of correspondence are there today? Which type do you
personally prefer and why?
(3) Point out specific features common to all types of correspondence.
(4) Compare between electronic devices of correspondence and traditional
correspondence in terms of language, time, efficiency and feelings.
(5) What are the most important points of a recommendation letter? Translate the
following recommendation letter into Arabic, and attend carefully to the most
important words and phrases that might be crucial to the applicant.
(6) There are specialized and general types of correspondence. Give five examples for
each type.
(7) Translate the following recommendation letter into an Arabic academic style that
matches the original:

Dear Sir / Madam,

It is my great pleasure to write this letter in support of Miss Jane Smith’s application to
your esteemed university.
I instructed Miss Smith for the course Introduction to the Tourism Industry. She was
unquestionably one of the most able students in the class, and her work in the class
consistently reflected a level of insightfulness and attention to detail that is unique to Miss
Smith. Her reports were always prepared on time, and she stood out among her peers for
her eagerness to engage in the process of learning and discovery. Simply put, Miss Smith
was a true pleasure to have in class.
Miss Smith was happy to voice her own viewpoints during class discussions, and often
asked me for further clarification of points I covered in my lecture. In addition to her
confidence and eagerness to learn, Miss Smith also made a good impression on me due to
her pleasant personality. Certainly, she
seemed to get on well with classmates and teachers at all times, and I imagine that she
will do the same when she is in your institution.
Based on my observation of her abilities, I strongly believe she has the potential to be an
outstanding student at your university. I therefore recommend her for admission to your
master’s program. Please do not hesitate to contact me for more information.

Yours sincerely,
Linda Johnson
Director
Department of Tourism
Goodwell University

7. How many types are business letters? Translate the next business letter into
Arabic and take care of the key terms and expressions underlined. Tray to avoid
using technical terminology.

81
Dear ...

We have reviewed your application for credit, and it is our pleasure to inform you that an
account has been opened for your company.
Please feel free to use your account as often as you wish. A descriptive brochure is
attached which outlines the terms and conditions upon which this account has been
opened.

Should your credit requirements change, or should you have any questions regarding your
new account, call this office and ask to speak to one of our account representatives. When
you call, please have your account number available, in order that we might have quick
access to your file.

8. Translate the following complaint letter into Arabic. See what to translate, and
what to leave out, and say why. Remember, complaint letters should be: concise,
authoritative, factual, constructive, and friendly (Businessballs 2015):

date ...

Dear Sirs ...

Faulty (xyz) product

I'm afraid that the enclosed (xyz) product doesn't work. It is the third one I've had to return
this month (see attached correspondence).

I bought it from ABC stores at Newtown, Big County on (date).

I was careful to follow the instructions for use, honestly.
Other than the three I've had to return recently, I've always found your products to be
excellent.
I'd be grateful if you could send a replacement and refund my postage (state amount).
I really appreciate your help.

Yours faithfully
signature
J Smith (Mrs)
Enc.

82
APPENDIX (1):

Political Correspondence: Exchanges of Letters Among Leaders and Politicians

(Adopted from Ghazala, 2012).

Leaders of States have a significant medium of communication which happens to be

confidential. They sometimes resort to letter correspondence. They forward private
messages to one another, usually delivered by a special envoy, or through the State's
ambassador to the other State. These letters and messages are official and written in
formal language with an extra care of word choice and grammatical structure, especially
word order and use of passive and active styles.

On the one hand, word choice is accurate with respect to the following categories:
negative / positive; biased / unbiased; direct / indirect; clear / ambiguous; overt / covert;
descriptive / insinuative; passive / active; taboo / euphemized; respectful / disrespectful;
using forms of address / ignoring forms of address; acquiescent / aggressive; and so on.
These are clues for two countries' friendship or hostility, mutual confidence or lack of
confidence, respect or disrespect, candor or beating around the bush, clarity or ambiguity,
passivity or activity, submissiveness or sense of dignity. Some of these implications and
functions can be illustrated in the next examples:

Following are three extracts from official letters exchanged between the first King of Saudi
Arabia, Abdul-Aziz Bin Abdul-Rahman Aal Saud, renowned in the West as Ibn Saud (1888-
1953), and the American President, Franklin Roosevelt (1882-1945). The first is a letter
sent By King Ibn Saud to Roosevelt in 1943):

)1(
‫"بسم اهلل الرحمن الرحيم‬
‫"في ىذا المعترك العالمي الذي قامت فيو األمم تيدر دماءىا وتبذل ثرواتيا دفاعاً عن حرياتيا واستقالليا راعني‬
‫ وقياميم بدعاية‬،‫وراع المسممين والعرب ما شاع من انتياز فئة من الييود الصييونيين ىذه األزمة الخانقة‬
‫ وطالب الممك ابن سعود في ىذه الرسالة من‬."‫واسعة النطاق أرادوا بيا السعي لتضميل الرأي العام األمريكي‬
.ً‫ ومنع بيع األراضي لمييود منعاً باتا‬،ً‫الرئيس روزفمت مساعدتو إليقاف سيل اليجرة الييودية إيقافاً تاما‬
‫ واألكاذيب التي‬، ‫وتتضمن ىذه الرسالة أيضاً الكثير من العناصر التي توضح حقيقة الوضع في فمسطين‬
.‫يدعييا الييود والصياينة في األ راضي العربية‬
)1999 :95 ‫؛‬69 :‫(موسوعة تاريخ الممؾ عبد العزيز الدبموماسي‬

At the beginning of his letter, and by way of introducing to the facts about the Zionists,
King Ibn Saud used expressive and emotively charged words to describe the calamities,
sacrifices and bloodshed paid by all Nations. This is meant to be to stand in contrast with
the attack on what was going on in the meantime of terrible actions committed by the
Zionists in the dark against all the Arabs, all the Moslems, the Arabs in Palestine, the
immigration of vagrant Jews to Palestine and buying Palestinian lands by the Jews. Then,
Ibn Saud went on to ask calmly and politely the American President to help put an end to
the flooding immigration of the Jews He ended his letter by another attack on the Zionists'
packs of lies and preposterous allegations about their alleged historical rights in Palestine.
83
A distinguishing feature of the letter is the King's start with "In the Name of God", which
reflects his religious commitment. It goes without saying that the King's language is formal
both lexically and syntactically. Local, dialectal words or informal grammatical structure
disappear completely for the occasion and register are highly formal and official. All these
are good reasons to translate the passage into English bearing these considerations in
mind:

("In the Name of God, Most Gracious Most Merciful

In this ferocious world struggle [World War II] in which nations shed their blood and
sacrifice their national resources in defense of their freedom and independence, I have
been alarmed, as have other Moslems and Arabs, because a group of Zionists are
seizing the opportunity of this terrible crisis to make extensive propaganda by which
they seek to mislead American public opinion." In his letter to President Roosevelt, the
King also asked him to help bring the torrent flooding of Jewish immigrants to a
complete halt, and ban selling lands to the Jews conclusively. Beside that, the letter
contains many items which make clear the truth about the situation in Palestine and
the fabricated lies forged by the Jews and the Zionists in the Arab Lands")

(From King Ibn Saud to President Roosevelt: 30 April 1943: As-Simari et al., 1999: 69@95.
See also Aldamer, 2003: 88-89)

(2)
"It appears to me highly desirable that the Arabs and Jews interested in this
question should come to a friendly understanding with respect to matters affecting
Palestine through their own efforts prior to the termination of the war. I am glad of
this opportunity, however, to reiterate my assurance that it is the view of the
government of the United States that, in any case, no decision altering the basic
situation of Palestine should be reached without full consultation with both Arabs
and Jews."
(From the American President, Roosevelt, to the Saudi King, Ibn Suad: 24 May 1943. In
Aldamer, 2003: 89)

The interesting point about this text is its complex syntactic structure. The whole
letter is two long sentences only. And this is done on purpose. President Roosevelt did
his best to use a kind of appeasing, polite and slow-tone style, perhaps to
counterpoise King Ibn Saud's angry tone about the Jews and Zionists who were – as
they are always - the Americans' friends. Further, Roosevelt uses a probability phrase
('it appears to me') to reflect his hesitancy to put his suggestion forward, on the one
hand, and lack of certainty of Ibn Saud's reaction to it, on the other (c.f. "The Arabs
and the Jews should come to a friendly understanding on Palestine question"). A third
possible indication is Roosevelt's hideous support of the Jews' position, however
implicitly through a prolonged structure, the use of modality phrase and the use of
'friendly'. And he knew very well that the Arabs could never take Jews as their friends
who were plotting then to occupy their land, Palestine.

To look agreeable and nice to Ibn Saud, he started his second long sentence with 'I am
glad'. On the other hand, he went back to his unnecessarily long structuring by
inserting two interruptive synonymous phrases ('however', and 'in any case') and
84
 circumlocutory phrases like 'that it is the view of the government of the United States'
(c.f. 'in my view') and 'that, in any case, … with both Arabs and Jews' (c.f. that no
decision should be taken without consultation with Arabs and Jews'). A further
interesting style of Roosevelt's language is his use of passive in the second sentence,
which is confirmed strongly by using circumlocutions and phrases of abstract
reference (e.g. 'it appears'). Thus, the President was doing his best to avoid involving
himself in person in his language. Nevertheless, these features are features of formal,
diplomatic, indirect and hideous style of Roosevelt.

For all these reasons, The Arabic translation should be a construction of these
features of the style of the original, as suggested below:

‫(يبدو لي أف ىناؾ رغبة شديدة أف يتوصؿ العرب والييود الميتموف بيذه القضية [قضية فمسطيف] إلى تفاىـ ودي‬
‫ يسعدني‬،‫عمى أية حاؿ‬.)‫حوؿ المسائؿ التي تيـ فمسطيف عبر جيودىـ الخاصة قبؿ انتياء الحرب (العالمية الثانية‬
‫ لف يُتخذ قرار يغير‬،‫بيذه المناسبة أف أعود لمتأكيد عمى أف وجية نظر الحكومة األمريكية أنو وفي كؿ األحواؿ‬
).‫الوضع األساس في فمسطيف مف دوف استشارة العرب والييود عمى السواء‬
)943 ‫ مايو‬24 ‫ في‬:‫(مف الرئيس األمريكي روزفمت إلى الممؾ ابف سعود‬

President Roosevelt sent a special envoy, Colonel Harold Hoskins, to Riyadh to enquire
whether King Ibn Saud considered it advisable or useful to meet Dr. Weizmann. The King's
adamant reply to this suggestion was the following letter:

(3)
("Ibn Saud considers Dr. Weizmann as his personal enemy for it was he who had the
outrageous insolence to approach Ibn Saud and to ask him to be a traitor to his
religion and his country. This approach was made in the first year of the war when Dr.
Weizmann sent a certain European personality with request that Ibn Saud should
abandon the Arabs of Palestine in return for £20,000,000 to be guaranteed by
President Roosevelt himself. The man dared to put this base proposal to Ibn Saud and
suggest that the President would guarantee such a dishonorable proposal. Could
anything be baser or more criminal than this?")
(From King Ibn Saud to President Roosevelt: 29 august 1943. In Aldamer, 2003: 90)

Since the Arabic full text of this letter is not available but in fractions (see As-Simari, et al,
1999), it is taken from English, being one of the American secret documents (see Al-
Rasheed, 1980 in Aldamer, 2003). This letter has a striking feature of style of using a very
strong and aggressive language by King Ibn Saud in an outrageous reaction to the Zionist
Weizmann who dared insolently to approach him to pay him a staggering bribe to leave
Palestine alone. Examples include: 'Ibn Saud's personal enemy'; 'outrageous insolence';
'base proposal'; 'dishonorable proposal'; and 'could anything be baser or more criminal
than this?' Added to that is the King's exposure of Weizmann's scandalous attempt to
bribe him. The other amazing feature of Ibn Saud's diplomatic style of this letter is his
respectful use of a formal form of address, calling Weizmann 'Dr.' although he is his
personal enemy. All these features and implications are constructed from the Arabic
original which would look something like the following:

85
‫َ"يعتبر الممك ابن سعود الدكتور وايزمن عدوه الشخصي ألنو بمغت بو الصفاقة أن يحاول التقرب من الممك‬
‫ويطمب منو أن يكون خائناً لد ينو وبمده‪ .‬وجرت محاولة الثقرب ىذه في السنة األولى من الحرب [العالمية‬
‫الثانية] حينما بعث الدكتور وايزمن مع شخصية أوربية بطمب مفاده أن يتخمى الممك ابن سعود عن عرب‬
‫فمسطين مقابل ‪( 020222222‬عشرين مميون) جنيو إسترليني والكفيل ىو الرئيس روزفمت نفسو‪ .‬لقد تجرأ‬
‫الرجل ذاك بكل وقاحة عمى تقديم مقترح خسيس كيذا لمممك ابن سعود ويقترح معو أن يكون الرئيس روزفمت‬
‫كفيالً لمقترح مشين كيذا‪ .‬ىل ىناك جرم أحقر وأكبر من ىذ‪ 1‬الجرم؟"‬

‫‪86‬‬
 CHAPTER 3

TRANSLATING LEAFLETS
3.0 Introduction

A leaflet is a small sheet of paper (usually folded) and mailed as a part of a direct mail
campaign, handed out at key events such as conferences, or put out on display in key
locations including relevant offices or information centres. Leaflets can also be
disseminated in electronic format via some websites and SMS messages. They can be very
effective, designed to be easy to retain and provide essential information on a subject. A
successful leaflet will be eye-catching and demonstrate effectively its message. It may
target, for example, specific actions such as the launch of a new business and diversity
opportunity, an innovation, a noteworthy habitat, a new approach to teaching, a
promotion of some distinguished products, a religious sermon, or ideas of all types, and so
on.

A leaflet should be designed with a view to readership to present its message as clearly
and simply as possible, and to encourage the reader to find out more about the topic
concerned. People decide within seconds whether they want to read a document or not.
Further, a leaflet should not try to tell everything that can be said about a topic; only the
main headlines and guidelines. The most interesting and groundbreaking elements should
be set out clearly, with indications of where more technical or detailed information can be
found.

Hence, unlike some other forms of communication, leaflets could be aimed at anyone who
could be interested in the subject matter in question. This will include experts working in
the field, but also members of the public who might have a personal interest in the topic.
Because of the potentially wide audience, leaflets should not be overly technical; they
should allow someone who has never heard of the subject to gain a quick understanding
of the essential elements.

There are several main factors that should be considered during the planning and
production of an effective leaflet design:

1. A clear message
2. Simple language
3. Short sentences and easy-going grammatical structures
4. Uncomplicated text
5. Not overly technical
6. Target reader-oriented
7. A catchy, short title to attract attention quickly
8. Attractive and eye-catching presentation to give good first impressions
9. Logical presentation
10. One capturing and exciting picture on the front page can speak a thousand words
11. Well-chosen headlines and brief, key information

87
 12. The shorter, the better
13. Well-organized layout
14. A format of smart appearance on the front side
15. Contact information on the back and visible without opening the leaflet.
16. Sub-headings so that the main points are clearly visible when scanning the leaflet.
17. Distinguished printing
(See leaflets_lifeplus & teachit.co.uk/attachments/leaflet)

Next are sample examples of good leaflets of different types, followed by their
translations and discussion (brochures and manuals are included under the superordinate
term ‘leaflet’):

3.1 Public Service Leaflet: e.g.

88
 ‫مركز العالج الشامل‬

:‫عيادة تخصصية شاممة لمتخصصات التالية‬

‫كؿ أنواع اإلصابات الرياضية‬ 
‫برامج إعادة تأىيؿ رياضية وصحية‬ 
‫مساجات عبلج صحي وترميـ واجياد‬ 
‫برامج غذائية لمحمية والريجيـ‬ 
‫محؿ األعشاب الطبية والعضويات والعسؿ الطبيعي والفيتامينات‬ 
‫دورات تعميمية وورشات عمؿ في الرياضة والمساج والتشريح والفيزيولوجيا لؤلفراد والمتخصصيف (دورات في‬ 
‫العطمة األسبوعية خاصة بالطبلب والميتميف بتغيير مجاؿ عمميـ إلى الرياضة وميف طبية حرة والطب‬
.)‫البديؿ‬

‫قسائـ مجانية‬
‫ جنيو إسترليني‬55 ‫ ساعة ونصؼ – بقيمة‬. ‫ جنيو إسترليني‬35 ‫ساعة واحدة – بقيمة‬

‫أوقات دواـ العيادة‬

----
----
----
‫اتصموا بنا عمى‬
... :‫العنواف التالي‬
... :‫أرقاـ اليواتؼ‬
... :‫البريد اإللكتروني التالي‬

3.1.1 Purpose of the Translation

The purpose of translating a public service leaflet like this is to make the focal points of
the leaflet as clear as possible in a language that is as simple and TL-oriented as possible.
Literal translation can be harmful if it renders the SL expressions as they are used in the
SL. Included in the purpose are the precise details about contacting the company, etc.
concerned regarding their address, phone & mobile numbers and e-mail(s).

3.1.2 Type of TL Readership

The type of TL readership to read this leaflet is that interested in the service concerned, be
it most likely average, or educated. Hence, the technical language has to be brought to a
minimum, and when used, it should be sharp and to the point, simplified, recurrent and
close to popular terminology, so that interested readers can follow it comfortably.
89
3.1.3 Translation Problems

The problems of translating this leaflet are multiple. First, several technical terms are
difficult to translate directly into Arabic. Yet, some of them are translatable into ready-
made Arabic equivalents (e.g. clinic, remedial / therapeutic, rehabilitation, organics,
anatomy, voucher )‫ تشريح؛ قسيمة مجانية‬،‫ عضويات‬،‫ إعادة التأىيؿ‬،‫ عبلجي‬،‫(عيادة‬. However, others
are translatable into Arabized equivalents, but are preferably transliterated into Arabic
letters due to their popularity among the Arab public (e.g. massage, diet, physiology ،‫(مساج‬
)‫ فيزيولوجيا‬،‫( ريجيـ‬rather than )‫ وظائؼ األعضاء‬،‫ حمية‬،‫ (تدليؾ‬which are less popular among the
public. Yet, some terms are dropped being either redundant (e.g. the two synonyms
‘remedial’ and ‘therapeutic’ are translated into one term only ‫)عبلج صحي‬, or unnecessary
being quite alien to the TL readership (e.g. ‘manuka’ is a tree that its leaves are used as
herbs, teat, etc. and ‘supplement’ )‫)(إضافة‬. On the other hand, some terms have been
added by implication, and in response to the TL readership’s recurrent terms (e.g.
‫ شامؿ‬،‫(تخصصات‬. For the same reasons some terms have been translated into equivalent
Arabic one that are familiar to the TL readers (e.g. professional → ‫ تخصصي‬rather than
‫احترافي‬/‫‘ ;ميني‬diet’ → ‫‘ ;ريجيـ‬repair’ → ‫ترميـ‬, not into ‫‘ ;إصبلح‬alternative therapies’ → ‫الطب‬
‫ البديؿ‬in preference to ‫)المعالجات البديمة‬. A final problem of translation is related the tone of
language, which is generally formal MSA, occasionally tinted with semi-formal
words/expressions. Examples include: ،)"‫ ريجيـ (إلى جانب الفصحى "حمية‬،)"‫مساج (عوضاً عف "تدليؾ‬
))"ً‫جنيو إسترليني (بدالً عف "جنيياً إسترلينيا‬.

3.1.4 Translation Strategies

Among the translation strategies used in the translation of this leaflet are:

(1) Arabization (e.g. ... ،‫ تشريح‬،‫)عيادة‬

(2) Transliteration preferred to Arabization (e.g. ...‫ ريجيـ‬،‫)مساج‬
(3) Naturalization (e.g. ‫ جنيو إسترليني‬،‫ فيزيولوجيا‬،‫)فيتامينات‬
(4) Cultural equivalent (e.g. health shop → ‫ ;محؿ أعشاب طبية‬alternative therapies →
‫)الطب البديؿ‬
(5) Sense (e.g. contact details → ‫)اتصموا بنا‬
(6) Avoidance of formal (e.g. ‫ وظائؼ األعضاء‬،‫ تدليؾ حمية‬are avoided)
(7) Arabization preferred to foreignization/transliteration (e.g. voucher → ‫قسيمة مجانية‬
(rather than the awkward transliteration ‫)فاوتشر‬
(8) Deletion of unnecessary details(e.g. ‘manuka’ is dropped; several details of
address are deleted)
(9) General sense (e.g. remedial & therapeutic → ‫(عبلج صحي‬

90
 (10) Transposition : plural → singular (e.g. alternative therapies→ ‫)الطب البديؿ‬

3.2 Tourist Leaflets/Brochures

Tourism is now earning prime importance in the interests, revenues and economy of
countries. Tourist attractions of different kinds have been introduced to the public in
special picturesque leaflets and brochures, and simplified formal language and style.
Translating such leaflets and brochures is a common practice nowadays due to
unprecedented rush to tourist cities and places the world over. In effect, increasing
concern is expected to be assumed by the translators to produce appropriate translations
for these leaflets that focus mainly on the TL readership’s intentions and needs, the
purpose of translating such texts to them, and the contents satisfyingly and in appropriate
language. The following example, its translation and the discussion of its purpose,
translation problems and strategies may confirm that.

LONDON TOURIST INFORMATION

With its dramatic and colourful history and quintessentially British traditions, London is
easily the most fascinating location for visitors to the UK.

With so much to do it’s fortunate that London is compact in nature, with major historical
attractions, beautiful open spaces, world class shopping and an enviable nightlife, you will
find yourself returning to London time and time again to indulge in new experiences.
The capital city is home to many ancient traditions: Changing of the Guard at the Royal
Palaces, the annual Trooping, the Colour on Horse Guards Parade marking the Queen's
official birthday, the State Opening of Parliament, the annual Lord Mayor's Show, the
Ceremony of the Keys at the Tower of London. Many of these ceremonies and parades date
back hundreds of years and form the fabric of the cities rich history.

‫المعالم السياحية في لندن‬

‫ ميوى األفئدة الساحر‬،‫تعتبر لندف الزاخرة بتاريخيا المذىؿ والمتعدد األطياؼ واأللواف وتقاليدىا البريطانية النموذجية‬
‫ ومف حسف الحظ أف لندف مدينة مممممة عمى بعضيا‬،‫ ىناؾ الكثير مف األشياء يفعميا السائح في لندف‬.‫لزوار بريطانيا‬
‫ وحياة ليمية تحسد عمييا وتجذب‬،‫ ومحبلت تسوؽ عالمية‬،‫ وفضاءات فسيحة‬،‫ وفييا مناطؽ سياحية تاريخية‬،‫بطبيعتيا‬
.‫ مما يجعمؾ تفكر في العودة إلى لندف مرات ومرات لتعيش تجارب جديدة في كؿ مرة‬،‫السياح مف كؿ حدب وصوب‬

‫ تبديؿ الحرس في قصر بكينجياـ وغيره مف القصور‬:‫حقاً تعتبر ل ندف الموطف األصمي لكثير مف التقاليد القديمة منيا‬
،‫ والموكب السنوي لمخيالة الممكية باألعبلـ في ذكرى عيد ميبلد ممكة بريطانيا الرسمي‬،‫ وعرض المشاة السنوي‬،‫الممكية‬
‫ ويعود تاريخ ىذه‬.‫ وحفؿ مفاتيح برج لندف‬،‫ وعرض محافظ لندف السنوي‬،‫واالفتتاح الرسمي السنوي لمبرلماف البريطاني‬
.‫االستعراضات واالحتفاالت إلى مئات السنيف وتشكؿ حمة قشيبة مف المدف الغنية بتاريخيا‬

91
 Images of London

The Tower of London

Set against the backdrop of the spectacular River Thames, the Tower of London has a grisly
history as a palace, a prison and a place of execution. Take an extraordinary trip back in
time to the Bloody Tower where Sir Walter Raleigh was imprisoned, see where Anne
Boleyn was beheaded on Tower Green or gaze in awe at the royal jewels. …

‫برج لندن‬
‫ ابدأ رحمة خرافية تعود بؾ إلى‬.‫ ولو تاريخ رىيب كقصر وسجف ومشانؽ‬،‫يقع برج لندف في خمفية نير التايمز العظيـ‬
‫وشاىد مكاف قطع‬
ْ ،1618 ‫الوراء إلى زمف سفؾ الدماء في البرج حيث ُسجف السير وولتر راليو الشيير وقطع رأسو عاـ‬
.‫ وانظر بإجبلؿ إلى المجوىرات الممكية‬،‫آف بوليف عمى مرج البرج‬
ْ ‫رأس زوجة الممؾ ىنري الثامف المتيمة بالخيانة‬

The Palaces

Visitors to London are likely to make the pilgrimage to Buckingham Palace, the official
residence of Queen Elizabeth II. During the summer months, the State Rooms (which are
still used by the Royal Family on ceremonial occasions) of the palace are open to the
public, along with 29 acres of palace gardens. Containing some of the world's most
treasured pieces of art, and gifts given to the current Queen, the palace is a fascinating
place to visit.

Those with a keen interest in politics will certainly wish to pay a visit to the House of
Parliament, also known as the Palace of Westminster. Other palaces and castles of interest
include Kensington Palace, the birthplace of both Queen Victoria and Princess Diana. …

‫القصور‬
‫ في الصيؼ يتـ فتح القاعات‬.‫ وىو مكاف إقامة الممكة إليزابيث الثانية‬،‫ال بد لمسائحيف مف الحج إلى قصر بكينجياـ‬
.‫ فداناً مف حدائؽ القصر‬29 ‫ باإلضافة إلى‬،)‫الرسمية لمقصر لمعامة (وتستخدميا األسرة المالكة في المناسبات االحتفالية‬
‫ مما يجعمو أشد األماكف سح اًر‬،‫ وىدايا قُدمت إلى الممكة الحالية‬،‫كما يحتوي القصر عمى أثمف لوحات فنية في العالـ‬
.‫لمزائر‬

92
ً‫ وىو ما يعرؼ أيضا‬،‫ فسوؼ يكوف لدييـ رغبة شديدة بزيارة مجمس العموـ البريطاني‬،‫أما أولئؾ المولعوف بالسياسة‬
‫ وىو مسقط رأس الممكة‬،‫ أيضاً مف القصور والقبلع األخرى المثيرة لبلىتماـ قصر كينسسينجتوف‬.‫بقصر الويست مينستر‬
.‫فيكتوريا واألميرة ديانا‬

The Museums and Galleries

With over 300 museums and galleries to choose from, it's easy to immerse yourself in the
capital's culture. The renowned British Museum houses over seven million objects, notably
including sculptures from the Parthanon, the Elgin Marbles and the Rosetta Stone, it is also
home to one of the finest collections of Egyptian archaeological finds.

Visitors will also be captivated by the incredible German Romanesque architecture of the
Natural History Museum. … The museum … contains one of the most dramatic dinosaur
exhibitions. …

The National Maritime Museum in Greenwich houses a collection of objects relating to the
history of Britain at sea. The museum is set against the backdrop of the Thames, and offers
fantastic views.

Visitors with a keen eye for art should head to the renowned National Gallery to see some
of the finest examples of art the world has to offer. …

Touted as "London's favorite tourist attraction", the statues at Madame Tussauds Wax
Museum have been thrilling visitors since Tussaud opened her first permanent exhibit in
1835. Today the wax museum is one of London's busiest attractions and during peak
tourist season, it is common to encounter long lines that stretch for blocks. While the
museum has a decidedly British slant, visitors from all over the world will recognize a
majority of the characters.

‫المتاحف وصاالت العرض الفنية‬

‫ يأتي عمى رأسيا‬.‫ متحؼ وصالة عرض فنية في لندف كافية إلغراؽ السائح بثقافة لندف الساحرة‬300 ‫يوجد أكثر مف‬
‫ منيا تماثيؿ يونانية مرصعة بالمرمر اليوناني‬،‫المتحؼ البريطاني الشيير الذي يحتوي عمى أكثر مف سبع مبلييف قطعة‬
.‫ وفيو أيض ًا أروع مجموعة مف اآلثار المصرية‬.‫وحجر رشيد المصري بنقوش يونانية‬

‫ يحتوي المتحؼ‬.‫كما أف السياح ست أسرىـ اليندسة العمرانية األلمانية الرومانية الساحرة لمتحؼ التاريخ الطبيعي في لندف‬
...‫مما يحتوي عمى أحد معارض الديناصورات المثيرة والمذىمة في العالـ‬

‫أما المتحؼ البحري الوطني في مدينة غرنيتش الشييرة فيحتوي عمى مجموعة مف األشياء المدىشة المتعمقة بتاريخ‬
.‫ ويطؿ عمى مناظر رائعة‬،‫ يقع المتحؼ مقابؿ خمفية نير التايمز‬.‫بريطانيا البحري‬

93
‫وألولئؾ الزوار الذيف يعشقوف الفف التشكيمي‪ ،‬عمييـ التوجو إلى الصالة الوطنية لمفنوف الشييرة ليتفرجوا عمى أجمؿ‬
‫الموحات الفنية العالمية‪.‬‬

‫أما أشير معمـ سياحي في لندف عمى اإلطبلؽ فيو متحؼ الشموع (أو مداـ توسو السويسرية) الذي يحتوي عمى تماثيؿ‬
‫لشخصيات عالمية تاريخية وسياسية وفنية وأدبية عالمية مشيورة‪ ،‬وقد أذىؿ مواكب الزائريف منذ افتتاحو كمعرض دائـ‬
‫منذ عاـ ‪ .1835‬واليوـ يعتبر متحؼ الشموع مف أكثر المعالـ السياحية ازدحاماً في فصؿ الصيؼ وىو الموسـ الذي‬
‫يغص بو السياح‪ .‬ومف المألوؼ أف تجد طوابير طويمة مف الزائريف تمتد إلى ما بيف العمارات المجاورة‪ .‬وبرغـ المسحة‬
‫البريطانية الثقافية الخاصة لممتحؼ‪ ،‬بإمكاف السياح مف شتى أصقاع األرض التعرؼ عمى معظـ الشخصيات فيو‪.‬‬

‫‪The Parks‬‬

‫‪Although London is such a bustling city, there are still many open green spaces in which to‬‬
‫‪relax. Hyde Park, once the hunting ground of Henry VIII, covers 350 acres and boasts a‬‬
‫‪huge lake. It's a wonderfully peaceful place to rest, and you will almost forget you are in‬‬
‫‪the heart of the city. More notably, it is famous for its free speakers’ corner on Sundays.‬‬
‫‪Another of Henry VIII's hunting parks, Regents Park covers 410 acres and boasts a‬‬
‫‪beautiful rose garden and an open air theatre during the summer months. The park also‬‬
‫‪has extensive sports facilities, and is a very popular spot for those visiting London Zoo to‬‬
‫‪take a stroll. At the very heart of London running alongside the Mall, lies St James Park,‬‬
‫‪the backdrop for many of the traditional events and parades of London. Its wonderful lake‬‬
‫‪is home to ducks, geese and pelicans and the park is a very popular venue with tourists‬‬
‫‪visiting Buckingham Palace.‬‬

‫الحدائق العامة‬
‫تعتبر لندف مدينة تعج بالزحاـ واألعماؿ‪ ،‬لكنيا تحتوي عمى مساحات خضراء شاسعة واسعة مف الحدائؽ العامة‪ ،‬حيث‬
‫يخمد الناس إلى الراحة فييا‪ .‬عمى رأس ىذه الحدائؽ وأشيرىا حديقة اليايد بارؾ التي كانت ذات يوـ أرض الصيد لمممؾ‬
‫ىنري الثامف‪ .‬وتمتد عمى مساحة ‪ 350‬فداناً ومشيورة ببحيرتيا الضخمة‪ .‬إنيا مكاف رائع لتنعـ فيو باالسترخاء حتى أنؾ‬
‫تنسى نفسؾ أنؾ في قمب مدينة لندف‪ .‬واألىـ مف ىذا وذاؾ‪ ،‬اشتيرت اليايد بارؾ بركنيا الخاص بإلقاء الخطب يوـ‬
‫األحد لمف شاء ويتحدث عف أي موضوع يشاء‪ .‬ومف الحدائؽ الشييرة التي كانت أيض ًا مرتعاً لمصيد لمممؾ ىنري الثامف‬
‫في لندف ىي ريجنتس بارؾ التي تمتد عمى مساحة ‪ 410‬فداف‪ ،‬وتشتير بحديقة زىور رائعة الجماؿ‪ ،‬ومسرح في اليواء‬
‫الطمؽ في الصيؼ‪ .‬وتتضمف أنشطة رياضية واسعة‪ ،‬وىي ممشى لزوار حديقة حيوانات لندف الشييرة المجاورة ليا‪.‬‬
‫وحديقة أخرى تدعى سيت جيمس بارؾ تقع في قمب لندف أيضاً‪ ،‬وتمتد عبر شارع الموؿ‪ ،‬وىي مسرح لكثير مف‬
‫األحداث واالستعراضات التقميدية الثقافية لمدينة لندف‪ .‬وفييا بحيرة عجيبة تحتضف البط واإلوز والبجع‪ ،‬مكاف التقاء‬
‫السياح الزائريف لقصر باكينجياـ‪.‬‬

‫‪94‬‬
The Shops

A visit to London really wouldn't be complete without indulging in a little retail therapy,
with some of the finest shops anywhere in the world, from designer boutiques to vintage
thrift shops, there will be something to suit all tastes.

Head to Bond Street for big name designer wear, antique stores and jewellery. With over
300 shops and one mile from end to end Oxford Street is a Mecca for the hardcore
shopper, with diverse high street shops from Harvey Nichols to Primark! Undoubtedly the
most famous shop in London is Harrods, which originally opened in 1849 as a small grocers
shop. Today the store is vast, with a mind boggling range of products, and an incredible
food hall, with delicacies from all over the world. … If you're feeling peckish try Borough
Street Market, London's oldest food market.
‫المحال التجارية‬
‫ال تكتمؿ روعة زيارة لندف إال إذ اكتحمت بجولة ممتعة في محاليا وأسواقيا التجارية التي تعتبر مف أجمؿ المحبلت في‬
‫العالـ مف كؿ ما ىو مثير مف األصناؼ واألشكاؿ واأللواف واألزياء والمجوىرات والتحؼ مما يخطر ومما ال يخطر عمى‬
‫ وأشير شوارع لندف لمتسوؽ ىو أوكسفورد ستريت الذي يعتبر قبمة كؿ المتسوقيف بمحالو التجارية الشييرة مثؿ‬.‫الباؿ‬
‫ وىو أقدـ سوؽ مواد غذائية في‬،‫ وبورو ستريت‬،‫ وبوند ستريت ألفضؿ األزياء والمجوىرات‬،‫ىارفي نيكولز وبرايمارؾ‬
.‫ وأشير محبلت في لندف دوف منازع ىي محبلت ىارودز الغنية عف التعريؼ في شارع نايتسبريدج‬.‫لندف‬

The Food

The cuisine of London is varied, with all manner of food available from every country
imaginable. If a taste of traditional London appeals to you stop at one of the many pie and
mash shops dotted around the capital and sample the incredible "liquor" a wonderful
creamy parsley sauce. If you're feeling particularly adventurous you may choose to sample
jellied eels, a London delicacy, but certainly an acquired taste!
(theukexperience.com, 2009)

‫المأكوالت‬
‫ واذا كنت مف ىواة الطعاـ المندني التقميدي‬.‫ وفيو مأكوالت مف أي بمد تتخيمو في العالـ‬،ً‫يعتبر المطبخ المندني متنوعا‬
‫ ما عميؾ إال أف تتوجو إلى محبلت الفطائر والبطاطس الميروسة المزروعة في شتى أنحاء المدينة وكذلؾ‬،‫الذواؽ‬
‫ وىو طعـ‬،‫ جرب سمؾ الحية بالجيمي‬،‫ واذ ا كنت مف عشاؽ المغامرات‬.‫المشروب المميز لصمصة البقدونس بالكريمة‬
.‫ لكنو ذوؽ مكتسب يتعود عميو مف جربو‬،‫لندني خاص‬

3.2.1 Purpose of the Translation

The purpose of translating tourist brochures and leaflets in general is to render a full
description of tourist attractions as impressively and effectively as possible in such a way
the TL readership can be most likely attracted to them. In other words, the aim is to create
a power of persuasion that can convince the TL readers of great value of the tourist
attraction(s) in question. Therefore, the translator has to device the appropriate features

95
of language and style in the target language that may achieve such impact on the target
readership.

3.2.2 Type of TL Readership

Usually, the type of readership interested in tourism is the rich type that can be both
educated and average. This means that the language cannot be very formal, and the
words should not be technical. Further, any cultural implications or local tints are
recommended to be clarified and spelled out for the target readership via some
translation strategies (see below). This would make the description of the attractions in
question more admirable.

3.2.3 Translation Problems

The problems of translating individual words and terms are of two types. The first type is
those of translating general, non-cultural words which are a majority in this text (e.g.
visitors, palace, park, food, shop, street, gallery art, archaeological, museum, and many
others); and , second, the cultural terms, proper names and geographical names (of places
and cities in particular. As to the former group, translating them directly can be the rule,
with care taken with the most appropriate choice of word in Arabic. For example, ‘art
gallery’ is ‫ صالة فنوف‬/‫ قاعة‬rather than ‫‘ ;قاعة لوحات فنية‬place of execution’ is more as ‫ مشنقة‬than
‫إعداـ‬/‫‘ ;مكاف شنؽ‬sculptures’ ‫ تماثيؿ‬not ‫ منحوتات‬or the quite pejorative ‫( أصناـ‬for it connotes
worshiping ‘idols’); ‘Changing of the Guard at the Royal Palaces’ is translated into ‫تبديؿ‬
‫ الحرس الممكي‬and not literally into ‫‘ ;تغيير حرس القصور الممكية‬birthplace’ is a well-known
collocation in Arabic as ‫مسقط رأس‬, not into ‫مكاف ميبلد‬, and so on. A different type of problem
related to these words and expressions is the demanding translation of impressive,
effective and persuasive words into more impressive equivalent Arabic ones by way of
winning the hearts of Arab readership. Here is a table for these terms to be juxtaposed
(the terms are italicized in English, and their Arabic counterparts are underlined):

The English Original The more impressive Arabic equivalents

(1) the spectacular River Thames, ‫) نيرالتايمز العظيـ‬1(

(2) grisly history
‫) لو تاريخ رىيب كقصر‬2(
(3) extraordinary trip back in time
(4) the bloody Tower ‫) رحمة خرافية‬3(
‫) سفؾ الدماء في البرج‬4(
(5) pilgrimage to Buckingham Palace,
‫) الحج إلى قصر بكينجياـ‬5(
‫ وىدايا قُدمت‬،‫) أثمف لوحات فنية في العالـ‬6(
(6) the world's most treasured pieces ،‫إلى الممكة الحالية‬
of art, and gifts given to the current
Queen, .‫) أشد األماكف سح اًر لمزائر‬7(

96
‫‪(7) fascinating place‬‬ ‫(‪ )8‬المولعوف بالسياسة‪،‬‬
‫‪(8) keen interest in politics‬‬
‫(‪ )9‬لدييـ رغبة شديدة‬
‫‪(9) will certainly wish‬‬

‫‪(10) With over 300 museums and‬‬ ‫(‪ )10‬أكثر مف ‪ 300‬متحؼ وصالة عرض فنية‬
‫‪galleries‬‬ ‫في لندف‬
‫‪(11) easy to immerse yourself in the‬‬
‫(‪ )11‬كافية إلغراؽ السائح بثقافة لندف الساحرة‪.‬‬
‫‪capital's culture.‬‬
‫‪(12) The renowned British Museum‬‬ ‫(‪ )12‬عمى رأسيا المتحؼ البريطاني الشيير‬
‫‪(13) houses over seven million objects,‬‬ ‫(‪ )13‬يحتوي عمى أكثر مف سبع مبلييف قطعة‬
‫‪(14) notably including sculptures‬‬
‫‪(15) one of the finest collections‬‬ ‫(‪ )14‬تماثيؿ يونانية مرصعة بالمرمر اليوناني‬
‫(‪ )15‬أروع مجموعة مف اآلثار المصرية‪.‬‬
‫‪(16) Visitors … captivated by the‬‬
‫(‪ )16‬كما أف السياح ستأسرىـ اليندسة العمرانية‬
‫‪incredible German Romanesque‬‬
‫‪architecture‬‬ ‫األلمانية الرومانية الساحرة‬
‫‪(17) one of the most dramatic dinosaur‬‬ ‫(‪ )17‬يحتوي المتحؼ مما يحتوي عمى أحد‬
‫‪exhibitions‬‬
‫معارض الديناصورات المثيرة والمذىمة في‬

‫‪(18) fantastic views.‬‬ ‫العالـ‪...‬‬

‫‪(19) a keen eye for art‬‬ ‫(‪ )18‬مناظر رائعة‪.‬‬
‫‪(20) the renowned National Gallery‬‬
‫(‪ )19‬الزوار الذيف يعشقوف الفف التشكيمي‬
‫‪(21) some of the finest examples of art‬‬
‫(‪ )20‬الصالة الوطنية لمفنوف الشييرة‬
‫‪(22) Touted as "London's favorite tourist‬‬ ‫(‪ )21‬أجمؿ الموحات الفنية العالمية‪.‬‬
‫"‪attraction‬‬
‫(‪ )22‬أما أشير معمـ سياحي في لندف عمى‬
‫اإلطبلؽ فيو متحؼ الشموع‬
‫‪(23) thrilling visitors‬‬ ‫(‪ )23‬أذىؿ مواكب الزائريف‬

‫‪(24) one of London's busiest attractions‬‬ ‫(‪ )24‬مف أكثر المعالـ السياحية ازدحاماً‬
‫(‪ )25‬طوابير طويمة مف الزائريف تمتد إلى مابيف‬
‫العمارات المجاورة‪.‬‬
‫‪(25) long lines that stretch for blocks.‬‬
‫(‪ )26‬المسحة البريطانية الثقافية الخاصة‬
‫‪(26) decidedly British slant,‬‬ ‫(‪ )27‬مف شتى أصقاع األرض‬
‫‪(27) visitors from all over the world‬‬
‫(‪ )28‬تعتبر لندف مدينة تعج بالزحاـ واألعماؿ‬
‫‪(28) London is such a bustling city,‬‬
‫‪(29) many open green spaces to relax.‬‬ ‫(‪ )29‬مساحات خضراء شاسعة واسعة مف الحدائؽ‬
‫العامة حيث يخمد الناس إلى الراحة فييا‬
‫(‪ )30‬تمتد عمى مساحة ‪ 350‬فدان ًا ومشيورة‬
‫‪97‬‬
‫‪(30) covers 350 acres and boasts a huge‬‬ ‫ببحيرتيا الضخمة‪.‬‬
‫‪lake.‬‬
‫(‪ )31‬إنيا مكاف رائع لتنعـ فيو باالسترخاء‬
‫‪(31) wonderfully peaceful place to rest,‬‬
‫‪(32) forget you are in the heart of the‬‬ ‫(‪ )32‬حتى أنؾ تنسى نفسؾ أنؾ في قمب مدينة‬
‫‪city.‬‬ ‫لندف‪.‬‬
‫‪(33) More notably, it is famous for its‬‬
‫(‪ )33‬واألىـ مف ىذا وذاؾ اشتيرت اليايد بارؾ‬
‫‪free speakers’ corner on Sundays.‬‬
‫بركنيا الخاص بإلقاء الخطب يوـ األحد‬
‫(‪ )34‬ومف الحدائؽ الشييرة ‪ ...‬وتشتير بحديقة‬
‫‪(34) boasts a beautiful rose garden‬‬
‫‪(35) has extensive sports facilities,‬‬ ‫زىور رائعة الجماؿ‬
‫(‪ )35‬أنشطة رياضية واسعة‬
‫(‪ )36‬وىي بقعة ليا شعبية كبيرة عند زوار‪...‬‬
‫‪(36) a very popular spot‬‬
‫‪(37) At the very heart of London‬‬ ‫(‪ )37‬تقبع في قمب لندف أيضاً وتمتد عبر شارع‬
‫الموؿ‪،‬‬
‫(‪ )38‬مسرح لكثير مف األحداث واالستعراضات‬
‫‪(38) many of the traditional events and‬‬
‫‪parades of London.‬‬ ‫التقميدية الثقافية لمدينة لندف‪.‬‬
‫‪(39) wonderful lake‬‬ ‫(‪ )39‬بحيرة عجيبة تحتضف البط واإلوز والبجع‪،‬‬
‫‪(40) a very popular venue‬‬
‫(‪ )40‬مكاف شعبي جداً اللتقاء السياح ‪...‬‬
‫‪(41) really wouldn't be complete‬‬
‫‪without‬‬ ‫(‪ )41‬ال تكتمؿ روعة زيارة لندف إال إذ اكتحمت‬
‫‪(42) the finest shops anywhere in the‬‬ ‫بجولة ممتعة‬
‫‪world,‬‬
‫(‪ )42‬محاليا وأسواقيا التجارية التي تعتبر مف‬
‫‪(43) vintage thrift shops,‬‬
‫أجمؿ المحبلت في العالـ‬
‫(‪ )43‬كؿ ما ىو مثير‬
‫‪(44) big name designer wear, antique‬‬ ‫واألزياء‬ ‫واأللواف‬ ‫واألشكاؿ‬ ‫(‪ )44‬األصناؼ‬
‫‪stores and jewellery.‬‬
‫والمجوىرات والتحؼ‬
‫‪(45) Oxford Street is a Mecca for‬‬
‫‪shoppers‬‬ ‫(‪ )45‬أشير شوارع لندف لمتسوؽ ىو أوكسفورد‬
‫ستريت الذي يعتبر قبمة كؿ المتسوقيف‬

‫‪(46) Undoubtedly the most famous shop‬‬ ‫بمحالو التجارية الشييرة‬

‫‪in London is Harrods‬‬
‫‪(47) all manner of food available from‬‬
‫‪every country imaginable.‬‬
‫‪(48) If a taste of traditional London‬‬
‫‪appeals‬‬
‫(‪ )46‬وأشير محبلت في لندف دوف منازع ىي‬
‫محبلت ىارودز الغنية عف التعريؼ‪.‬‬
‫(‪ )47‬مأكوالت مف أي بمد تتخيمو في العالـ‪.‬‬
‫(‪ )48‬واذا كنت مف ىواة الطعاـ المندني التقميدي‬

‫‪98‬‬
 ،‫المذيذ‬
(49) many pie and mash shops dotted
‫) ما عميؾ إال أف تتوجو إلى محبلت الفطائر‬49(
around the capital
‫والبطاطس الميروسة مزروعة في شتى أنحاء‬
‫العاصمة‬
‫البقدونس‬ ‫لصمصة‬ ‫المميز‬ ‫) المشروب‬50(
(50) the incredible "liquor", a wonderful
creamy parsley sauce. .‫بالكريمة‬
(51) If you're feeling particularly ،‫) واذا كنت مف عشاؽ المغامرات‬51(
adventurous
(52) a London delicacy ‫) طعـ لندني خاص‬52(
(53) during peak tourist season ‫) في فصؿ الصيؼ وىو الموسـ الذي يغص‬53(
‫بو السياح‬

These impressive words and expressions are the key terms of tourist leaflets in general for
they touch the hearts of the TL readers aimed at. The translator is, then, free to use the
most effective and impressive terminology as he/she manages. Not only this, he/she can
add one or two words of amplification and exaggeration of his/her own on occasions and
when the context allows, as done here in the translation of this text (e.g. ‫الغنية عف التعريؼ‬
(well-known), and ‫( المذيذ‬tasty) both of which are understood by implication).

A final type of problem could be suggested by the translation of the two paragraphs on
London shops. They are translated freely with a style of impressing the readers with the
most attractive shops without being keen on translating every word and expression and in
the same order as in the original. The message is the most important and can be
highlighted and rearranged in the target language, with words of exaggeration and
pomposity being added (e.g. the addition of the following exaggerative expression derived
from the context of the original: ‫مف كؿ ما ىو مثير مف األصناؼ واألشكاؿ واأللواف واألزياء والمجوىرات‬
‫)والتحؼ مما يخطر ومما ال يخطر عمى الباؿ‬. Further several names of Greek and other origins are
dropped due to their unimportance to the Arab readership. (e.g. ‘Parthanon’ and ‘Elgin’
are not translated).

3.2.4 Translation Strategies

(1) Transliteration (of many proper names, names of cities, shops, streets, and places
in particular.
(2) Naturalization (e.g. Thames → ‫ ;التايمز‬sauce → ‫ ;صمصة‬cream →‫كريما‬/‫(كريمة‬, etc.)
(3) Classifier (e.g.‫ مجمس العموـ البريطاني‬، ‫مدينة غرنيتش‬, etc.)
(4) Expansion (e.g. a London delicacy‫مذاؽ لندني خاص‬/‫(طعـ‬
(5) Religious culture (e.g. pay a visit → ‫)حج‬
(6) Cultural metonymy (e.g. Makkah → ‫)قبمة‬
99
 (7) Collocation (e.g. birthplace → ‫)مسقط رأسو‬
(8) Paraphrase (e.g. Anne Boleyn → ‫زوجة الممؾ ىنري الثامف المتيمة بالخيانة‬، Harrods →
)‫ ;محبلت ىارودز الغنية عف التعريؼ في شارع نايتسبريدج‬during the peak tourist season → ‫(في‬
‫فصؿ الصيؼ وىو الموسـ الذي يغص بو السياح‬
(9) Deletion (e.g. Parthanon’ and ‘Elgin’)
(10) Amplification (check table for examples)
(11) Overtranslation (e.g. during the peak tourist season → ‫في فصؿ الصيؼ وىو الموسـ الذي‬
‫)يغص بو السياح‬
(12) Metaphorical translation (e.g. bustling city→ ‫ ;مدينة لندف تعج بالزحاـ‬extraordinary trip
→ ‫(رحمة خرافية‬
(13) Transposition: verb phrase → noun (e.g. pay a visit → ‫)الحج‬
(14) Cultural equivalent (e.g. A visit to London …without indulging in a little retail
therapy ‫)ال تكتمؿ روعة زيارة لندف إال إذ اكتحمت بجولة ممتعة‬
(15) Translation couplet: Back translation & naturalization (e.g. Rosetta Stone ‫حجر‬
‫)الرشيد المصري‬
(16) Modulation: passive → active (e.g. be captivated → ‫)ستأسرىـ‬

3.3 University Leaflets, Guides and Prospectuses

Academic leaflets and guides are mainly directed to students. They accumulate
information in a well-organized layout and neat language and style. Further, they attempt
to attract the students’ attention by borrowing the informal style of communicating the
readers in a straightforward style, using the second person pronoun and other features of
informal style (see below). This suggests that the translation into the target language has
to take all these considerations into account. Next is an example taken from a leaflet for
Nottingham University, UK, followed by its translation into Arabic and discussion of the
translation:

UNITEMPS Nottingham

Unitemps Nottingham is the University’s recruitment agency for part time, casual and
temporary jobs on campus and with local businesses. As a service set up for The University
of Nottingham students, it is the ideal place to look for a part time job that will fit around
your academic and other commitments. Unitemps is an online agency and all students and
graduates can browse through the latest vacancies at www.unitemps.com

Unitemps offer interesting assignments, good rates of pay and holiday pay earned with
every hour you work. Job opportunities are available in a variety of areas - administration,
events and hospitality, languages and translation, marketing, IT support, we-design,
project work and many more. You will have complete flexibility over how much and when
you work and as most assignments are on campus, you should find it easy to fit work
around your studies.

100
‫‪If you are interested to work through Unitemps:‬‬

‫‪‬‬ ‫‪Register a profile at www.unitemps.com‬‬

‫‪‬‬ ‫‪Upload your CV on your Unitemps profile; make sure it’s up to date and effectively‬‬
‫‪presents your skills and experience‬‬
‫‪‬‬ ‫‪Apply for vacancies that match your availability, skills and interests. Make sure‬‬
‫‪that your covering letter is tailored to each job and clearly demonstrates why you‬‬
‫‪are a suitable candidate for the role.‬‬
‫‪‬‬ ‫‪Unitemps team will call you if you have been selected for an interview or to book‬‬
‫!‪you for the job‬‬

‫‪If you have any further questions, visit the Unitemps Nottingham office in the Jobzone on‬‬
‫‪Level B in the Portland Building, University Park. Tel: 0115 846 7374‬‬

‫‪This leaflet explores the sources of part-time vacancies. It also provides advice on how to‬‬
‫‪develop a CV and covering letter specifically for temporary and part-time jobs.‬‬

‫‪Careers and Employability Service‬‬

‫‪www.unitemps.com‬‬
‫‪www.nottingham.ac.uk/careers‬‬

‫وكالة الجامعات لمتوظيف المؤقت – فرع جامعة نوتنجيام‬

‫(الغرض مف ىذه المطوية ىو البحث عف مصادر الوظائؼ المؤقتة الشاغرة‪ .‬كما تقدـ النصح واإلرشاد حوؿ إعداد سيرة‬
‫ٍ‬
‫خاصة بالوظائؼ المؤقتة‪).‬‬ ‫ذاتية ورسالة مرفقة بشكؿ مناسب‬

‫تيدؼ ىذه الوكالة في جامعة نوتنجياـ إلى إيجاد وظائؼ مؤقتة في الحرـ الجامعي‪ .‬وىي إحدى الخدمات التي تقدميا‬
‫الجامعة لطبلبيا أثناء دراستيـ‪ ،‬وتعتبر الجية األمثؿ لمبحث عف وظيفة مؤقتة تتوافؽ مع التزاماتيـ األكاديمية‪ .‬وبإمكاف‬
‫كؿ الطبلب والخريجيف اآلف أف يبحثوا في موقع الوكالة عمى الشبكة عف شواغر عمى العنواف المبيف‪.‬‬

‫ساعي‪.‬‬
‫ّ‬ ‫مياـ تثير اىتماميـ بأجور طيبة‪ ،‬وأجر إضافي عند العمؿ في اإلجازات عمى أساس‬ ‫ّ‬ ‫توكؿ الوكالة لمطبلب‬
‫وتقوـ الوكالة بتوفير فرص العمؿ في مجاالت مختمفة – اإلدارة‪ ،‬واألنشطة‪ ،‬والحفبلت‪ ،‬والمغة والترجمة‪ ،‬والتسويؽ‪،‬‬
‫وجيات الدعـ‪ ،‬والتصميـ الذاتي‪ ،‬وعمؿ المشاريع‪ ،‬وغيرىا‪ .‬وسيموف بإمكانؾ معرفة األجر الذي ستتقاضاه‪ ،‬ووقت‬
‫العمؿ‪ .‬وبما أف معظـ مياـ العمؿ في الحرـ الجامعي‪ ،‬سوؼ تستطيع التوفيؽ بيف العمؿ والدراسة بسيولة‪.‬‬

‫إذا كنت ميتم ًا بالبحث عف وظيفة عف طريؽ الوكالة‪ ،‬فاتبع الخطوات التالية‪:‬‬

‫قـ بتسجيؿ لمحة موجزة عف حياتؾ الشخصية واألكاديمية‬ ‫‪‬‬

‫قـ بتحميؿ سيرتؾ الذاتية عمى الموقع المرفؽ‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫قـ بتقديـ طمب لموظائؼ الشاغرة التي تناسب وقت فراغؾ ومياراتؾ واىتماماتؾ‪ .‬تأكد مف أف رسالتؾ المرفقة‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫بالطمب تشير بوضوح إلى كؿ وظيفة ترغب بالحصوؿ عمييا‪ ،‬وتبيف أسبابؾ الوجيية لمترشح ليذه الوظيفة‪.‬‬

‫‪101‬‬
 .‫سوؼ تقوـ الوكالة باالتصاؿ بؾ في حاؿ وقوع االختيار عميؾ إلجراء مقابمة شخصية أو لمنحؾ الوظيفة‬ 

‫ حديقة الجامعة‬،‫ الدور (ب) في مبنى بورتبلند لؤلنشطة‬،‫ قـ بزيارة مكتب الوكالة في جامعة نوتنجياـ‬،‫لبلستفسار‬
............. :‫ قـ أيضاً بزيارة المواقع التالية عمى الشبكة‬.)01156467374 :‫(ىاتؼ‬

3.3.1 Purpose of the Translation

The purpose of the translation of an academic leaflet like this here is to make the details
and aims of the topic clear to TL readers for two main reasons: to give them a good idea
about the subject matter which is an interesting experience, and to urge them to think
about it if and when it appeals to them. Hence, the translator’s efforts are expected to
focus on rendering the source text with a view to this binary purpose in an appropriate TL
language and layout that can be convenient to TL readers.

3.3.2 Type of TL Readership

The type of TL readership interested in such leaflet is the academic, educated type at the
university level in particular. This allows for a formal tone of target language and style.
Besides that, the focus is supposed to be on the details of the original, and not necessarily
on every minute detail; only the important ones. In addition, the format of the TL text can
be modified to suit the norms of the TL in organizing such texts. That is why the last
paragraph (i.e. “This leaflet explores … part-time jobs” )...‫ )(الغرض مف ىذه المطوية‬is moved to
the first position in the translation as is normally the case in Arabic format. That is, usually,
the leaflet starts with stating its aims, if and when, at the beginning, not at the end of it. In
short, any detail that is local or unimportant to Arab readers can be removed from the TL
translation.

3.3.3 Translation Problems

The first translation problems that can be puzzling to the translator is posed by the
acronym ‘UNITEMPS’ which is the key term in the whole text. Acronyms are terms that are
usually capitalized, each letter of which stands for a word in a longer phrase, with the aim
of shortening them in use. They are very popular in English, but they are not so in Arabic
(see Nemark, 1988 and Ghazala, 2008 for further details). Only international and
recognized terms like FAO, UNISCO, UNICEF and other popular United Nations acronyms
are used frequently on the basis of their English, or French origins. However, local, or
special acronyms like this one here are usually not recognized. Instead, they are cut down
to one or two words, which is applied here by using the key word of the acronym (i.e.
‘agency’ )‫((الوكالة‬.

The second type of challenging translation problems is the translation of key terms,
especially ‘part-time job’, ‘job’, temporary job’, ‘vacancy’ and ‘recruitment’. The common
meaning of each of these words and phrases would not be quite helpful in this context of
employment of University students. The first term, to start with, is normally translated
into )‫ (عمؿ جزئي‬which may not be quite convincing to Arab readers. Therefore, )‫(وظيفة مؤقتة‬

102
which is comprehensible and frequent in Arabic, used to mean that an employee works for
less hours than a full-time employee )‫دائـ‬/‫(موظؼ مثبت‬. Sometimes, terms like ‫ موظؼ مثبت‬and
‫ مكمؼ‬/ ‫ موظؼ غير مثبت‬are used in some Arab countries instead. As to ‘job’, it is translated
frequently by many as ‫عمؿ‬, but it is ‫ وظيفة‬in a context of employment. However, both terms
are availed from in the translation of our text, as the word combination and meaning may
allow us to do. ‘Temporary job’ is a redundant term meaning exactly the same as ‘part-
time job’ )‫(وظيفة مؤقتة‬. ‘Vacancy’, on the other hand, can be translated first as )‫(وظيفة شاغرة‬,
or as )‫(شاغر‬, rather than as )‫مكاف شاغر‬/‫(عمؿ‬. Finally, ‘recruitment’ is a well-known military
term, usually translated into )‫تجنيد‬/‫(تطويع‬, but in this context of civil employment of
University student, it is )‫(توظيؼ‬.

A chronic problem for some translators could be some word combinations and cliché
expressions used in such texts in Arabic Language. Examples include how to begin the first
sentences of paragraphs, which can be different from the English original. For example,
due to the English sentence word order, which starts with the subject, most of the
paragraphs of the source text start with the key term ‘Unitemps’ which the whole leaflet is
about, whereas in Arabic, it is not necessary to start with it, but may start with the verb,
followed by the key term (which is in Arabic ‫ (الوكالة‬as the subject, however, in bold type
for emphasis. Parallel to this is the start of the Arabic sentences with verbs that may not
be stated literally in the source text, but concluded by implication to match the familiar
structuring of such texts in Arabic: e.g.

(a) Unitemps Nottingham is…‫( تيدؼ ىذه الوكالة‬c.f. ...‫)الوكالة ىي‬

(b) Unitemps offer interesting assignments ...‫مياـ‬
ّ ‫( توكؿ الوكالة لمطبلب‬c.f. ...‫(تعرض الوكالة‬
(c) Register a profile ‫( قـ بتسجيؿ‬c.f. ...‫)سجؿ‬
(d) Upload ‫( قـ بتحميؿ‬c.f. ‫)حمؿ‬
ِّ
(e) Apply for vacancies‫( قـ بتقديـ طمب‬c.f. ...‫قدـ طمب‬
(f) Unitemps team will call you ‫)سوؼ تقوـ الوكالة باالتصاؿ بؾ‬
(g) If you have any further questions ‫( لبلستفسار‬c.f. ‫)إذا كاف لديؾ أسئمة أخرى‬
(h) visit the Unitemps Nottingham office ‫( قـ بزيارة مكتب الوكالة‬c.f. ...‫)زْر‬
ُ
(i) This leaflet explores the sources ‫( الغرض مف ىذه المطوية ىو البحث عف مصادر‬c.f.
...‫(تستكشؼ ىذه المطوية‬

This ensures that the literal translation of such general texts is inapplicable on several
occasions, which overburdens the translator’s task of suffering to find the appropriate
combination, cliché, popular or recognized words and expressions in their Arabic context
(see especially ‘g’ and ‘i’).

103
‫‪3.3.4 Translation Strategies‬‬

‫)‪(1) Transliteration (of proper names, names of places, cities, buildings, etc.‬‬
‫)أكاديمي‪/‬أكاديمية → ‪(2) Naturalization (e.g. academic‬‬
‫‪; verb → noun:‬قـ بتسجيؿ→ ’‪(3) Transposition (e.g. verb → verb phrase: e.g. ‘register‬‬
‫)البحث→ )‪e.g. explore(v‬‬
‫)لبلستفسار → ’‪(4) Undertranslation (e.g. ‘If you have any further questions‬‬
‫(الوكالة → ‪(5) Reduction (e.g. UNITEMPTS‬‬
‫)‪(6) Deletion (e.g. ‘Careers and Employability Service’ → (zero), being unnecessary‬‬
‫)وظيفة شاغرة ‪; vacancy‬الحرـ الجامعي → ’‪(7) Expansion (e.g. ‘campus‬‬
‫;وظيفة مؤقتة‪/‬غير مثبتة→ ‪; part-time job‬الوكالة → ‪(8) Cultural equivalent (e.g. UNITEMPS‬‬
‫)وظيفة مثبتة‪/‬دائمة → ‪full-time job‬‬

‫‪3.4 Bank Leaflets‬‬

‫‪Bank leaflets are among the very popular general texts these days due to the‬‬
‫‪unprecedented role of banks and banking in every person’s life the world over. Usually,‬‬
‫‪they are translated both ways in many Arab Countries. Following is a sample of Arabic‬‬
‫‪bank leaflet quoted from AlAhli Bank (The National Commercial Bank) of Saudi Arabia,‬‬
‫‪translated into English by the Bank for English readership (available on the Bank Website).‬‬
‫‪Here it is, followed by discussion:‬‬

‫لغد آمن ‪ ...‬برنامج األىمي لمحماية واالدخار‬

‫(شركة األىمي لمتكافؿ)‬

‫لغد آمف خطط لممستقبؿ‬

‫ماسة عمى الدواـ‬

‫ألف متطمبات األسرة في عصرنا الحاضر تتغير يوم ًا بعد يوـ وتصبح أكثر إلحاحاً‪ ،‬فيناؾ حاجة ّ‬
‫لمتخطيط السميـ مف أجؿ تحقيؽ األحبلـ والتطمعات المستقبمية‪.‬‬
‫يش ّكؿ ىذا األمر مصدر قمؽ لمعظـ أرباب األسر‪ ،‬إذ أف مشاغؿ الحياة والتزاماتيا اليومية ال تتيح ليـ الكثير مف الفرص‬
‫لمتخطيط والتوفير مف أجؿ مستقبميـ ومستقبؿ أبنائيـ‪.‬‬
‫ونتيجةً لمجيود المتوالية التي يبذليا البنؾ األىمي التجاري الرائد في مجاؿ الخدمات والبرامج المصرفية اإلسبلمية‪ ،‬فإنو‬
‫يقدـ لكـ اليوـ بالتعاوف مع شركة األىمي لمتكافؿ حموالً مالية مبتكرة تناسب تطمعاتكـ وتمبي احتياجاتكـ بطريقة متوافقػة‬
‫قدر‬
‫مع الشريعػػة اإلسػبلمية عبر «برنامػػج األىمي لمحمػايػة واإلدخػار» الذي يوفػػر لكػػـ م ػزايا الحػمػايػة في حػالة الوفػػاة (ال ّ‬
‫اهلل) باإلضافة إلى عنصر االدخار الذي يفي بإحتياجاتكـ المػالية وأيضاً راحة الباؿ‪.‬‬

‫‪104‬‬
 ‫حمول إسالمية‬
‫إف برنامج األىمي لمحماية واالدخار» مبني عمى مبدأ التأميف التعاوني الذي تـ إعتماده مف قبؿ الييئة الشرعية‪ .‬وىو‬
‫تحمؿ المسؤولية والتعاوف بغرض اإلىتماـ باحتياجات بعضيـ البعض‬
‫برنامج حماية يعتمد عمى مشاركة األعضاء في ّ‬
‫قدر اهلل)‪.‬‬
‫وتغطية أي تبعات مالية قد تنتج عف الوفاة (ال ّ‬
‫تطػػابؽ إدارة ىذا النظاـ المبادئ الشرعية وتعمؿ عف طريؽ تبرع المشتركيف بجزء مف اشت اركػ ػػاتيـ إلى صندوؽ اشتراكات‬
‫الحمػ ػ ػػاية الذي يتك ّفؿ بالتعويض عف أي خسائر مالية يتعرض ليا أي ًا مف المشتركيف‪.‬‬

‫مفيوم واحد ألكثر من رؤية مستقبمية‬

‫لكؿ منا رؤية مستقبمية ىادفة نعمؿ جاىديف عمى تحقيقيا لضماف مستقبؿ مشرؽ لنا ولعائمتنا‪ ،‬لذا عممنا في البنؾ األىمي‬
‫عمى تصميـ «برنامػػج األىمي لمحمػايػة واإلدخػار» الذي يقدـ لكـ خطط استراتيجية تتبلئـ مع متطمباتكـ وتساعدكـ عمى‬
‫االلتزاـ واالنتظاـ بالتوفير لتحققوا أىدافكـ المالية أو أي أىداؼ أخرى تتطمعوف إلييا مستقببلً وأنتـ تنعموف بالراحة‬
‫والحماية وراحة الباؿ‪ .‬حيث يتضمف البرنامج‪:‬‬
‫• توفير التعميـ العالي لؤلبناء‪.‬‬
‫• اإلستقرار المالي لؤلبناء‪.‬‬
‫• التقاعد اآلمف‪.‬‬

‫مزايا البرنامج‬
‫اليسػر‪ ،‬إذ يستطيع أياً مف عمبلء البنؾ الذيف تتراوح أعمارىـ ما‬
‫يتميز «برنامػػج األىمي لمحمػايػة واإلدخػار» بالمػرونة و ُ‬
‫ّ‬
‫بيف ‪ 18‬و ‪ 60‬عاماً االشتراؾ بمبالغ بسيطة تبدأ مف ‪ 280‬لاير شيرياً أو ‪ 840‬لاير ربع سنوياً أو ‪ 1,680‬لاير نصؼ‬
‫سنوي ًا أو ‪ 3,360‬لاير سنوي ًا‪ ،‬لفترة اشتراؾ ال تقؿ عف ‪ 7‬سنوات‪.‬‬
‫ىذا باإلضافة إلى المزايا األخرى الخاصة بالمشتركيف‪ ،‬وىي كالتالي‪:‬‬
‫مزايا االستحقاق‪ :‬مف خبلؿ استثمار االشتراكات المنتظمة في استراتيجيات استثمار متنوعة مف أجؿ التوفير طػػويػؿ‬
‫األجػػؿ الذي يعمؿ عمى تحقيؽ متطمباتكـ المالية‪.‬‬
‫قدر اهلل)‪ ،‬يتولّى البرنامج دفع مزايا الحماية‬
‫فوائد مستحقة الدفع عند الوفاة‪ :‬في حالة الوفاة قبؿ انتياء البرنامج (ال ّ‬
‫المحددة في البرنامج بما يضمف تحقيؽ اليدؼ المالي الذي وضعو المشترؾ منذ البداية‪.‬‬
‫ّ‬

‫خيارات واسعة‪:‬‬
‫باإلمكاف تصميـ البرنامج بما يناسب نمط حياتكـ وقدرتكـ المالية‪ .‬ويقدـ باإلضافة إلى ذلؾ العديد مف الخيارات التي‬
‫لمتكيؼ مع أي تغييرات مستقبمية لظروفكـ الشخصية‪:‬‬
‫تستطيعوف التمتّع بيا في أي وقت ّ‬
‫• يمكنكـ اختيار التقويـ اليجري أو الميبلدي ليتماشى مع بقية التزاماتكـ المالية‪.‬‬
‫• يمكنكـ إضافة حتى ثمانية مستفيديف في البرنامج‪.‬‬
‫• يمكنكـ تغيير المستفيد‪ /‬المستفيديف في أي وقت إلى مستفيديف آخريف بدوف أي رسوـ إضافية‪.‬‬
‫• يمكنكـ تحويؿ ‪ /‬إعادة توجيو اشتراكاتكـ مف استراتيجية استثمار إلى أخرى مع التمتع بػ ‪ 4‬عمميات نقؿ مجانية في‬
‫السنة‪.‬‬
‫• يمكنكـ زيادة أو تخفيض اشتراكاتكـ حسب ميزانيتكـ المالية‪.‬‬

‫‪105‬‬
‫ كما يمكنكـ دفع‬،)‫ شيػ اًر (تخضع لمشروط واألحكاـ الخاصة بالبرنامج‬12 ‫• يمكنكـ تأجيؿ دفع االشتراكات لمدة‬
.‫اشتراكات إضافية‬
.)‫• يمكنكـ إجراء عدد مف السحوبات الجزئية وقت الحاجة إلى سيولة مالية (تخضع لمشروط واألحكاـ الخاصة بالبرنامج‬

FOR A BETTER TOMORROW, PLAN FOR THE FUTURE

As your family requirements change and become more demanding, there is an urgent need
for sound planning to achieve future aspirations. For most parents, this is a reason for
concern because the day-to-day living needs and financial obligations prevent them from
planning and saving for their and their children’s future.

NCB - a leader in providing Islamic banking services and programs, in coordination with
ALAHLI TAKAFUL COMPANY - offers you an innovative and convenient financial solution
that will help you achieve your objectives and provide security in a Shariah compliant way
through AlAhli Protection and Savings Program, which provides you Protection Benefits in
the event of death (God forbid) as well as a savings component to fulfill your financial
needs while also providing you peace of mind.

Islamic Solutions
AlAhli Protection and Savings Program is based on the cooperative insurance principle,
which is approved by its Shari’ah Board. Participants in the program share responsibility
and cooperate to take care of each other’s needs and cover any financial hardships due to
untimely death (God forbid).
The program is administered on Shari’ah compliant principles by AlAhli Takaful Company
who [that] collects members’ contributions and directs a portion of their contributions to
the Mortality Fund, which is used to cover any financial hardships due to the death of one
of the members.

One Concept … Various Applications

AlAhli Protection and Savings Program is designed to suit your lifestyle, achieve your
objectives and fulfill your saving requirements whether for retirement, children's
education, children's marriage or any other goals you plan to accomplish.

FEATURES & BENEFITS

AlAhli Protection and Savings Program is known for its flexibility and affordability. Any NCB
customer residing n the Kingdom between the age 18 and 60 years old, is eligible to
subscribe with contributions starting as low as SR 280 monthly, SR 840 quarterly, SR 1,680
semi-annually or SR 3,360 yearly and for a minimum duration of 7 years.

The program provides its participants [with] the following benefits:

• Maturity Benefits: By investing the regular contributions in various Investment
Strategies it offers long term savings that would allow you to reach your financial
objectives.
• Benefit Payable Upon Death: In case of death before the maturity of the program, it
provides for payment of the Protection Benefit as shown in the certificate and ensures
achieving the Participant’s initial financial goal.

106
 • Wide Range of Options: The program is tailor-made to suit your personal needs, lifestyle
and budget. It offers various options that you can choose from, at any time, in order to
meet your changing personal requirements and needs:

1. You can choose either the Hijri or Gregorian calendar to suit your cash flow.
2. You can appoint and add up to 8 beneficiaries to the program.
3. You can switch/redirect your contributions from one investment strategy to another,
with 4 free switches/redirections a year.
4. You can increase or decrease your contributions according to your budget.
5. You can defer your contributions for 12 months (subject to the Policy Terms and
Conditions) as well as pay additional lump sum contributions.
6. You can make partial withdrawals when you need the cash (subject to the Policy Terms
and Conditions)

3.4.1 Purpose of the Translation

Bank leaflets are nowadays versatile and abundant. They become increasingly important
to banks and clients. They mean to tempt and persuade clients to invest their money with
their banks, giving all possible reasons and details to achieve that purpose. Hence,
translators are supposed to give heed to this particular purpose, in regard to rendering the
message as clearly and completely as possible in a persuasive language and style, using all
means possible in the target language to arrive at that target.

3.4.2 Type of TL Readership

The type of TL readership is mainly educated, but not specialized, in which case the
address is expected to be formal, non-technical and as simple as necessary. On the other
hand, some minor, irrelevant details can be added, dropped or understated in the
translation, which goes parallel to a simultaneous focus on the essential details and how
to persuade the TL clients to join the plan or program suggested by the leaflet. At the
same time, this reflects the use of formal style, colored with few informal features of style
in Arabic including spelling mistakes like / ‫ ;بما يتبلءـ → بما يتبلئـ‬grammatical mistakes
‫→ زيادة أو تخفيض اشتراكاتكـ ;يتعرض ليا أي مف المشتركيف → يتعرض ليا أي ًا مف المشتركيف ;سحب → سحوبات‬
‫;يقدـ لكـ حموالً إستراتيجية → يقدـ لكـ حموؿ إستراتيجية ;بعضيـ بعضاً → بعضيـ البعض ;زيادة اشتراكاتكـ أوتخفيضيا‬
‫ ;مف دوف أي → بدوف أي‬the misuse of punctuation (e.g. the use of a comma instead of a full
stop in several places); and the frequent misuse of the letter hamza. These mistakes in
Arabic are common in such texts, but they do not cause any shade of misunderstanding of
meaning on the part of Arab readers. Similar features of informal style and mistakes are
traced in the English translation, which may be equally tolerable for the English readers.
However, two ungrammatical mistakes are committed and should be fixed (i.e. ‘who’ has
to be ‘that/which’, and ‘provide’ should be followed by ‘with’ (see square brackets)).

3.4.3 Translation Problems

There are several problems of translation exhibited by the Arabic translation which is done
by AlAhli Bank itself. Financial technical terms are not many, and they are replaced by

107
semi-technical terms that need special attention by translators for they are half-way
between technical and non-technical terms. Examples include: ‫الحماية واالدخار؛ مزايا االستحقاؽ؛‬
)... ‫)شركة األىمي لمتكافؿ؛ ادخار؛ استثمار؛ متطمبات مالية؛ ميزانيات مالية؛ سيولة مالية؛ سحوبات جزئية‬
(protection and saving, maturity benefits, AlAhli Takaful Company, saving, financial
objectives, financial budget, cash, partial withdrawals). Obviously, the translator has opted
for familiar terms, and when a technical term is in demand, he/she goes for a simple,
popular one. A case in point is the term ‫( سيولة‬liquidity)which is a well-known technical
term in both languages, yet the translator rightly goes for the very popular word ‘cash’
which is perfectly fitting in this context.

The second problem of translating the Arabic original is the style of redundancy, which is
common in Arabic texts like this. However, redundancy is not common in their English
counterparts. Therefore, the translator has disposed of redundant expressions, as in the
translation of ‫ أحبلـ وتطمعات‬into ‘aspiration’; ‫ مشاغؿ الحياة والتزاماتيا‬into day-to-day needs; ‫توفير‬
‫ التعميـ العالي لؤلبناء‬into ‘children’s education, etc.

A Third problem is the translator’s reluctance to translate the key term ‫( تكافؿ‬family
solidarity) into English and, instead, he/she transliterates it into English as ‘Takaful’,
perhaps leaning on the fact that the whole leaflet is about it. Yet, it would have been a
better idea to translate it into English for one time only to make it crystal clear to the
English readership. On the other hand, the religious cultural Arabic term ‫ ال قدر اهلل‬is
unexpectedly translated into English verbatim, which is not familiar to English readers.
Hence, overcoming it in the English translation is quite normal.

In several places, the translator drops some probably unimportant terms and expressions.
Examples include: ،‫(لكؿ منا رؤية مستقبمية ىادفة نعمؿ جاىديف عمى تحقيقيا لضماف مستقبؿ مشرؽ لنا ولعائمتنا‬
‫ المستفيديف في أي وقت‬/‫لذا؛ بقية التزاماتكـ المالية؛ وأنتـ تنعموف بالراحة والحماية وراحة الباؿ؛ يمكنكـ تغيير المستفيد‬
)...‫إلى مستفيديف آخريف بدوف أي رسوـ إضافية‬. (The last example )‫إضافية‬...‫ (يمكنكـ تغيير‬is
unintentionally dropped by the translator). By the same token, he/she adds some
expressions here and there sometimes unnecessarily. For example, he adds ‘children’s
marriage )‫ (زواج األبناء‬unnecessarily for it is included in the context of the general phrase of
the original‫االستقرار المالي لؤلبناء‬. The same applies to the extra phrase ‫الذيف يعيشوف في المممكة‬
(those living in the Kingdom) for it is a matter of course as the bank is in Saudi Arabia.

3.4.4 Translation Strategies

(1) Transliteration (e.g. ‘Al-Ahli; ‘Takaful’, ‘Shari’ah’, ‘Hijri’, etc.).

(2) Reduction (e.g. ‫لغد آمف خطط لممستقبؿ‬...‫ برنامج األىمي لمحماية واالدخار‬... ‫ → لغد آمف‬for a
better tomorrow. Plan for the future).
(3) overtranslation (e.g. addition of some phrases as indicated earlier).
(4) Non-technical translation: Simplification (e.g. ‘cash’ instead of ‘liquidity’, etc.)
(5) Naturalization (e.g. ‫ → إسبلمي‬Islamic)

108
 (6) Deletion (e.g. deletion of some phases pointed out above)

3.5 Instructions Leaflets

Among the popular leaflets and catalogues are the ‘Instruction Manuals’. They are
operating instructions that are supplied with electric apparatus. Usually, they are
translated into different languages including Arabic. Usually, their language is technical
and formal, but not too technical and not too formal. Here is an illustrative example to
translate and discuss:

“SILAMPOS PRESSURE COOKER (www.silampos.pt)

Safety Instructions

1. The pressure cooker works under pressure. An inappropriate use can cause serious
burns and damages. Make sure the pressure cooker is properly closed before
putting it on the heat source. Read the chapter: “Using the pressure cooker”.
2. Be very careful when using the pressure cooker near children
3. Do not use the pressure cooker for other purposes than the intended.
4. Do not put the pressure cooker in a heated oven.
5. Use the heat sources in accordance with the instructions of use.
6. Do not use the pressure cooker on heat sources of over 3000 W.
7. Do not use the pressure cooker to fry food.
8. When the pressure cooker is pressurized, move it very carefully. Do not touch the
warm surfaces. Use the handles, and, if necessary, kitchen glove or another
means of protection.
9. Keep your hands off the steam escape zones.
10. Do not force the pressure cooker opening or remove its lid without checking first if
the pressure has been released. See the instructions about pressure release in
point 3.3 of the current instructions book.
11. Do not use the pressure cooker without any liquid inside as this practice may
cause serious damage. Read chapter: “Prior to first use”.
12. Before every use, check if the valves are clear. Read chapter “Using the pressure
cooker”.
13. Do not fill the pressure cooker over 2/3 of its capacity. When cooking food that
expands like rice or dry vegetables, do not fill the pressure cooker of the half of its
capacity.
14. The superficial skin of some meals swells under the effect of pressure (e.g. beef
tongue). After cooking, do not prick the meat if it looks swollen; you may scald
yourself. Prick the meat before cooking it in the pressure cooker.
(…)”
‫قدر الضغط سيالمبوس‬
)‫(تعميمات األمان‬
.‫يعمؿ ىذا القدر بالضغط وفي حالة االستعماؿ غير الصحيح بإمكانو أف يتسبب في حروؽ وأضرار جسيمة‬ .1
.‫) (إ)ق أر فصؿ استعماؿ قدر الضغط‬.( ‫تأكد مف أف القدر مغمؽ جيداً قبؿ وضعو فوؽ مصدر الح اررة‬

109
 .‫ الرجاء المراقبة الشديدة عند استعماؿ قدر الضغط بالقرب مف األطفاؿ‬.2
.‫ ال تستخدـ قدر الضغط لغير الغايات المعدة ليا‬.3
.‫ ال تضع قدر الضغط في فرف ساخف‬.4
.‫ استعمؿ مصادر الح اررة طبقاً لتعميمات االستخداـ‬.5
.‫ وات‬3000 ‫ ال تستخدـ قدر الضغط فوؽ مصادر الح اررة ذات جيد أكبر مف‬.6
.‫ ال تستخدـ قدر الضغط لقمي األطعمة‬.7
‫ واذا كاف‬،‫ حركو بكؿ عناية وال تممس األسطح الساخنة واستعمؿ المقابض‬،‫ عندما يكوف القدر تحت الضغط‬.8
.‫ضرورياً استخدـ القفازات أو وسائط الحماية‬
.‫ الرجاء إبعاد األيدي عف مناطؽ خروج البخار‬.9
‫) راجع‬،( ‫ ال تستخدـ القوة في فتح قدر الضغط أو ترفع الغطاء دوف التأكد مف خمو القدر مف الضغط‬.10
.‫تعميمات إخبلء القدر مف استخداـ القفازات أو وسائط الحماية‬
‫ (إ)ق أر فصؿ قبؿ‬.‫ ال تستخدـ القدر بدوف سوائؿ بداخمو حيث مف الممكف أف يتسبب ىذا في أضرار كبيرة لو‬.11
.‫االستعماؿ األوؿ‬
.‫ (إ)ق أر فصؿ استعماؿ قدر الضغط‬.‫ قبؿ كؿ استخداـ تأكد مف أف الصمامات غير مسدودة‬.12
‫ عند طيي أطعمة قابمة لتمدد (ا)ثناء الطيي مثؿ الرز‬.‫ مف سعتو‬2/3 ‫ ال تمؤل قدر الضغط بأكثر مف‬.13
.‫ فبل تمؤل القدر بأكثر مف نصؼ سعتو‬، ‫والبقوؿ الجافة‬
‫) (؟) ال تقـ بثقب المحـ الذي تراه‬/( ‫) مثؿ لساف البقر‬/( ‫ جمد بعض (ا)نواع المحوـ تنتفخ تحت الضغط‬.14
.‫) قـ بثقب المحـ قبؿ الطبخ عوضاً عف ذلؾ‬،( ‫ حيث اف ىذا يمكف أف يحرؽ‬،‫منتفخاً بعد الطبخ‬
")...(

3.5.1 Purpose of the Translation

The purpose of translating instruction leaflets and manuals is chiefly to make the use and
parts of the product concerned as clear as possible to the Arab readership. Rhetorical,
literary or pedant style is not all that important except in regard to simple, semiformal and
informal style of language. Technical terms are left out and replaced by non-technical, or
less technical, popular words as a sign of commitment to simplicity and getting to readers
of all types.

3.5.2 Type of TL Readership

All types of readers are aimed at by these leaflets for all of them purchase electric
appliances. In such cases, language is recommended to be popular, or semi-technical, but
not technical, for whatever the educational level of readers, they are not specialists in
technology or other scientific type of terminology. Accordingly, simple language and
grammar, especially simple and short sentence structure is overwhelming in such texts.

3.5.3 Translation Problems

Translation problems center around the simplicity of language and technicality/non-

technicality of words and expressions that may hinder fluent understanding. One of these
110
problems of the translation supplied by the company itself is the words’ choice. Some
words mismatch the simple, informal tone of the text. For example, ‘cooker’ is translated
ِ rather than the simpler, modern and semi-
into the very formal, traditional word )‫(قدر‬
formal word )‫(طباخ‬. The classical word ‫ إناء‬is similar to the former. Likewise, ‫ جسيمة‬is less
popular than the well-known ‫كبيرة‬/‫خطيرة‬. Yet, ‘valves’ is translated into the technical, but
ِ for there is no alternative in Arabic. Otherwise, the word choice is
familiar term ‫ص َمامات‬
simple and the text reads easily.

A second type of translation problems is the very literal translation of words in such a way
that the overriding tone of the Arabic translation sounds rather informal Examples
include: ‘An inappropriate use can cause’ is translated into ‫االستعماؿ غير الصحيح بإمكانو أف‬
‫ يتسبب‬instead of ‫‘ ;قد يتسبب االستعماؿ غير الصحيح‬Be very careful’ → ‫ الرجاء المراقبة الشديدة‬rather
than ‫ احذر‬/ ‫‘ ;كف حذ اًر‬and, if necessary’ → ً‫ واذا كاف ضروريا‬rather than ‫ عند الضرورة‬/‫;إذا لزـ األمر‬
‘When the pressure cooker is pressurized’ → ‫ عندما يكوف القدر تحت الضغط‬which is better to
translate into ً‫مغمقا‬/ً‫‘ ;عندما يكوف الطباخ مضغوطا‬steam escape zones’→ ‫مناطؽ خروج البخار‬
replacing ‫‘ ;فتحات خروج البخار‬pressure release’ → ‫ إخبلء القدر‬rather than ‫البخار‬/‫تنفيس الطباخ‬, and
common mistakes in Arabic (e.g. ‫‘ ;مف دوف سوائؿ → بدوف سوائؿ‬as this may cause’ → ‫حيث مف‬
‫فقد يتسبب ىذا → الممكف أف يتسبب ىذا‬, ‘you may scald yourself’ → ‫فقد → حيث اف ىذا يمكف أف يحرؽ‬
‫تحرؽ نفسؾ‬, etc.

A third problem with the Arabic translation is its informal negligence of accurate spelling
of Hamza, proper punctuation, or mis-punctuation of the text (marked in light print),
spelling mistakes (e.g. ‫باستخداـ → مف استخداـ ;لمتمدد → لتمدد‬, etc. Unfortunately, these mistakes
are recurrent in Arabic general as well as other types of texts.

A fourth problem is reflected by the next best choice of precise word or term. For
example, ‘purposes’ is translated into the second choice word ‫غايات‬, yet, ‫ أغراض‬is obviously
the first choice of many translators and readers; ‘over 3000W’ → ‫ وات‬3000 ‫ أكبر مف‬in
preference to the natural ‫ واط‬3000 ‫فوؽ‬/‫أعمى‬, etc.

A fifth problem is displayed by one or two wrong translations like the translation of
‘vegetables’ ‫خضار‬/‫ خض اروات‬into ‫( بقوؿ‬i.e. legumes). Similarly, ‘release’ )‫فتح‬/‫ (تنفيس‬here is
translated into )‫( (إخبلء‬i.e. emptying).

A word of truth is due here. These texts are normally translated with less care than other
types. Yet, they are not too bad, and the public usually accept them as such with no many
people complaining.

111
3.5.4 Translation Strategies

(1) Transliteration (e.g. ‘SILAMPOS’→ ‫(سيبلمبوس‬

(2) ِ
Technical terminology/Arabization (e.g. ‘valves’ → ‫)ص َماـ‬
(3) Literal translation (most of the text)
(4) Naturalization (e.g. Watt → ‫)واط‬
(5) Simplified translation (e.g. the whole text in general)
(6) Reduction (e.g. superficial skin → ‫( جمد‬not ‫(جمد سطحي‬

3.6 Religious Leaflets

Religious (especially Islamic) leaflets are nowadays a popular means of preaching the
teachings, rulings and creeds of Islam in and out of mosques, and in several languages.
They are directed to Muslims at large, using simple, straightforward language and style,
but with some technical terminology, though. Following is a sample example of Islamic
leaflets in Arabic to be translated and discussed:

112
113
 Do not Get Angry

God says in the Holy Koran: “And those who avoid the great sins and forbidden sexual
relationships, and when they get angry, they forgive” (42: 37).
The Messenger of God, Mohammad (peace be to him) cautioned us against the dire
consequences of anger. He taught us what to say and what to do when we are
overwhelmed by a fit of anger in several authenticated traditions:

 “Those who get angry are advised to say “I seek refuge in God from the accursed
Satan”;
 “ When one of you gets angry , make ablution with water, as anger arises out of
fire”;
 “Anger comes from the Satan, and the Satan is made of fire”;
 “When one of you feels angry, one should sit down if standing and lie down if
sitting”; and
 “The strong man is not that who defeats his adversary in wrestling, but the one
who controls his anger”.

Reasons of Anger:

The famous Muslim Scholar, Abu Hamed Al-Ghazali, pointed out that the reasons for
getting angry are self-conceit, self-praise, jest, argumentation, obstinacy, treachery, and
greed for wealth and fame. Those who combine these characteristics within themselves
manifest unbearable conduct, cannot escape their anger, and can remove them only if they
apply their opposites: self-praise by modesty; pride by introspection, greed by remaining
satisfied with necessary things, and miserliness by charity.

The serious consequences of Anger:

(1) It angers God and pleases the Satan;

(2) Resisting it is more challenging and rewarding than fighting the enemy;
(3) It leads to hardening relations and spoiling reconciliation among Muslims;
(4) It generates malice and envy, which marks imperfect reason and religion;
(5) Mostly, it is followed by apologies and regret, but when too late;
(6) It blocks the angry man from listening to wisdom;
(7) When too excessive, it might turn one blind, deaf, dumb, disable, even dead.
(8) It turns one repulsive to others.

Quelling Anger:

Anger can be quelled by doing the following:

1. Mention the Almighty God.

2. Remember what the Koran and Hadith say about controlling one's anger. The
hope for obtaining reward will restrain one from taking revenge.

114
 3. Fear God's punishment and consider it greater than any human punishment. You
may get revenge on your enemy here, but he or she might get revenge on you
later on, either here or in the Next World.
4. Remember that an angry person looks like a ferocious beast, while one who
appeases one’s anger looks like Prophets Righteous Muslims in character.
5. Realize that there will be dire consequences to expressing your anger. You may
regret it as much as the despicable idea of taking revenge on the other party.
6. Change your position and sit down if standing, and lie down if sitting. Also make
ablution, or inhale with water.
7. Seek refuge with God from the Satan.
8. Remember the great reward for pardoning to quell anger.

3.6.1 Purpose of the Translation

The main purpose of translating Islamic leaflets is to explain, teach and preach the religion
of Islam to TL English speaking Muslim and Non-Muslim audience in simple, short terms
and a straightforward, persuasive, impressive and attractive way. Its ultimate purpose is to
invite them to God, ask them to be devoted to the teachings of Islam, and urge them to
show more commitment to Islam devotedly, honestly, constantly and persistently. Hence,
shortness, simplification and straightforwardness of both form and content of Islamic
leaflets are prime targets for the translator to achieve in his/her translation.

3.6.2 Type of TL Readership

The type of readership targeted by Islamic leaflets is any TL reader, Muslim, or Non-
Muslims, whether low educated, average educated, half-educated or highly educated. This
means that language is supposed to be simplified as much as possible, and the text to be
clear, short, crisp and sharp and to the point. The public prefers to be informed about a
religion in short, simple, clear and non-technical terms with attractive, well-organized
layout and short paragraphs.

3.6.3 Translation Problems

The problems of translating Islamic leaflets are numerous and demanding, but not
unsolvable. Supposedly, the language of these leaflets is expected to be simple and non-
technical in the main, but, unfortunately, the case is not so in Arabic and for Arab Muslim
scholars and jurisprudents. Most of them insist on using rhetorical style and technical
religious language for no clear reason. That poses more problems of translation to be
attended to by the poor translator with utmost care. In effect, his/her task is made really
challenging.

Usually, literal translation of both words and meaning is a must in translating religious
texts to achieve a maximum degree of accuracy that is required. However, due to the
main purposes of translating Islamic leaflets pointed out above, any unnecessary
redundancy, pomposity, repetition, variation and rhetoric of the language and style of the
Arabic original can be disposed of.

115
The first major problem that would face the translator of this text into English is the good
number of non-equivalent, or unfindable words and expressions. They include ‫كبائر؛ فواحش؛‬
‫أعوذ باهلل مف الشيطاف الرجيـ؛ التشفي في الصدر؛ ذكر اهلل؛ عز وجؿ؛ يستعيذ باهلل مف الشيطاف الرجيـ؛ رحمو اهلل؛‬
...‫جياد؛ ذات البيف‬/‫الرحيـ الرحمف؛ ثواب؛ مجاىدة‬. All these are Islamic terms that have no one-to-
one equivalent in English. However, they are translated approximately into Arabic in
accordance with ‘proximity principle’ (see Hatim and Mason, 1990; Rojo, 2009 and
Ghazala, 2014 for further details about approximation in translation). So, for instance, ‫كبائر‬
‫ الذنوب‬is translated approximately into ‘sins/greater sins’ (compared to ‘minor
sins/imperfections’); ‫ فواحش‬is not used in a sense as pejorative as in Arabic, so it is
translated in general terms into sexual relationships (which imply sexual intercourse and
any forbidden sexual practice). On the other hand, ‫ أعوذ باهلل مف الشيطاف الرجيـ‬is translated
approximately and vaguely into ‘I seek refuge with God from the accursed Satan’, which is
alien to the English readership; ‫ التشفي في الصدر‬is, in other words, )‫ (الشماتة‬which is absent
from English language, but can be explained approximately as ‘glee at somebody’s
mischief / gloating at one’s enemy’/ ‘feel happy at someone else’s misfortune’, or
translated into the adopted German term ‘schadenfraude’.

As to the meaning of ‫ذكر اهلل‬, it is translated into ‘mentioning God’, but only linguistically.
However, religiously speaking, and in terms of faith, it gives just a shade of the meaning of
the Arabic original which is expressive of a special spiritual type of worshipping God in
Islam. ‫ يستعيذ باهلل‬is not a part of English lexicon, so it can be translated approximately into
‘seek refuge with God’, which does not have the religious effect of the original. For ‫رحمو اهلل‬,
it is an Islamic prayer asking God to be merciful with a dead Muslim in particular on the
Day of Judgment; ‫ الرحيـ الرحمف‬is translated generally into the well-known, ‘God’, yet an
approximate translation into ‘Most Merciful Most Gracious’ is applicable. ‘Reward’, which
is a general term used in the sense of ‫مكافأة‬, is employed here as an approximate
equivalent for the uniquely religious term ‫ثواب‬, and, obviously, there is a difference
between the two terms in Arabic. Regarding ‫جياد‬/‫مجاىدة‬, is transliterated literally into
‘Jihad’ usually followed by a short explanation into (Holy war in Islam). However, in our
text, it is not translated separately, but implied in a rather pragmatic translation of the
whole statement (see below). Finally, ‫ ذات البيف‬is an Islam-special term that implies an
exquisitely polite reference to differences among Muslims, especially in the popular
expression ‫( إصبلح ذات البيف‬making peace between two disputing Muslim parties’).

116
The second problem is the translation of rhetorical and complicated expressions that may
be challenging to a good translator, let alone the common readers. The next table lists
these expressions on the right, juxtaposed with their ordinary counterparts on the left in
Arabic with the aim to demonstrate the point claimed about the former. (Korannic verses
and Prophetic Traditions are excluded for their rhetorical language and style is functional
and set apart of all other types of texts (see Ghazala, 2014):

SL rhetorical expressions SL non-rhetorical/ordinary expressions

‫ المماراة؛‬.1
‫ المضادة؛‬.2
‫ يؤوؿ الغضب؛‬.3
‫ إفساد ذات البيف؛‬.4
‫ نفرة الخمؽ عنو‬.5
‫ يتفكر في األخبار الواردة؛‬.6
‫ كظـ الغيظ؛‬.7
‫ أمضيت غضبي؛‬.8
‫ أحوج ما أكوف لمعفو؛‬.9
‫ الكمب الضاري؛‬.10
‫ السبع العادي؛‬.11
‫؟؟؛‬...‫ أبعد ما يكوف مجانبو ألخبلؽ‬.12
‫ مذمة االنتقاـ؛‬.13
‫ حسف الصفح؛‬.14
‫ الجداؿ؛‬.1
‫ العناد؛‬.2
‫؛‬...‫ يؤدي الغضب إلى‬.3
‫ إفساد العبلقة بيف الناس؛‬.4
‫ نفور الناس منو‬.5
‫ يستحضر أقواالً مف القرآف والسنة؛‬.6
‫ كتـ الغضب؛‬.7
‫أطمقت غضبي؛‬/‫ غضبت‬.8
‫ في أشد الحاجة لمعفو؛‬.9
‫ الكمب المسعور؛‬.10
‫ السبع المفترس؛‬.11
‫؛‬...‫ بعيداً عف أخبلؽ‬.12
‫ قبح االنتقاـ؛‬.13
‫ حب العفو؛‬.14

Obviously, the second group of ordinary expressions is much easier to comprehend than
the first. Hence, it is rather more appropriate to the general public of readers who prefer
to scan Islamic leaflets fairly easily, quickly and comfortably with not much effort to exert
in understanding them in general. On this basis, the problems of translating the rhetorical
expressions of the original have been sorted out by replacing them with normal, general,
ordinary, non-/less rhetorical and less technical English equivalents. The ultimate objective
of such leaflets is to get to the mind and heart of the target readership. The following
table shows the closeness of the English translation of the SL text’s rhetorical expressions
concerned to the ordinary, non-rhetorical ones:

117
 The English Translation SL Non-rhetorical/ordinary expressions
1. Argumentation ‫ الجداؿ؛‬.1
2. Obstinacy
‫ العناد؛‬.2
3. Anger leads to
‫؛‬...‫ يؤدي الغضب إلى‬.3
4. spoiling reconciliation between ‫ إفساد العبلقة بيف الناس؛‬.4
Muslims;
5. turns one repulsive to others. ‫ نفور الناس منو‬.5
‫ يستحضر أقواالً مف القرآف والسنة؛‬.6
6. Remember what the Koran and ‫ كتـ الغضب؛‬.7
Hadith say about controlling
one's anger. ‫أطمقت غضبي؛‬/‫ غضبت‬.8
7. Control/quell one’ anger. ‫ في أشد الحاجة لمعفو؛‬.9
8. get angry
‫ الكمب المسعور؛‬.10
9. in desperate need for God’s
pardon. ‫ السبع المفترس؛‬.11
‫؛‬...‫ بعيداً عف أخبلؽ‬.12
10. a ferocious beast.
‫ قبح االنتقاـ؛‬.13
11. (the same as 10). ‫ حب العفو؛‬.14
12. like Prophets Righteous Muslims
in character
13. the despicable idea of taking
revenge …
14. pardoning.

Hence, in an entirely TL reader-oriented text like this Islamic leaflet, simplification of

language and style can be claimed to be highly recommended, if translation aims to meet
its purpose of inviting, impressing and convincing the TL readership.

The third type of translation problem is exhibited by the frequent use of redundant
expressions in this and other leaflets. Redundancy is a kind of style that marks Islamic
texts like these in particular. This style is two types: (i) ordinary, or non-rhetorical; and (ii)
rhetorical. In Islamic texts, both types are employed, but in translation, only the latter is
committed to by translators due to its emphatic and other stylistic functions. However,
the former is reduced to normal, or disposed of in the target translation. In all cases, in
English, and for the English readers, redundancy of the non-rhetorical type is not quite
popular. That is why the English translation of the text here disposes of, or simplifies
redundant expressions. Here are examples:

(1) ‫( الزىو والعجب‬self-conceit)

(2) ‫( المزاح واليزؿ‬jest)
(3) ‫( التعبير والمماراة‬argumentation)
(4) ‫( رجولة وعزة نفس وكبر ىمة‬manhood)
(5) ً‫( غباوة وجيبل‬stupidity)
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 (6) ‫( تميؿ إليو النفس وتستحسنو‬one likes it)
(7) ‫( الرحمف الرحيـ‬God)
(8) ‫( أشد وأصعب‬harder)
(9) ‫( الموعظة والعبرة‬admonition)
(10) ‫( يموت اإلنساف وتزىؽ روحو‬causes one’s death)
(11) ‫( الكمب الضاري والسبع العادي‬ferocious beast)
(12) ‫ الصفح‬...‫( العفو و‬pardoning/pardon)

This type of general texts is supposed to read naturally, so unnecessary, redundant and
pedantic expressions can be cut down into simple, natural ones, as done here in the
translation above.

A fourth problem relates to the layout of the original. The translation has adopted a
different organization of the whole text that can be more logical and convenient to TL
readership. The introduction has not undergone dramatic changes, but it has been
simplified into a short summary introduction that introduces to the Prophet’s Traditions in
a bullet list, and as simple translation as possible. However, a dramatic change has been
done on the rest of the layout of the text. That is, instead of the ill-organization of the
original into definition of anger; reasons of anger; quelling anger and serious
consequences of anger (or from right to left into: definition; quelling anger; reasons of
anger and, finally, serious consequences of anger), the translation is reorganized more
logically into: (i) reasons of anger; (ii) serious consequences of anger; and, finally, (iii)
quelling (or curing) anger. The definition of anger is dropped completely for it is not
required in a general text like this which is directed to target readers who know very well
what ‘anger’ means. Further, definitions of terms like these are more likely to be required
in academic texts, not in leaflets whose readers will not be quite amused by reading
common knowledge definitions.

The fact of the matter is that the translator’s prime interest at translating Islamic leaflets
like this one is in rendering the message in as simple terms, style and layout as possible in
a way that achieves the purpose of translating them, and secures the positive response of
the TL readership. And this is what we call ‘pragmatic translation’. Pragmatics is the study
of language in use. Its concern is not the linguistic meaning as generated by the linguistic
system of a language, but the meaning manipulated by participants (speaker / hearer;
addresser / addressee) in communicative situations (see Jeffries, 2010; Baker, 1992;
Wales, 1989; Leech, 1982, and others). Pragmatics can be better understood in practice as
the study of the INTENTIONS )‫ نوايا‬/ ‫ (مقاصد‬of the speaker behind his / her words. Hence, in
translation, pragmatic meaning is in other words the translation of these intentions which
are only contextual and lie beyond the literal meaning of the words of the speaker. So,
pragmatic translation is the translation of intentions in the first place. In this sense,
pragmatic translation is concerned with the message, the gist of the text, and not
committed to the literal translation of words and meanings. In effect, it allows dropping
unnecessary words, or parts of a text when possible (See also Ghazala, 2014: ch. 5 for
further details).

119
3.6.4 Translation Strategies

The translation strategies employed in the translation of this Islamic leaflet are numerous.
They include:

(1) Naturalization (e.g. ‫ → اهلل‬God. It can also be transliterated into ‘Allah’ when TL
readers are Muslims).
(2) Transliteration (Koran/Quan, Hadith, Jihad, proper names, etc.).
(3) Reduction (‫ → الرحيـ الرحمف‬God; see all examples of reduced unnecessary
redundancies above)
(4) Generalization (‫ → الرحيـ الرحمف‬God; ‫ → فواحش‬sexual relationships)
(5) Undertranslation (e.g. ‫ ويُعجز‬،‫ ويُخرس المساف‬،‫ويصـ اآلذاف‬
ُ ‫قد يؤثر عمى البدف حتى يعمي البصر‬
‫ بؿ قد يموت اإلنساف وتزىؽ روحو‬،‫ → اإلنساف‬When too excessive, it might turn one blind,
deaf, dumb, disable, even dead).
(6) Overtranslation (‫‘ → التشفي‬glee at somebody’s mischief / gloating at one’s enemy’
/ ‘feel happy at someone else’s misfortune’; ‫ → إصبلح ذات البيف‬making peace
between two disputing Muslim parties’).
(7) Adopted Foreignization/calque (e.g. ‫ → التشفي‬a German term ‘schadenfraude’.
(8) Approximation (e.g. see the paragraph on the first problem of translating
unfindable words above).
(9) Literal translation of spiritual, religious terms (e.g. ‫‘ → أعوذ باهلل مف الشيطاف الرجيـ‬I
seek refuge with God from the accursed Satan’).
(10) Addition (e.g. Mohammad (peace be to him); (Almighty) God).
(11) Deletion (e.g. definitions of ‘anger’ are deleted for they are not essential in such
leaflet).
(12) Simplification (e.g. SL rhetorical expressions → TL non-rhetorical/ordinary
expressions. See above).
(13) Summary (e.g. the introductory paragraph of the original is summed up in English
for reasons of simplification and better readability).
(14) Transposition: verb → verb phrase (e.g. ‫ → يغضب‬get/feel/be angry)

3.7 Political Leaflets

Political leaflets over election campaigns are general texts forwarded to the general
public. They are described by many as lies, damn lies. They are an essential part of the
propaganda for political parties and candidates.

Election time in the UK, for example, means that the people’s letterboxes are stuffed with
political leaflets from parties eager to get their votes. Most people take political claims
with a pinch of salt, casting doubts on them and spotting misleading or outright deceptive
information, promises and statistics in election leaflets. It is true that political parties often
use statistics to overstate their chances; to diminish their opponents’ popularity; and to
encourage tactical votes (see also The Guardian, 12 May, 2014).

120
Following is a sample example of an election leaflet by a British Political Party, followed by
translation and discussion:

Liberal Democrats.
Change that works.
In Scotland there is only one party in
a position to challenge Labour’s
domination of our politics at Westminster –
The Scottish Liberal Democrats.
More and more people are switching to back Lib Dems campaigners
up and down the country.

They know that every vote for the Liberal Democrats

is a vote for real action
On jobs to give every child a fair
Start in life and for fairer taxes.

Join the campaign for change that

Works for you.

JOHN BENNET (Source: Election Leaflets)

‫حزب الديمقراطييف األحرار‬
.‫ىو التغيير الفعمي الحقيقي‬
‫في اسكتمندا يوجد حزب واحد وحيد ال غير‬
– ‫قادر عمى القضاء عمى ىيمنة حزب العماؿ عمى السياسة في برلماف ببلدنا‬
‫إنو حزب الديمقراطييف األحرار األسكتمندي‬

‫عدد الناس المؤيديف لحمبلت انتخاب الديمقراطييف األحرار يزيد ويكثر يوماً بعد يوـ‬
.‫في طوؿ الببلد وعرضيا ومف أقصاىا إلى أقصاىا‬

‫ىـ يدركوف أف كؿ صوت يصب في صالح الديمقراطييف األحرار ىو صوت العمؿ الحقيقي‬
‫سعياً وراء الوظائؼ لمنح كؿ طفؿ بداية عادلة‬
.‫لحياة كريمة وضرائب أقؿ‬

‫سارع لبلنضماـ إلى حممتنا حممة الديمقراطييف األحرار لمتغيير‬

.‫فيي لؾ ومف أجمؾ‬

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3.7.1 Purpose of the Translation

Here is a way to put the squeeze on ones’ opponents as much as one likes. This leaflet
from the Liberal Democrats Party (Lib Dems) in Dundee West, Scotland, UK for the 2010
general election, greatly exaggerates the number of Lib Dem Members of Parliament
(MPs) compared with their rivals. The leaflet provides bars of false statistics about the
percentages of the Lib Dems compared to the other major British Political Parties in the
previous election. This standard of presentation of statistics would get you fired from a job
in finance or engineering, but if one is standing for the Parliament, it is supposedly just
fine (The Guardian, ibid.).

This introduction may lead us to the real purpose of the translation of this leaflet:
undermine one’s political components in an election as much as possible to win the
hearts, and hence, votes of voters. To achieve this purpose, the translator picks up the
stylistic and rhetorical features of exaggeration, amplification and admiration of the party,
or candidate concerned, and those of criticism, depreciation and belittlement of their
opponents. All this is attended to alongside with direct communication with the TL
readers/audience in a similar way done with the SL readership.

3.7.2 Type of TL Readership

Election leaflets are directed generally to all people, highly, medium, low and even
uneducated, but mainly to average public audience that has the overwhelming majority of
votes. At the same time, public readers are susceptible to volatility and vibration of
opinion, and may judge emotionally rather than rationally and logically. Hence, words of
appraisal, exaggeration and admiration, though nonfactual, might impress them,
especially when supported with illustrative images and posters, and semiformal and
occasional colloquial style of language, if and when. The ultimate objective of these
leaflets is to impress and persuade the common public to vote for those publicized for.

3.7.3 Translation Problems

The first Problem of translation posited by the text is how to deal with the western
political culture reflected by some political terms like: (1) Liberal Democrats (Lib Dems), (2)
Labour, (3) Westminster, (4) Lib Dems campaigners, (5) (election) campaign. The first is
translated into the recognized translation in Arabic as ‫( حزب الديمقراطييف األحرار‬i.e. classifier,
naturalization and translation) in preference to the naturalized version ‫الديمقراطيوف الميبراليوف‬
which is acceptable but not as recognized as the former. The classifier word ‫ حزب‬is added
for clarification of the Lib Dems for the target readers who may have not heard of this
term before.

As to (2), it is translated into its full recognized version in Arabic as ‫حزب العماؿ‬, with the
latter added as a classifier to identify the former. Another classifier word can be added
(i.e. ‫)البريطاني‬. The third term can be rightly transliterated into ‫ الويست مينستر‬which is known
as a metonym standing for The British Parliament (i.e. The House of Commons) being the
name of the Building of the latter. However, it is translated here into ‫ برلماف ببلدنا‬as an
122
intimate expression to get closer to the audience. The fifth is translated into ‫حممة الديمقراطييف‬
‫ األحرار‬rather than into ... ‫ قادة حممة‬/ ‫ مديرو‬for the context urges us to use the campaign
rather than the campaigners. The fifth one is translated into ‫ حمبلت انتخاب‬with the classifier
word ‫ انتخاب‬which is implied in the context of situation.

The second translation problem posed by the leaflet above is the abbreviation ‘Lib Dems’.
It is a short form for ‘Liberal Democrats’ which is used in full version in the text and,
hence, it is not difficult for the translator to guess. Usually, English abbreviations and
acronyms are quite popular in English and amongst the English people. However, in Arabic
they are not so. They are translated into their full versions due to their absence, or very
occasional use in Arabic Language, with one major exception of UN acronyms many of
which have standardized Arabic equivalents now (e.g. ... ،‫ اليونيسيؼ‬،‫ الفاو‬،‫)اليونيسكو‬.

The third problem, the least difficult but the most important to attend to, is the
translation of exaggerative, overstated, rhetorical and effective expressions that have
essential impact on the readers’ opinions. They include the following expressions
alongside with their Arabic translations and their potential normal synonyms to be
juxtaposed with in the table:

SL Expressions TL exaggerative Trans. TL Normal Translations

(1) Change that .‫) التغيير الفعمي الحقيقي‬1( ‫) التغيير الفعمي‬1(
works.
‫) حزب واحد وحيد ال غير‬2( ‫) حزب واحد فقط‬2(
(2) only one party
(3) in a position to ‫) قادر عمى القضاء عمى‬3( ‫) قادر عمى القضاء عمى‬3(
challenge Labour’s ‫ىيمنة حزب العماؿ‬ ‫العماؿ‬ ‫حزب‬ ‫ىيمنة‬
domination…
(4) the Scottish ‫) إنو حزب الديمقراطييف‬4( ‫البريطاني‬
Liberal Democrats. ‫األحرار االسكتمندييف مف‬ ‫) إنو حزب الديمقراطييف‬4(
(5) More and more ‫غيره؟‬ ‫األحرار األسكتمندييف‬
people
‫ يزيد‬... ‫) عدد الناس‬5( ‫ يصبح‬... ‫) عدد الناس‬5(
(6) up and down the ‫ويكثر يوماً بعد يوـ‬ ‫أكثر فأكثر‬
country. ‫) في طوؿ الببلد وعرضيا‬6(
(7) every vote for the
‫إلى‬ ‫أقصاىا‬ ‫ومف‬ ‫) في كؿ البمد‬6(
Liberal
Democrats .‫أقصاىا‬
‫) كؿ صوت يصب في‬7( ‫صوت‬ ‫) كؿ‬7(

...‫صالح‬ ...‫لمديمقراطييف‬
(8) On jobs
‫) سعياً وراء الوظائؼ‬8( ‫) لموظائؼ‬8(
(9) to give every child
‫) لمنح كؿ طفؿ بداية‬9( ‫) إلعطاء كؿ طفؿ بداية‬9(
a fair
‫عادلة لحياة كريمة‬ ‫عادلة لمحياة‬
Start in life
(10) Join the campaign ‫إلى‬ ‫لبلنضماـ‬ ‫) سارع‬10( ‫حممة‬ ‫إلى‬ ‫) انضـ‬10(
for change
123
 ‫حممتنا حممة الديمقراطييف‬ ‫األحرار‬ ‫الديمقراطييف‬
‫األحرار لمتغيير‬ ‫لمتغيير‬
(11) That works for
you. .‫) فيي لؾ ومف أجمؾ‬11( .‫) فيي مف أجمؾ‬11(

Many of these exaggerations are rhetorical, effective collocations (see 3, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10).

The rest are emphatic repetitions and variations). Indeed, expressions like these are fairly
welcome by TL readers as a means of impressing and persuading them. On the other
hand, normal, non-exaggerative expressions may diminish the chances of achieving the
purpose intended for such political leaflets.

3.7.4 Translation Strategies

(1) Naturalization (e.g. Democrats ‫ ;ديمقراطيوف‬Scottish ‫)أسكتمنديوف‬

(2) Naturalization & Translation: translation couplet (e.g. Lib Dems ‫)الديمقراطيوف األحرار‬
(3) Transliteration (Westminster ‫)الويست مينستر‬
(4) Sense (e.g. Westminster ‫)برلماف ببلدنا‬
(5) Classifier (e.g. Labour ‫ ;حزب العماؿ البريطاني‬Lab Dems ‫)حزب الديمقراطييف األحرار‬
(6) Literal translation (e.g. election ‫ ;انتخاب‬campaign‫)حممة‬
(7) Generalization of a specified term (e.g. campaigners ‫( حمبلت‬instead of ‫أصحاب‬
...‫)حمبلت‬
(8) Transposition (e.g. works (v.) → ‫( فعمي‬adj.); join (v.) → ‫( انضماـ‬n.), etc.)
(9) Expansion (e.g. vote for ‫( صوت يصب في صالح‬instead of ...‫))صوت لػ‬
(10) Cultural neutralization (e.g. ‘fair taxes’ is a western culture, translated into
neutral term as ‫ ضرائب أقؿ‬which is more comprehensible to TL readers who may
find a direct translation like ‫ ضرائب منصفة‬for taxes are unfair in Islam).

3.8 Health Leaflets

Health leaflets are widespread means of health information for the common public
nowadays. They are made available in two or more languages for everybody in public and
private institutions, common places, shopping centers and, naturally, hospitals and health
centers. Usually, they are issues on purpose by the Ministries of Health. They are based on
their English original. Following is an English leaflet about the Corona Epidemic by the
Saudi Ministry of Health, alongside with its Arabic translation by the Ministry, to be
discussed in detail below:

124
125
126
3.8.1 Purpose of the Translation

The purpose of translating health leaflets like this one here is to make the public informed
about the symptoms, reasons, dangers and cure of an epidemic of some kind. They are,
then, forwarded to everybody, regardless of their level of education, gender and age. This
entails that they are to be made as clear as possible, with a minimum of technical
terminology and frozen formal, or classical style of language. In other words, the
translator is required to simplify as much as he/she can, as certain medical terms have no
more than one alternative. Yet, he/she can explain them instead of reproducing them into
challenging, incomprehensible technical terms, as illustrated below in the discussion of
translation problems.

3.8.2 Type of TL Readership

As pointed out in the previous paragraph, the readership aimed at by health leaflets is
everybody in the community, educated, uneducated (but literate, of course), young and
old, men and women and sick and healthy. So, obviously, language is recommended to be
as simple, easy, familiar and popular as possible. One or two exceptions of using technical
terms that are not available, or have only one single equivalent in the target language can
be tolerated. That said, an explanation of an unfindable, or difficult term is a better
solution. On occasions, an informal version that can be accepted and comprehended by
the TL readership is advisable as a last resort (see below).

3.8.3 Translation Problems

Investigating the problems of translation urges a word on the original text first. At first
sight, the original would be expected to be the English version for English is the source of
the medical information about Corona epidemic, as well as the language of the Medical
Symposium held lately by the Saudi Ministry of Health in the city of Riyadh, the Saudi
Capital, as stated on the top of the leaflet. Yet, careful consideration of the English
language used in the English leaflet would confirm that, due to Arabic interference of
some expressions, the Arabic version is the original. Yet, some terms are borrowed from
the original, especially the technical ones. As to the interference between Arabic and
English in the translation provided in the English leaflet by the Ministry, it occurs on
several occasions where one feels that they are not quite English – English, but, rather
literal translation of Arabic into English to sound as Arabic-English. Examples include the
following:

127
 Interference expressions Proper English
1. According to the 1. Recommendations of the
recommendations of the International Medical Symposium,
specialized scientists who Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
attended the International 2. How does Corona transmit among
Medical Meeting in Riyadh people?
2. How Corona does transmit 3. like other Corona viruses and flues,
between people? MERS-CoV transmits through the
3. MERS-CoV transmits like other following:
Corona viruses and flu, which
transmits through: 4. Contact with patients’ tools,
4. Contact with patients’ tools, followed by immediate touching of
then touching the nose, mouth nose, mouth or eyes.
or eyes directly 5. What are the symptoms of Corona
5. What are the signs and Virus infection?
symptoms of Corona Virus
infection? 6. Nasal and throat congestion.
6. Congestion in the nose and
throat
7. Protection measures 7. Prevention measures
8. Wash your hands and 8. Wash your hands regularly … or
continually … or other hand other hand antiseptics…before
disinfectants …before handling / eating or preparing food…or their
preparing food…or their personal things.
personal tools 9. Avoid direct contact with patients,
9. Avoid contact with patients and or using their personal tools, … on
their personal tools, … only if visiting or touching them.
you’re sick or visiting sick
patients 10. Avoid touching your eyes, nose
10. Avoid touching your eyes and mouth…
and/or nose … 11. Cover your mouth and nose with a
11. Use a tissue when coughing or tissue when coughing or sneezing,
sneezing (/) …then get rid of it in then discard the tissue in the trash
a waste basket. After that, wash after use and wash hands
your hands carefully, if there is afterwards, or, if this is not
no tissue, it is preferred to possible, to cough or sneeze into
cough or sneeze into your the upper sleeves of your clothing
sleeve or elbow, not your hands or elbow, but not into your hands
12. Maintain good hygiene habits in
general 12. Practice general hygiene
13. Wash…thoroughly before eating measures.
them 13. Wash …properly with running
water before eating them.
14. Maintain other healthy habits 14. Adhere to practicing other good
such as balanced diet, physical hygiene habits such as balanced
activity, as well as getting diet and physical exercise, and
enough sleep; this will sleep well. This will guarantee
strengthen immunity. stronger immunity.
128
The interference and other types of mistakes marked in italics in the examples in the table
are, in other words, problems of translation of different types:

(a) Lexical problems of proper word choice of synonymy (7, 8, 11, 12, 13, 14)
(b) Unnecessary redundancy (e.g. 5 & 9: sick patients → patients)
(c) Lexico-grammatical (e.g. (4): followed by immediate touching…
(d) Skipping of words (e.g. (9): running water’ is missing from the English translation;
(10): ‘mouth’ is dropped unnecessarily)
(e) Grammatical problems (e.g. 2 & 3)
(f) Reformulation of bad and/or literal translation (e.g. 1, 3, 6)
(g) Collocational interference due to literal translation (e.g. 7, 12, 13, 14).

That said, despite these poor English expressions, which are quite common in leaflets of
different types, they do not block comprehension, or cause misunderstanding of the
message. Still, fixing mistakes like these is strongly recommended.

Problems concerning translating technical terms are solved brilliantly in the leaflet by
using popular terms like ‘cough (c.f. the technical ‘tussis’), shortness of breath (not the
technical ‘dyspnea’), diarrhea (c.f. the technical ‘dysentery’), immunity (rather than the
unfamiliar technical ‘iathergy’), and fever (in favour of the unknown technical term
‘pyrexia’). ‘Hygiene’ is used as a variation on ‘health’ for it is a familiar term to the English
public readers. ‘Flu’ is an informal but good choice being so popular in English.

Finally, the key term ‘Corona’ is a back translation into the original English, which is
transliterated into Arabic successfully as ‫كورونا‬. This is justified on four bases, first, the term
has no Arabic equivalent as yet; second, many names of diseases are transliterated as such
even though an Arabic equivalent is sometimes available. (e.g. ،‫ إيدز‬،‫ ديسؾ‬،‫ انفمونزا‬،‫مبلريا‬
)...‫ ألزىايمر‬،‫بميارسيا‬. Third, it is already familiar to people. Fourth, the whole leaflet is about
it. Generally, the English translation has come close to the target readers and has made it
available to everybody to read and understand comfortably.

3.8.4 Translation Strategies

(1) Literal translation (many words and expressions throughout)

(2) Transliteration (e.g. Corona, virus, flu/influenza, Riyadh, etc.)
(3) Popular terminology (e.g. cough, fever, etc.)
(4) Addition (e.g. contact → direct contact)
(5) Transposition: verb → noun (e.g. wash (v.) → ‫;غسؿ‬ ْ etc.)
(6) Zero acronyms in Arabic due to their unpopularity in Arabic Language (e.g. MERS-
CoV → ‫)(فيروس) الكورونا‬
(7) Arabization (e.g. syndrome → ‫)متبلزمة‬
(8) Reduction (e.g. ‫ → أخذ قسط كاؼ مف النوـ‬sleep well; signs and symptoms → ‫)أعراض‬
(9) Deletion (e.g. ‫ → تجنب قدر اإلمكاف‬avoid …)

129
3.9 Car Leaflets

Car brochures and catalogues are among the quite popular and widespread leaflets
among the public. Everybody has special interest in reading their cars’ leaflets in their own
language as clearly, easily and simply as possible, especially the main features and
specifications. Next is an extract from the Toyota Camry Car, 2015, highlighting its main
features and prices in Saudi Riyal, side by side with its translation into Arabic (Source:
(http://www.toyota.com.sa/en/modelsprices.asp?model_id=4):

Automatic Automatic Automatic Automatic Automatic Automatic

SR.77760 SR.81260 SR.85260 SR.95260 SR.96260 SR.103760

- 4 Cylinders Engine 2.5 L 178 HP with Single Exhaust.

- 16 Valve with Dual VVT-I & EFI
- 6-Speed Transmission
- Full Wheel Cap 16 Inch
- ABS, BA & EBD
- Airbag (Driver + Passenger)
- Black & Power Outside View Mirror
- CD/MP3/AUX/Radio with 6-Speakers (Made in Thailand) *
- 3-Spokes Urethane Steering Wheel
- Fabric Seat Material
- Wireless Door Lock (Key Less Entry) (Made in Malaysia) *
- Rubber Floor Mat (Made in Malaysia)

(Translation):
‫أوتوماتك‬ ‫أوتوماتك‬ ‫أوتوماتك‬ ‫أوتوماتك‬ ‫أوتوماتك‬ ‫أوتوماتك‬
77760 .‫س‬.‫ر‬ 81260 .‫س‬.‫ر‬ 85260 .‫س‬.‫ر‬ 95260 .‫س‬.‫ر‬ 96260 .‫س‬.‫ر‬ 103760 .‫س‬.‫ر‬

‫ حصاف بمخرج عادـ أحادي‬178‫ لتر‬2.5 ‫ سمندر‬4 ‫محرؾ‬-

EFI‫ مزدوج ونظاـ وقود‬VVT-i ‫صماـ بنظاـ‬- 16
‫ناقؿ حركة بستة سرعات‬-
‫ بوصة‬16‫أغطية كاممة لمعجبلت مقاس‬-
‫ مساعد فرامؿ مع موزع فرامؿ إلكتروني‬،‫فرامؿ مانعة لبلنغبلؽ‬-
‫وسائد ىوائية أمامية لمراكب والسائؽ‬-
‫مرايا خارجية سوداء بتحكـ كيربائي‬-
*)‫ سماعات (صنع في تايبلند‬6 ‫ مزود بػ‬CD/MP3/AUX/Radio ‫مسجؿ‬-
‫مقود يورثيف ثبلثي‬-
‫مقاعد قماش‬-
)‫جياز فتح األبواب عف بعد (صنع في ماليزيا‬-
(‫دعاسات أرضية مطاطية (صنع في ماليزيا‬-

130
3.9.1 Purpose of the Translation

The obvious purpose of translating car leaflets is to make all the details about cars,
especially the main features and specifications, quite clear in as an easy and simple style
and language as possible. This means to avoid technical language as much as possible,
being the most difficult part of the leaflets. Yet, admittedly, some technical terms are
unavoidable due to their absence from Arabic lexicon as they have not been Arabized yet.
On the other hand, those technical terms that have already been in circulation about cars
are tolerated for they are understood by readers, though they are not standardized yet.

3.9.2 Type of TL Readership

All types of readership are aimed at by translating car leaflets. Even illiterate readers are
interested in them for they wish to know many things about their cars, asking somebody
else to read and explain the leaflet for them. Therefore, it is urgently required to simplify
and make the language of the leaflet fairly convenient. Also, the layout, or format of the
leaflet is significant to readers. Besides that, the main points and features of the car have
to be given priority in simplification and clarification of translation first, in short details in a
serial number, and, second, in long details for those curious to know everything about
their own cars, or the cars they want to purchase. In effect, technical terminology is kept
off car leaflets unless indispensable, or no other option is available to translators in Arabic
Language.

131
3.9.3 Translation Problems

The most problematic of all in our leaflet here are the technical car terms including
acronyms which originally stand for technical terms. Many of them are unknown to Arab
readers. Obviously, the majority of the terms of the English original are technical. They
include the following : cylinder, engine, single exhaust, valve, speed transmission, wheel
cap, airbag, spokes, Urethane, steering wheel, fabric seat, wireless door lock, rubber mat,
HP, VVT-I & EFI, ABS, BA, EBD, CD, MP, AUX. In other words, over 90% of the text is
technical language. The translation quoted above has managed to render the meaning
roughly, haphazardly and informally, leaving some acronyms untranslated, or unchanged
in English.

The translation has dealt with the problems of translating technical terms in three ways.
The first is that it has translated some well-known terms like engine → ‫محرؾ‬, exhaust →
ِ HP (horse power) → ‫حصاف‬, speed transmission → ‫ناقؿ حركة‬, ABS, BA &
‫عادـ‬, valve → ‫صماـ‬,
EBD → ‫موزع فرامؿ الكتروني‬...‫فرامؿ مانعة لبلنغبلؽ‬, airbag → ‫وسادة ىوائية‬, fabric →‫قماش‬, rubber
→‫مطاط‬, etc. The second way is transliteration of some terms like: automatic → ‫( أوتوماتيؾ‬not
‫تمقائي‬/‫)ذاتي‬, cylinder → ‫( سيمندر‬rather than ‫)أسطوانة‬, urethane → (instead of the naturalized +
translated term ‫)مركب اليوريتاف‬. The third is that it has left the technical term as it is in
English, untranslated, transliterated or naturalized: e.g. EFI → zero (but a classifier has
been used: ‫)نظاـ وقود‬, VVT-I → (but with a classifier: ‫بنظاـ‬, CD/MP3/AUX/Radio → ‫مسجؿ‬
CD/MP3/AUX/Radio (with a good classifier used:‫ مسجؿ‬to include CD recorder and Radio
systems). Only one term, ‘spokes’ (‫محاور‬/‫ (قضباف‬is left out untranslated, and, instead,
replaced by ‫ ثبلثي‬which implies it, and target readers may understand it as such.

My comment on these ways of sorting out the problems of translating technical

terminology is that it is not bad in such context where accuracy of Arabic technical terms
is not required. Further, the technical equivalents that are in circulation in car industry are
acceptable when they are familiar to Arab people. Yet, my objection is to the use of
English language in the Arabic translation, as the third way above illustrates. The
translator could have transliterated the acronyms and other English terms in Arabic
letters, or, preferably, drop them altogether when unnecessary. After all, the reader is not
interested in them at all.

Two further interesting translations of the two technical terms, ‘fabric’ and ‘wireless’, are
presented in the translation. ‘Fabric’ is translated successfully into its general sense of
‫ ;قماش‬and ‘wireless’ is also translated brilliantly into its very general sense of ‫( عف بعد‬rather
than ً‫ السمكيا‬which is less familiar in this context).

A final problem in the translation above is its recurrent use of informal Arabic words like
the dropping of the end-vocalization mark of /tanween/ for ‫( حصاف‬which should be ً‫)حصانا‬,
grammatical concord between feminine and masculine in ‫( ستة‬which should be ‫ ست‬as

132
opposed to the following feminine noun ‫)سرعات‬, and the use of colloquial words like ‫مقاس‬
(which is formally ‫مقياس‬/‫)قياس‬, and ‫( دعاسات‬which is formally ‫ دواسة‬/ ‫)ممسحة أرجؿ‬. However,
such uses can be tolerable, though not advisable when a familiar term is available in
language.

3.9.4 Translation Strategies

(1) Arabization (e.g. ...‫ انغبلؽ‬،‫ ناقؿ حركة‬،‫ عادـ‬،‫ صماـ‬،‫ حصا‬،‫)محرؾ‬
(2) Transliteration (e.g. ... ‫ لتر‬،‫ بوصة‬،‫ سيمندر‬،‫)أوتوماتؾ‬
(3) Paraphrase (e.g. ABS, BA & EBD → ‫ مساعد فرامؿ مع موزع فرامؿ‬،‫فرامؿ مانعة لبلنغبلؽ‬
‫)إلكتروني‬
(4) General sense (e.g. Fabric→ ‫ ;قماش‬wireless → ‫)عف بعد‬
(5) Translation by implication (e.g. ‫)ثبلثي المحاور → ثبلثي‬
(6) Deletion (e.g. ‘spokes’ is not translated as an independent term)
(7) Non-technical terminology (e.g. ‫( ناقؿ حركة‬rather than the technical ‫جياز تعشيؽ‬
‫( فرامؿ ;)التروس‬instead of the more formal and technical ‫)مكابح‬
(8) Naturalization (e.g. ‫)إلكتروني‬

3.10 Summary

This chapter has tackled the most popular and recurrent leaflets that are common in use
by the public. It covers the translation and investigation of service, academic, tourist,
instructions, religious / Islamic, political, health and car leaflets, with special focus on the
purpose of the translation, type of TL readership, translation problems and translation
strategies employed to fix them. The common denominator among these leaflets in regard
to their translation is that their purposes respond to the requirements of the target
readers who are always taken into account in terms of type, language and style. Simplicity,
easiness, clarity, non-technicality and direct address of TL readership have been
overwhelmingly attended to in all leaflets. This leads to the obvious conclusion that
general texts like these forwarded solely and directly to the general public should be
translated into the TL in the target readers’ terms of purpose, type and requirements,
sorting out translation problems in as clear, convenient and easy ways as possible.

133
EXERCISES

1. Why is the target readership the most important element in the translation of
leaflets of general types?
2. Is the language of translated leaflets preferably to be easy, simple, and clear?
Why? Or, should they be in standard formal language? Why?
3. What is the difference between technical and popular terminology? Which type is
more convenient to the target readers of translated leaflets, and why?
4. Translate whichever part of the following leaflet into as non-technical and simple
Arabic language as you can. Check the Net for help:

HEALTHY EATING

You need a variety of foods to maintain your health. Choose foods from the four
following food groups each day. Eating small amounts of lots of different foods
will help provide the range of nutrients your body needs.

Vegetables and Fruit

 Vegetables and fruit are good sources of vitamins, minerals and fibre and are low
in fat.
 Raw fruit and some vegetables make great snacks.
 Choose fruit and vegetables in season to keep costs down.
 Enjoy the taste of fresh fruit and vegetables without added sauces and fats.
 Eat at least five servings of fruit and vegetables a day.

Breads and Cereals (includes pasta, rice and other grains)

 Breads and cereals are good sources of fibre and some vitamins and minerals.
 Fill up on breads, cereals, pasta and rice.
 Many breads and cereals have added vitamins and minerals so it is important to
read package labels
for information.
 Breads and cereals make great snacks but go easy on fatty spreads and fillings.
 Eat at least six servings of breads and cereals a day.

Milk and Milk Products

 Milk and milk products are valuable sources of some vitamins and minerals,
especially calcium.
 Choose reduced-fat milks and milk products.
 Reduced-fat milks and yoghurts make a great snack and can be easily used in
cooking.
 Eat at least two servings of milk and milk products a day.

Meat, Seafood, Chicken, Eggs and Legumes

 Lean meats, seafood, chicken, eggs, cooked dried beans, peas and lentils are
important sources of
protein, vitamins and minerals – especially iron and zinc.
 Eat lean meats, seafood and chicken without added fats or fatty sauces.
134
  Dried beans, peas and lentils are a good low-cost alternative to meats, seafood
and chicken.
 Try to eat this group of foods with some fresh vegetables that are high in vitamin
C – such as tomato,
broccoli or peppers. This will help you absorb the iron.
 Eat at least one serving of meats or alternatives a day.

Processed and Pre-packaged Foods

 Processed foods can be high in fat and salt.
 Try and serve processed and pre-packaged meals with some fresh salad or
vegetables.
 Look for packaged foods which are lower in fat and salt and include some cereal
or vegetable fibre.
 Read the label. For example, 5g of fat or sugar = approximately 1 teaspoon.

Takeaway Foods
 Bread-based takeaways can be lower in fat, especially if you ask for low-fat
spread, cheese or dressing
(eg, pizza, burgers).
 If buying chips:
- thickly cut potatoes absorb less fat
- higher cooking temperatures mean less fat is absorbed
- ask for no added salt.

5. In the light of the translation and discussion of the car leaflet (of 3.9 above),
translate the following features and specifications leaflet of a different model of
the same car, Toyota Camry, 2015:

The bold new 2015 Toyota Camry is as unexpected as the people who drive it.
With a wider, athletic stance, exciting new colours and an all-new XSE model, the
redesigned Toyota Camry offers a striking exterior. The sophisticated and
comfortable interior, complete with 6.1’’ Display Audio, backup camera, keyless
entry and available cloth or leather upholstery, is surprisingly upscale for a
midsize sedan. Choose between 4-cylinder and powerful V6 models.
Standard features include:


®
Display Audio with Bluetooth Compatibility and USB Input
 Air Conditioning
 Backup Camera
 Automatic Headlamp System
 Cruise Control
 Keyless Entry

6. Compare the following Arabic health leaflet with its translation in the same way done
earlier in regard to ‘Corona Leaflet’ (see 3.8). Both the SL text and its English
translation are issued by the Saudi Health Ministry, 2012 (available on:
http://www.moh.gov.sa/HealthAwareness/Campaigns/h5n1/Plan/Pages/010.aspx):
135
 ‫التوعية الصحية‬

‫رفع مستوى الوعي الصحي لدى جميع الكوادر الصحية بجميع القطاعات الصحية الحكومية والخاصة بيدؼ التبميغ عف‬
‫أي حاالت مشتبية وكيفية الوقاية مف اإلصابة بعدوى المرض ‪.‬‬
‫توعية العامة ( المواطنيف والمقيميف) عف المرض وكيفية الوقاية منو ‪.‬‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫اإلعبلف لمعامة حوؿ حتمية انتشار المرض في العالـ ( عند حدوثو ) ومحدودية لقاح األنفمون از البشري وعدـ‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫توفر لقاح خاص بأنفمون از الطيور حالي ًا في األسواؽ وكذلؾ العبلج الوقائي الذي يتـ إعطائو لمعامميف في خط‬
‫الدفاع األوؿ ( الصحة‪ ،‬الخدمات العامة‪ ،‬المنافذ…‪.‬الخ ‪).‬‬
‫أىمية زرع الثقة بيف المواطنيف والسمطات المختصة في نشر المعمومات حوؿ المرض أوال بأوؿ مف خبلؿ‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫فريؽ مف الخبراء المؤىميف في ىذا المجاؿ ‪.‬‬
‫االحتياطات التي ينصح بيا المسافر لمناطؽ موبوءة‪:‬‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫حتى الوقت الحاضر لـ تصدر منظمة الصحة العالمية أي حظر عمى السفر الى أي دولة ظيرت فييا‬ ‫‪.1‬‬
‫عدوى بفيروس ‪(H5N1).‬‬
‫لـ توصي منظمة الصحة العالمية بأي إجراء نحو مناظرة القادميف مف الدوؿ التي ظيرت فييا عدوى‬ ‫‪.2‬‬
‫بفيروس ‪(H5N1).‬‬
‫ينصح المسافر بمراجعة الطبيب وأخذ المشورة الصحية قبؿ السفر ألي مف الببلد التي ظيرت فييا عدوى‪،‬‬ ‫‪.3‬‬
‫كما ينصح عند الوصوؿ الى وجية السفر بالحصوؿ عمى أي معمومات صحية أو تعميمات خاصة بالعدوى‬
‫وأي تطورات تحدث خبلؿ مدة اإلقامة ‪.‬‬
‫‪ .4‬عند تواجد المسافر في أي بمد ظيرت فيو إصابات ينصح بالتالي‪:‬‬
‫تجنب مبلمسة أي طيور أو دواجف حية أو لحوميا واالبتعاد عف أماكف تواجدىا أو بيعيا أو تقطيعيا ‪.‬‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫تجنب األماكف التي يمكف أف تتواجد فييا العدوى مثؿ مزارع الدواجف أو أسواؽ بيعيا أو حدائؽ الطيور ‪.‬‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫االبتعاد عف وعدـ مبلمسة أي وسائؿ لنقؿ أو تخزيف أو تربية الطيور والدواجف مثؿ أقفاص الطيور‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫وحظائرىا وسيارات نقميا ‪.‬‬
‫عدـ تناوؿ المحوـ والبيض إال بعد طيييا جيداً ( ال يتحمؿ الفيروس درجات الح اررة العالية مف ‪ 70‬درجة‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫مئوية فما فوؽ ‪).‬‬
‫غسؿ األيدي جيداً بالماء والصابوف ‪.‬‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫االحتياطات الخاصة بسبلمة الطعاـ ‪:‬‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫ال ينتقؿ الفيروس لئلنساف مف خبلؿ الطعاـ المطيي جيداً حيث أنو لـ يثبت حدوث عدوى نتيجة تناوؿ‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫دواجف مطيية بصورة جيدة أو منتجاتيا ‪.‬‬
‫الفيروس حساس لدرجات الح اررة العالية حيث يموت في درجة ح اررة ‪ 70‬درجة مئوية ‪.‬‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫تفيد بعض الدراسات أف الفيروسات عالية الضراوة ومنيا فيروس )‪ (H5N1‬تنتشر في كؿ أجزاء الطيور‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫المصابة ومنيا لحوميا لذلؾ فاف االستخداـ األمثؿ لموسائؿ الصحية في إعداد الطعاـ وطييو جيداً يقمؿ مف‬
‫فرص انتقاؿ العدوى ‪.‬‬
‫يجب طيي البيض جيدًا قبؿ األكؿ إذ أف بعض الدراسات في المناطؽ الموبوءة أثبتت وجود الفيروس في‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫قشرة البيض وكذلؾ في محتوياتو‪.‬‬

‫‪136‬‬
 Health Awareness
 Raising the health awareness of all health staff working in all health sectors, both
governmental and private; with the aim to immediately report any suspected
cases, in addition to the ways of prevention of the disease.
 Raising the awareness of the public (both citizens and resident) on the disease,
and the ways of prevention.
 Making clear to the public that the pandemic, when taking place, is very likely to
sweep the whole world, and that the human influenza vaccine is not available in
adequate quantities, and that there are no specific vaccine for avian influenza so
far, and that the preventive medications given to workers (in the field of health,
public services, ports, etc.) is the first line of defense.
 It is of pivotal importance to build confidence between citizens and the competent
authorities responsible for distributing information on the disease regularly,
through a team of proficient experts in this domain.
 Precautions recommended for travelers to stricken places:
1. So far, the WHO has not issued any travel bans to any of the countries affected by
(H5N1).
2. The WHO has not recommended any measures to be applied on those coming
from the countries affected by (H5N1).
3. It is advisable for travelers to see their doctors prior to heading for any of the
countries affected by (H5N1). And on arrival, it is advisable to be aware of any
health information or instructions concerning the infection, as well as any
developments taking place during his stay.
4. When traveling to any of the countries affected by (H5N1), it is recommended to:
o Avoid touching any birds or poultry (either live birds or meat), and keep
away from their places.
o Keep away from the places with high infection probability, like poultry
farms and bird parks.
o Avoid touching any of tools of aviculture or poultry transportation or
storing, such as bird cages and bird pans.
o Avoid eating white meat unless very well cooked (considering the virus
does not survive 70° C).
o Wash your hands well, using water and soap.
o Food Precautions:
 It is very unlikely for the virus to be transmitted to humans
through well-cooked food; that no infections have been
recorded to be caused by eating well-cooked poultry.
 The virus (H5N1) is sensitive to temperature, as it dies at 70° C).
 Some studies prove that highly pathogenic viruses, including the
highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) or (H5N1), affect all
the parts of the infected birds, including meat. It is for this
reason that following the healthy precautions when preparing
food, and cooking it well, reduce the likelihood of infection.
 Eggs have to be well cooked, as some studies have proven that
the virus could be carried in the egg shells, as well as the inner
contents.

137
 CHAPTER 4

TRANSLATING ADVERTISEMENTS
4.0 Introduction: Advertising: Definitions, Types and Purposes

4.0.1 Definitions

Advertising is a form of marketing communication, used to persuade an audience to take

or continue some action, usually with respect to commercial purposes. Also, the purpose
of advertising may be to reassure employees or shareholders that a company is doing well
and prosperous. Advertising messages are usually viewed via various old media including
mass media such as newspaper, magazines, television ads, or commercials, radio
advertisements, outdoor advertising, or direct mail, or new media such as blogs, websites
or text messages advertising. Advertising, in its non-commercial guise, is a powerful
educational tool capable of reaching and motivating large audiences. The phrase
"Advertising justifies its existence when used in the public interest – it is much too
powerful a tool to use solely for commercial purposes" (Wikipedia).

The advertising techniques used to promote commercial goods and services can also be
used to inform, educate and motivate the public about non-commercial issues. In its non-
commercial guise, advertising is a powerful educational tool capable of reaching and
motivating large audiences. The phrase "Advertising justifies its existence when used in
the public interest – it is much too powerful a tool to use solely for commercial purposes"
is not untrue.

Hence, advertising can be simply defined as:

1. the promotion of goods or services for sale through the numerous mass media,
especially radio, television and the Web.
2. the business that specializes in creating such publicity.
3. advertisements collectively; publicity; paid announcements
4. the act or practice of calling public attention to one's product, service, need, etc.,
especially by paid announcements in newspapers and magazines, over radio or
television, on billboards, etc.:
5. to get more customers by advertising.
6. the profession of planning, designing, and writing advertisements.

As a verb, advertise:
Collins (2012) explains it as follows:
1. to present or praise (goods, a service, etc.) to the public, especially in order to
encourage sales
2. to make (something, such as a vacancy, article for sale, etc) publicly known, as to
possible applicants, buyers, etc: to advertise a job.
3. (intransitive) followed by for: to make a public request (for), esp. in a newspaper,
etc: she advertised for a cook.

138
 4. (obsolete) to warn; caution.
(See Collins English Dictionary, 2012 (Digital Edition, 1979, 1986 and Harper Collins
Publishers 1998/2012)

By way of extending the argument, advertising is "nonpersonal". That is, there are two
basic ways to sell anything: personally and nonpersonally. Personal selling requires the
seller and the buyer to meet together. However, advertising as a nonpersonal is a good
idea as a sales tool. Further, advertising can do a large part of the selling job, and personal
selling is used to complete and close the sale. Indeed, advertising is nonpersonal, but can
be quite effective.

Second, advertising is a means of communication. Communication means not only speech

or pictures, but any way one person can pass information, ideas or feelings to another.
Thus communication uses all of the senses: smell, touch, taste, sound and sight. Of the
five, only two are really useful in advertising -- sound and sight.

Smell, to start with, is an extremely strong form of communication. However, when it

comes to advertising, it is not very useful. A smell can immediately evoke different
memories. Further, the smell might evoke different ideas of the same object, event, or
whatever for different persons. The point is that the effect of using smell in advertising
cannot be controlled by the advertiser. Although many people smell the same things,
what they associate with those smells varies with each person due to cultural, personal,
social, ideological or other reasons. At the end, it can be a matter of culture and style.

Touch, on the other hand, has a limitation that makes it of little use to advertising - the
customer has to come in actual contact with the item to be touched. Thus, the item must
actually exist and be put in a medium that can carry it. This puts touch more in the realm
of personal selling than advertising. Yet, it is possible to use touch for a limited number of
products. However, for the majority of products, touch is useless for advertising.

Taste is probably the least useful communication channel available to advertising. Like
touch, taste requires the potential customer to come in actual physical contact with the
product. However, taste can be instigated by the style of introducing the product picture
advertised for in language, as the following ad for Coca Cola might do:

139
A Coca-Cola advertisement from the 1890s (Wikipedia)

There are few products other than food for which taste is a major selling point, and there
is virtually no medium in which an ad can be placed that people are likely to taste, or lick;
for example. Thus, taste is much more effective in personal selling, such as sampling foods
in supermarkets or in door-to-door sales.

The remaining two senses, sound, and sight, are the most effective and easily used
channels of communication available to advertising. For these reasons, all advertising
relies on them. As for sound, it is extremely useful for advertising, and can be used in a
variety of media, from radio and television to the new technology of binding micro-sound
chips in magazines to present 20-second sales messages. Words, the method by which
humans communicate their ideas and feelings, are presented by sound, by speaking aloud.
Through the use of words, it is possible to deliver logical arguments, discuss pros and cons,
and evoke emotions.

Regarding sight, it can be the most useful of the communication channels available to the
advertiser. Through sight, it is possible to use both words and images effectively. Words
do not have to be spoken to be understood. They can be printed, as well. Although it is
difficult to put in written words the emotional impact possible in spoken words, written
words are unsurpassed for getting across and explaining complex ideas or arguments.

There is an additional factor in sight that makes it excellent for advertising. The old cliché,
"A picture is worth a thousand words," is correct. Think how long it takes to describe
something as opposed to showing a picture of it. No matter how many words you use,
some details will be left out that are visible at a glance. Hence, sight can quickly and
concisely show a customer what the advertiser wants him/her to see, be it a product or
how buying the product can benefit him/her.

140
In addition, the mind does not have to consciously recognize what the eye sees for it to
have an effect on the subconscious. An advertiser can put many inconspicuous details into
a picture that will affect a customer on the subconscious level. A small child looking
upward into the camera, unsmiling and eyes wide, gives an impression of sadness and
vulnerability, not shortness (see also picture above).

The five forms of human communication can be used to send any message to potential
customers. However, not all five are equal. Smell, touch and taste are of little use, but
sound and sight are of great value and effect. (See Wikipedia & Wikimedia).

4.0.2 Importance of Information in Advertising

Information is defined as knowledge, facts or news. However, one person's information is

another person's scam, particularly when advertisers talk about their products.

Information comes in many forms. It can be complete or incomplete. It can be biased or

deceptive. Complete information tells someone everything there is to know about
something: what it is, what it looks like, how it works, what its benefits and drawbacks
are. Yet, to provide complete information about anything is time consuming and
demanding. For example, to tell all about a car would require its appearance, manufacture
and manufacturer, what percentage of parts are made in which countries, cost of upkeep,
mileage, cost, sales, taxes, preparation costs, insurance costs, ride characteristics. All of
this would require a documentary, not a commercial. Complete information is impossible
to provide in an ad. Therefore, for advertising, information must be incomplete. In
advertising, what appears is everything the writer thinks the customer needs to know
about the product in order to make a decision about the product. That information will
generally be about how the product can benefit the customer.

Engman (1974) says: "Sometimes the consumer is provided not with information he wants
but only with the information the seller wants him to have. Sellers, for instance, are not
inclined to advertise negative aspects their products even though those aspects may be of
primary concern to the consumer, particularly if they involve considerations of health or
safety .” (in Taflinger, 1996).

Bias is being partial towards something, feeling that something is better or worse than
other things. Biased information about a product is that which emphasizes what is good
and ignores what is bad about it. Naturally, an advertiser is biased toward his/her own
product and against the competition: selling his/her product is the way he/she makes
his/her money and competition's sales reduces that income. Thus any advertising will use
words and images that show how good his/her product is and/or how poor his/her
competition is. This is biased information, but recognized and accepted by industry,
regulators and consumers - it is called puffery, the legitimate exaggeration of advertising
claims to overcome natural consumer scepticism.

However, sometimes, the biased information goes beyond legitimate puffery and slips
into deception, the deliberate use of misleading words and images. In other words,
deceptive information is lying to the customer about the qualities of a product. Such

141
deception is illegal, and the advertiser is required to cease and desist and, in some
instance, do corrective advertising to repair any damage.

Persuasive stands to reason as part of the definition of advertising. The basic purpose of
advertising is to identify and differentiate one product from another in order to persuade
the consumer to buy that product in preference to another. On the other hand, products,
services or ideas are the things that advertisers want consumers to buy. However, there is
more involved in products or services than simply items for purchase.

A product is not merely its function. It is actually a bundle of values, what the product
means to the consumer. For example, take the product, CAR. If the function of a car,
transportation, is all that is important, then manufacturers would need only build
motorized boxes on wheels, and consumers would be happy with them. But, obviously,
this is not the case as the number of models and types of cars is huge, and if consumers
did not demand the variety, it would not exist. Consumers must find factors other than
transportation. Perhaps the value is social. The type of car a person drives is often
indicative of that person's social status. The type of car can even indicate which social
grouping a person wants to be considered a part of. Well, perhaps the value is
psychological. Some cars may make a person feel safer, or more relaxed, or give them self-
esteem or enjoyment. Probably, the value is economic. Some cars may be cheaper to run,
give better mileage, carry more people or cargo, cause less damage to the environment.

For most consumers, these four values: the functional, the social, the psychological and
the economic, are intertwined together with variations. Companies, through research, try
to determine what values consumers want in their products, and then advertise to show
how their product satisfies the customers' values better than competitors' products.

4.0.3 Types of advertising

They include newspapers, magazines, radio, television, billboards, transit cards, sandwich
boards, skywriting, posters, anything that aids communicating in a non-personal way ideas
from one person or group to another person or group. Thus, advertising is the
nonpersonal communication of information usually paid for and usually persuasive in
nature about products, services or ideas by identified sponsors through the various media.

Indeed, any medium can be used for advertising. Commercial advertising media include
wall paintings, billboards, street furniture components, printed flyers and rack cards,
radio, cinema and television adverts, web banners, mobile telephone screens, shopping
carts, web popups, skywriting, bus stop benches, human billboards and forehead
advertising, magazines, newspapers, town criers, sides of buses, banners attached to or
sides of airplanes, overhead storage bins, taxicab doors, roof mounts and passenger
screens, musical stage shows, subway platforms and trains, elastic bands on disposable
diapers, doors of bathroom stalls, stickers on apples in supermarkets, shopping cart
handles (i.e. ‘grabertising’), the opening section of streaming audio and video, posters,
the backs of event tickets and supermarket receipts and most recently, ‘website
intruders’, or forced advertising on websites.

142
Advertising can be created and run in different types of advertising media. Small
businesses can use different types of advertising to achieve specific marketing
communication objectives. Advertising can communicate the benefits of a product,
generate leads for sales follow-up, build the reputation of a company or compare a
company’s products and brands against its competitors. It also forms part of an integrated
marketing program when used in conjunction with direct sales, public relations
campaigns, social media or online marketing tools. (See Ian Linton, Demand Media,
about.com Money, advertising about.com and other website sources).

Search Advertising

This is the most popular type of advertising for small businesses. These are the ads that
appear on Google and other search engines on the right-hand side and top of the search
results. Advertisers pay only when someone clicks on the ad to go to the advertisers'
website. Search advertising is much faster and easier to implement than direct mail or
other types of advertising, but you are limited to just a few lines of text which makes it
hard to convey much information. It is so popular because it is inexpensive, measurable, of
controllable cost and intersects people who are researching to buy or learn something

Direct Mail Coupon Mailers

This is a type of direct mail where a coupon company mails an envelope or book of
coupons, and companies pay to have their offer included in the mailing. It's less expensive
than mailing yourself but you must make an offer (coupon) which may attract prospects
who are not the most profitable to serve long-term as customers.

Newspaper Advertising

These are ads in local town, city or national newspapers. There are also business
newspapers. They are often the only source for "local town news" about youth sports, the
city council meeting, and what's happening in town. And they're filled with ads from small
businesses. National papers like the Wall Street Journal and the NY Times have large
circulations and loyal readers. Most newspaper advertising is "transactional" or direct
response in nature. It's fast and easy to get ads created and published. Online advertising
does not seem to have replaced newspaper advertising. The key with newspaper ads is to
create an effective ad.

Newspaper advertising can promote your business to a wide range of customers. Display
advertisements are placed throughout the paper, while classified listings are under subject
headings in a specific section.

Press advertising describes advertising in a printed medium such as a newspaper,

magazine, or trade journal. This encompasses everything from media with a very broad
readership base, such as a major national newspaper or magazine, to more narrowly
targeted media such as local newspapers and trade journals on very specialized topics. A
form of press advertising is classified advertising, which allows private individuals or
companies to purchase a small, narrowly targeted ad for a low fee advertising a product or
service. Another form of press advertising is the display ad, which is a larger ad (including
143
art) that typically runs in an article section of a newspaper. You may find that a
combination of advertising in your state/metropolitan newspaper and your local paper
gives you the best results.

Magazine Advertising

There are thousands of magazines. People pay to receive most magazines. The ads can be
extremely relevant to the readers and not seen as annoying interruptions. The challenge
with magazine advertising is the long lead time required to create the ad and get it to the
publisher months ahead so there is enough time to print and distribute the magazines to
subscribers. For that reason, most magazine ads are brand-building and do not promote
prices or sales.

Advertising in a specialist magazine can reach your target market quickly and easily.
Readers - your potential customers - tend to read magazines at their leisure and keep
them for longer, giving your advertisement multiple chances to attract attention.
Magazines generally serve consumers and trade. Magazines do not usually serve a small
area such as a specific town. If your target market is only a small percentage of the
circulation, then advertising may not be cost-effective.

Mobile Cell Phone Advertising

Mobile Advertisement is a form of advertising via mobile phones or other mobile devices.
It is a subset of mobile marketing. These ads can be very effective for reaching younger
people and people out and about if ads are targeted to particular coordinates. This is an
emerging area of advertising.

Direct mail, catalogues and leaflets

Direct mail means writing to customers directly. The more precise your mailing list or
distribution area, the more of your target market you will reach. A direct mail approach is
more personal, as you can select your audience and plan the timing to suit your business.
A cost effective form of direct mail is to send your newsletters or flyers electronically to an
email database.

Catalogues, brochures and leaflets can also be distributed to your target area. Including a
brochure with your direct mail is a great way to give an interested customer more
information about your products and services.

Movie Theater Advertising.

They are inexpensive compared to other types of advertising and a captive audience of
people there before the show. But who gets to the movies 20 minutes early? We really
question if movie theater ads work unless they're for the theater promoting popcorn and
a drink.

144
Radio Advertising

Advertising on the radio is a great way to reach your target audience. If your target market
listens to a particular station, then regular advertising can attract new customers. It is a
small business advertising. Radio advertising can be a very effective means to attract
customer to some business. However, sound has its limitations. Listeners can find it
difficult to remember what they have heard, or, sometimes, the impact of radio
advertising is lost. The best way to overcome this is to repeat your message regularly -
which increases your costs significantly. If you cannot afford to play your advertisement
regularly, you may find that radio advertising does not generate strong results.

Television Advertising

Generally, it is considered nowadays the most effective mass-marketing advertising

format as is reflected by the high prices. Television has an extensive reach and advertising
this way is ideal if you cater to a large market in a large area. Television advertisements
have the advantage of sight, sound, movement and colour to persuade a customer to buy
from you. They are particularly useful if you need to demonstrate how your product or
service works. Producing a television advertisement and then buying an advertising slot is
generally expensive. Advertising is sold in units (e.g. 20, 30, 60 seconds) and costs vary
according to:

 the time slot

 the television programme
 whether it is metro or regional
 if you want to buy spots on multiple networks.

Directory Advertising

Directories list businesses by name or category (e.g. Yellow Pages phone directories).
Customers who refer to directories have often already made up their mind to buy - they
just need to decide who to buy from. The major advantage of online directories over print
directories is that if you change your business name, address or telephone number, you
can easily keep it up to date in the online directory. You can also add new services or
information about your business.

Outdoor and Transit Advertising

There are many ways to advertise outside and on-the-go. Outdoor billboards can be signs
by the road or hoardings at sport stadiums. Transit advertising can be posters on buses,
taxis and bicycles. Large billboards can get your message across with a big impact. If the
same customers pass your billboard every day as they travel to work, you are likely to be
the first business they think of when they want to buy a product. Even the largest of
billboards usually contain a limited amount of information; otherwise, they can be difficult
to read.

145
Online Advertising

Online advertising is a form of promotion that uses the Internet and World Wide Web
marketing messages to attract customers. Online ads are delivered by an ad server.
Examples of online advertising include contextual ads that appear on search engine
results, banner ads, in pay per click text ads, rich media ads, social network advertising,
Online classified advertising, advertising networks and e-mail marketing, including email
span. Being on the internet can be a cost-effective way to attract new customers. You can
reach a global audience at a low cost. Many customers research businesses online before
deciding whom to buy from. A well-designed website can entice customers to buy from
you.

There are a number of ways you can promote your business online via paid advertising or
to improve your search engine rankings. Other ways to advertise your business online
include promoting your products or services on social media sites, blogs and search
engines and other websites that your target audience visits. (Wikipedia)

Product Advertising

Product advertising communicates the features and benefits of a product to customers

and prospects. Companies use product advertising when they want to launch new
products, announce changes to existing products or increase sales of those products.
Product advertisements must reflect the interests of the target audience. An advertiser
developing a campaign for a food product, for example, would create messages and select
media that appeal to a wide consumer audience. A campaign for a business product, such
as a machine tool, would use media that appeal to different groups influencing the
decision to buy, including plant managers, production engineers and finance directors.

Corporate Advertising

Corporate advertising campaigns play an important part in business-to-business

marketing, particularly for companies trying to win a major sale or contract. Prospects
evaluate the company as well as the product when they are choosing a supplier. They look
for suppliers that have the capability to deliver quality products on time. Corporate
advertising helps to build confidence among customers and prospects by communicating
messages about your company’s capability and resources, your market position and
financial stability.

Direct Response Advertising

Direct response advertising encourages prospects to register their details, typically in

return for an incentive offer, such as a free gift, special discount or a copy of a business
report for business prospects. The advertisement includes a response mechanism, such as
a reply coupon, telephone number, email address or website address. The information
that you capture from responses provides leads that your sales force or telemarketing
team can follow up to create news sales opportunities. You can also use direct response

146
advertising to sell products directly to customers. Include information on the product,
together with a price and contact details for ordering the product.
Financial Advertising

Financial advertising can help your company attract funds if you are planning to grow your
business or make a major investment. Advertising in the financial or business sections of
newspapers and magazines can raise awareness of your company among analysts,
shareholders, potential investors and advisers. Publishing financial results, together with
important developments, such as major contracts or new product launches, keeps your
audience updated with the company’s performance.

Jump on the Bandwagon Advertising

A jump-on-the-bandwagon ad is common in advertising. It seeks to convey that "everyone

is buying a product, so shouldn't you?" This can persuade people who want to be a part of
a trend and do not want to be left behind. This is still an effective approach for media
advertising, because customers cannot be seen. No one usually has any idea if a
newspaper, a radio station or a website is popular - unlike counting cars outside a
restaurant to determine whether you want to eat there. It is your job to tout the size of
your audience.

Proof of Performance Advertising

A proof-of-performance ad (or p.o.p.) is unique in that it is released after a big event. You
want to showcase how your media company handled a big story, like an election night or
hurricane. You want to remind people of what you did better than anyone else. Even
people who missed your hurricane coverage will be exposed to what you accomplished
and will be left with the message that the next time there's an emergency, they need to
choose you for information.

Domain name advertising

Domain name advertising is most commonly done through pay per click search engines.
However, advertisers often lease space directly on domain names that generically describe
their products. When an Internet user visits a website by typing a domain name directly
into their web browser, this is known as "direct navigation", or "type in" web traffic.
Although many Internet users search for ideas and products using search engines and
mobile phones, a large number of users around the world still use the address bar. They
will type a keyword into the address bar such as "geraniums" and add ".com" to the end of
it. Sometimes they will do the same with ".org" or a country-code Top Level Domain (TLD
such as ".co.uk" for the United Kingdom or "ca" for Canada). When Internet users type in a
generic keyword and add .com or another top-level domain (TLD) ending, it produces a
targeted sales lead. Domain name advertising was originally developed by Oingo (later
known as Applied Semantics), one of Google’s early acquisitions.

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New media Advertising

Technological development and economic globalization favors the emergence of new

communication channels and new techniques of commercial messaging.

In-store advertising

In-store advertising is any advertisement placed in a retail store. It includes placement of a

product in visible locations in a store, such as at eye level, at the ends of aisles and near
checkout counters (a.k.a. POP – point of purchase display), eye-catching displays
promoting a specific product, and advertisements in such places as shopping carts and in-
store video displays.

Coffee cup advertising

coffee cup advertising is any advertisement placed upon a coffee cup that is distributed
out of an office, café, or drive-through coffee shop. This form of advertising was first
popularized in Australia, and has begun growing in popularity in the United States, India,
and parts of the Middle East.

Street advertising

This type of advertising first came to prominence in the UK by Street Advertising Services
to create outdoor advertising on street furniture and pavements. Working with products
such as Reverse Graffiti, air dancers and 3D pavement advertising, for getting brand
messages out into public spaces.

Sheltered Outdoor Advertising

This type of advertising combines outdoor with indoor advertisement by placing large
mobile structures (e.g. tents) in public places on temporary bases. The large outer
advertising space aims to exert a strong pull on the observer, the product is promoted
indoors, where the creative decor can intensify the impression.

Celebrity Branding Advertising

This type of advertising focuses upon using celebrity power, fame, money, popularity to
gain recognition for their products and promote specific stores or products. Advertisers
often advertise their products, for example, when celebrities share their favorite products
or wear clothes by specific brands or designers. Celebrities are often involved in
advertising campaigns such as television or print adverts to advertise specific or general
products. The use of celebrities to endorse a brand can have its downsides, however; one
mistake by a celebrity can be detrimental to the public relations of a brand.

Aerial Advertising

Using aircraft, balloons or airships to create or display advertising media. Skywriting is a

notable example.
148
Public service advertising

Public service advertising non-commercial advertising, public interest advertising, cause

marketing and social marketing are different terms for (or aspects of) the use of
sophisticated advertising and marketing communications techniques (generally associated
with commercial enterprise) on behalf of non-commercial, public interest issues and
initiatives.

The advertising techniques used to promote commercial goods and services can be used
to inform, educate and motivate the public about non-commercial issues, such as
HIV/AIDS, political ideology, energy conservation and deforestation.

Sales promotions

Sales promotions are another way to advertise. Sales promotions are double purposed
because they are used to gather information about what type of customers one draws in
and where they are, and to jumpstart sales. Sales promotions include things like contests
and games, sweepstakes, product giveaways, samples coupons, loyalty programs, and
discounts. The ultimate goal of sales promotions is to stimulate potential customers to
action.

Covert Advertising

It is when a product or brand is embedded in entertainment and media. For example, in a

film, the main character can use an item or other of a definite brand.

Infomercials Advertising

There are two types of infomercials, described as long form and short form. Long form
infomercials have a time length of 30 minutes. Short form infomercials are 30 seconds to 2
minutes long. Infomercials are also known as direct response television (DRTV)
commercials or direct response marketing. An infomercial is a long-format television
commercial, typically five minutes or longer. The word "infomercial" is a portmanteau of
the words "information" and "commercial". The main objective in an infomercial is to
create an impulse purchase, so that the target sees the presentation and then
immediately buys the product through the advertised toll-free telephone number or
website. Infomercials describe, display, and often demonstrate products and their
features, and commonly have testimonials from customers and industry professionals.

Surrogate Advertising

Surrogate advertising is prominently seen in cases where advertising a particular product

is banned by law. Advertisement for products like cigarettes or alcohol which are injurious
to heath are prohibited by law in several countries and, hence, these companies have to
come up with several other products that might have the same brand name and indirectly
remind people of the cigarettes or beer bottles of the same brand.

149
Professional Advertising

It is an advertising directed toward professionals such as doctors, dentists, and

pharmacists, etc., who are in a position to promote products to their patients or
customers.

Industrial Advertising

This type of advertising is directed at commercial business customers. The advertised

products are raw materials, components, or equipment needed in the production or
distribution of other goods and services.

In-Door Advertisement

This kind of advertisement provides the best opportunity of putting over a reasoned
selling argument. The advertisements are addressed to the reader, listener and viewer at a
time of leisure when he / she can observe the message.

4.1 Purpose of Advertising

Advertising is usually identified by reference to commercial consumer advertising. It is at

the front of delivering the proper message to customers and prospective customers. The
purpose of advertising is to convince customers that a company's services or products are
the best, enhance the image of the company, point out and create a need for products or
services, demonstrate new uses for established products, announce new products and
programs, reinforce the salespeople's individual messages, draw customers to the
business, and to hold existing customers. So, apparently, the ultimate target of
advertisements is the audience and how to get to the heart and mind of readers (in our
case, customers). It seems that, to achieve this purpose, advertisements have to please,
first, but, more importantly, they are meant to catch the eye of the customers. The overall
effect of advertisements depends on the design layout, including graphics, different
printing fonts and pictures as much as on the text. More critically, advertising needs both
to inform and persuade by means of employing several linguistic and other means to get
readers to remember a product (see also Crystal and Davy, 1969: 222).

4.2 Style of Advertising: Features and Functions

Advertising has several FEATURES of style that characterize it as a special variety of

language. They are features of layout, grammar, vocabulary and sounds. These features
are used to achieve certain stylistic FUNCTIONS, or implied meanings, as illustrated below
in general terms (The features, first, followed by their functions) (see also Ghazala, 1999:
ch. 4):

(1) LAYOUT:

(a) Paragraphing: paragraphs are usually short, crisp and not well-organized.
Function: to deliver the message in as short form as possible, and to catch
the reader’s eye.
150
 (b) Titling: the most important part of any advertisement is perhaps its heading
which is versatile, colourful and brief.
Function: for emphasis, attracting readers, injecting a new charge in the text
of the advertisement, as well as arousing the readers’ curiosity and interest.
(c) Capitalization: variable, remarkable and recurrent in use.
Function: for assertion and drawing the readers’ attention.
(d) Chromatics and graphics: colourful pictures are in abundance.
Function: for illustration, attraction and enjoyment.
(e) Punctuation: exclamation and question marks are the most important and
recurrent.
Function: to imply a witty remark, surprise, astonishment, and to get readers
involved in some kind of communication and argument with the message of
the ad.

(2) GRAMMAR

(a) Sentences: usually short, simple and perhaps ungrammatical, described as

minor sentences (i.e. ‫)أشباه جمل‬. Coordination, and imperative sentences and
questions are quite popular.
Function: to go straight to the point, give the impression of efficiency and
urge readers persistently to buy and to solicit the readers’ agreement and
engage them in the ad (especially with respect to imperatives and
questions).
(b) Sentence connectivity: logical connectors (e.g. thus, so, therefore, naturally,
etc.) and connectors of addition (e.g. and, also, further, etc.) are frequent,
but contrastive connectors (like but, yet, however, etc.) are occasional.
Function: to indicate fluent sequence of things, logical conclusions and
results, list more details and avoid destructive counter arguments.
(c) Clauses: simple and easy to follow. Subordination (i.e. starting with
subordinate clauses) is used frequently in a fronted position. However, main
clauses are recurrent in titles and headings.
Function: to make comprehension easy, and achieve conciseness and
efficiency of reading.
(d) Verb phrases: characterized by the absence of passive, dominance of active,
frequency of common, core verbs, overuse of imperative, dropping of verbs,
present, past and present perfect tenses are common, and simplicity of verb
phrase in general.
Function: to imply that objectivity is not required, and, at the same time,
indicate
subjectivity and directness, and facilitate understanding, ease pressure on
readers, urge readers to respond, communicate with them directly, have
shorter and snappier verb phrases, imply timelessness, express past
achievements, assure reliability and, finally, get more efficiently to the
readers’ hearts and minds.
(e) Noun phrase: generally complex, use of unusual compounds, and occurrence
of parenthetic noun phrases.

151
 Function: to achieve conciseness, efficiency and eye-catching, deliver a part
of the message in a normal, fluent way, interest readers and catch their
attention and assert something important.
(f) Adjectives and intensifiers: tremendously recurrent and popular in
advertisements.
Function: to achieve precision of description, exaggeration, and impressive-
ness.
(g) Adverbs: especially of time, place, manner, frequency and certainty are
widely used.
Function: to indicate emphasis and popularity of the advertised material.

(3) VOCABULARY

(a) Simple vocabulary: simple, monosyllabic words are overwhelming in the

different types of ads.
Function: to make reading fluent, comprehension efficient and memorizing
easier.
(b) Core vocabulary: common, everyday words are preferable in ads.
Function: to create close relationship with readers/customers and make
comprehension easier.
(c) Colloquialisms: colloquial features of language and colloquial words and
expressions are exploited on a large scale in ads.
Function: to communicate with readers/customers intimately to bring them
closer the ad with an aim to convince them to purchase the product
advertised for.
(d) Emphatic vocabulary: words of emphasis and exaggeration are frequent and
well-manipulated.
Function: for greater emphasis, exaggeration and persuasiveness.
(e) Figurative language: all types of rhetorical figures are employed, especially
word play, pun, metaphor and ambiguity.
Function: to move, entertain, please, inform and communicate readers /
customers.
(f) Deviant vocabulary: deviant and new words are risked in ads.
Function: to entertain, attract, teach and help readers memorize and widen
their lexicon.
(g) Impressive vocabulary: words and phrases that impress readers are plentiful.

Function: to impress and communicate with readers cordially and effectively.

(h) Humorous language: witty phrases are sometimes slotted in the text of the
ads.
Function: to please, persuade and have impact on readers.
(i) Lexical repetition: key terms are repeated now and then in the same ad.
(j) Function: for assertion and persistence on readers / customers to do
something.
(k) Abbreviations and acronyms: quite popular and favoured by ads and readers.
Function: for popularity, conciseness, saving space and aiding memory.

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 (4) SOUNDS

(a) Rhyme
(b) Rhythm
(c) Consonance
(d) Assonance
(e) Alliteration
(f) Onomatopoeia
(g) etc.

Function: these and all other types of aesthetic and prosodic features of language are put
in use in advertising to entertain and attract readers in an attempt to convince them to
buy, as much as release them of the pressure of reading monotonous advertisements.

Naturally, the relationship between these features and functions of the style of advertising
and translation is unquestionable, and the translator has to attend to all these features
and functions of style to achieve good translation. Stylistic functions are sometimes critical
implications for the contents of the text of the advertisement.

The next practical part of this chapter is an investigation of the translation of sample
example of major channels and types of advertisements and public notices with respect to
purpose, type of readership, translation problems and translation strategies.

4.3 A Newspaper Advertisement

Newspaper advertisements were the most popular and recurrent type until recently,
when TV commercials, online and other electronic types have taken the lead. Yet, they are
still influential in their online and hard copy versions. Following is an advertisement for the
Golf Car back in the eighties, adopted from Freeborn et al (1986/1993: 220), translated
and followed by discussion:

153
‫‪-From Strasbourg to Brussels,‬‬
‫‪-London to Paris, Madrid to Rome,‬‬
‫‪-It was all smiles, handshakes,‬‬
‫‪-Pleasantries all round.‬‬
‫‪-The reason for this communal‬‬
‫?‪chuminess‬‬
‫‪-Our new Golf.‬‬
‫‪-59 top motoring writers‬‬
‫‪-From eighteen European countries‬‬
‫‪-Had just voted it Car of the Year. A‬‬
‫‪-welcome win, for sure. Though, to‬‬
‫‪-be frank, not entirely expected.‬‬
‫‪-It just goes to show that‬‬
‫‪-everything comes to he who‬‬
‫‪-improves. And improves.‬‬
‫‪-And anticipates.‬‬
‫‪-Already, our new Golf is‬‬
‫‪-Designed to meet ever-tougher‬‬
‫‪-safety standards set for 1994.‬‬
‫‪-Already, over 80% of its parts‬‬
‫‪-Are re-cycable.‬‬
‫‪-Already, exhaust catalysers are‬‬
‫‪-Standard across the range.‬‬
‫‪-‬بالمعايير الدولية المتعارؼ عمييا في كؿ الجيات‬
‫‪-All good stuff. But what‬‬
‫?‪-about performance? Any torquier‬‬
‫‪-Mais oui.‬‬
‫‪154‬‬
‫‪-‬مف ستراسبورغ إلى بروكسؿ‬
‫‪-‬مف لندف إلى باريس‪ ،‬مف مدريد إلى روما‪،‬‬
‫‪-‬كاف الناس كميـ يوزعوف االبتسامات والسبلمات‬
‫والمصافحات‬
‫‪-‬والطرؼ والنكات في كؿ األماكف والجيات‪.‬‬
‫‪-‬يا ترى ما سبب ىذه الييصة مف مختمؼ المجتمعات؟‬
‫‪-‬سيارتنا الجولؼ الجديدة‪.‬‬
‫‪-‬عشرات مف كبار المؤلفيف حوؿ السيارات‬
‫‪-‬مف ‪ 18‬بمداً أوربياً‬
‫‪-‬صوتوا ليا عمى أنيا سيارة العاـ‪.‬‬
‫‪-‬فوز عظيـ‪ ،‬حؽ اليقيف‪ .‬لكنو والحؽ يقاؿ‬
‫‪-‬كاف فو اًز توقعو مف المحاؿ‬
‫‪-‬لكف ىذا ما حصؿ ليبرىف‬
‫‪-‬أف الغمبة لكؿ مف‬
‫‪-‬يتحسف‪ .‬ويتحسف ويتحسف‪.‬‬
‫‪-‬ويترقب ويحذوه األمؿ‪.‬‬
‫‪-‬منذ األزؿ‪ ،‬وسيارتنا الجولؼ الجديدة‬
‫‪-‬مصممة لمعايير أماف أشد وأمتف‬
‫‪-‬تسبؽ الزمف حتى عاـ ‪ 1994‬في المستقبؿ‬
‫‪-‬منذ األزؿ‪ ،‬أكثر مف ‪ %80‬مف قطعيا‬
‫‪-‬تغيرت وتبدلت وأعيد تصنيعيا‪.‬‬
‫‪-‬مف زماف‪ ،‬مفعبلت العادـ أحسف مفعبلت‬
‫‪-‬كؿ شيء فييا عمى ما يراـ‪ .‬لكف ماذا‬
‫‪-‬عف األداء يا ترى؟ ىؿ السر في القوة؟‬
‫‪-‬أي نعـ يا أخي‪ ،‬وبالفرنسي ِوي‪.‬‬
 ‫ أقؿ مف ذلؾ؟‬.‫عامؿ قوة الجر‬-
-The drag factor. Any lower?
.‫ وباأللماني ناتيورليتش‬،‫ىذا طبيعي دوف شؾ‬-
-Natϋrlich.

-The handling. Any sharper? ‫أحد وأشد؟‬

ّ .‫السير والمتانة بالعمؿ‬-
-Certo.
‫ وباإليطالي سيرتو‬،‫نعـ كما فيمتوا‬-

‫ ما زاؿ مف أىؿ الكرـ؟‬.‫واستيبلؾ الوقود‬-

-And the fuel consumption. Still
-Generous? What, more generous? ‫ صار أكرـ وأكرـ؟‬،‫ماذا‬-
-Claro que si. .‫ وباإلسباني كبلرو كيو سي‬،‫طبعاً يا تاج راسي‬-

-As many a European knows, ،‫وكما يعمـ أوربيوف كثر في أوربا العتيدة‬-
-such things are common currency ‫ىذه األشياء ىي اآلف العممة الرائجة الفريدة‬-
-with every new Volkswagen.
.‫مع كؿ سيارة فوكسفاكف جديدة‬-

4.3.1 Purpose of the Translation

The purpose of translating such a car advertisement is usually to promote the Golf car
amongst Arab customers and Arabic markets in as impressive way as possible to achieve
the utmost purpose of convincing them to purchase the car. And to accomplish this
objective, all possible means of persuasion are exploited by the writer who addresses
readers in several European Languages, and in a direct and influential style of argument
which injects more trust and authority in the text of the advertisement, which resorts to
addressing all the countries of the European community to snatch the reader’s confidence
and credibility. Several stylistic devices have been employed to achieve these purposes,
discussed in the next point.

4.3.2 Type of TL Readership

The type of readership addressed by this ad is the general public, whether highly or low
educated, who wish to purchase a new car. All possible stylistic features of effectiveness
and impressiveness are used to persuade the different types of readership to buy the new
Golf. Examples include: exaggerations (e.g. all smiles, handshakes, pleasantries all round,
meet ever-tougher safety standards, all good stuff, more generous, etc.); facts (e.g. voted
car of the year, etc.); assertive phrases (e.g. for sure, Yes, of course, etc.); narrative
dialogue (whole text); potential questions and answers (see text for several examples);
informal, cordial phrases (e.g. informal questions, ungrammatical statements like
‘anticipates’, ‘our new Golf’ (as an independent sentence), etc.); elaborate foreign terms
(e.g. Italian, Spanish, French and German); and new, deviant words (e.g. ‘chuminess’). All
these stylistic devices are means of impressing, convincing and attracting the readers of all
types.

155
4.3.3 Translation Problems

The problems of translating this text are numerous. First, lexical problems of translating
are mainly two types of terms: deviant, new words (e.g. ‘chuminess’, which is normally
‘chumminess’, and ‘torquier’, which is a false derivation from ‘torque’). Secondly, the use
of foreign phrases (those borrowed from French, Italian, Spanish and German, see below)
which can be problematic to many. The third lexical problem is the translation of some
technical terms like ‘fuel, consumption, catalysers and exhaust’. Although the first three
can pose no serious problems of translation being familiar to target readers (i.e. ،‫وقود‬
)‫ داعمات‬/ ‫ مفعالت‬،‫ استهالك‬. However, the fourth is somehow problematic for the technical
term used ‫العادم‬, which is the only term available for the translator in formal Arabic, is not
popular in use among people. However, it is a better choice than colloquial local terms in
different Arab countries.

Yet, the greater number of problems is grammatical as many words, phrases and
expressions are treated as independent sentences, which is normally unacceptable.
However, they are employed here to indicate the stylistic functions and implications of
trying to be friendly with the readers, and to give them the impression that the contents
of the text of the ad are the important part of it. That meets the informal requirements of
coming closer to the readership to solicit them about the product advertised for. These
and other problems are eventually stylistic, featuring out the means of impressing,
influencing, attracting, winning the confidence and convincing the audience to purchase
the new Golf Car. Accordingly, the Arabic translation has focussed on constructing
expressions and terms that reflect these functions and purpose of the style of the original.
That is why the translation has not been too literal; on the contrary, hugely free and
communicative. Several words and phrases of the original have been overtranslated,
overexaggerated, redundant, rhetorical and, primarily, rhythmical. Examples include the
following expressions:

(a) It was all smiles, handshakes ‫كان الناس كلهم ٌوزعون االبتسامات والسالمات والمصافحات‬
(redundancy, rhyme and rhythm)
(b) Pleasantries all round ‫( والطرف والنكات فً كل األماكن والجهات‬exaggerations,
redundancy and rhythmical language)
(c) 59 motor writers →‫( عشرات من كبار المؤلفٌن‬overexaggeration).
(d) A welcome win, for sure. .‫ حق الٌقٌن‬،‫( فوز عظٌم‬rhetoric, rhythm and semi-rhyme
(e) though, to be frank, not entirely expected. ‫توقعه من المحال‬...‫لكنه والحق ٌقال‬
(rhythmical language)
(f) already ‫( من األزل‬exaggeration and literary style)
(g) Improves … and improves ‫( ٌتحسن وٌتحسن وٌتحسن‬rhetorical repetition of assertion)
(h) And anticipates ‫( وٌترقب وٌحذوه األمل‬redundancy/overtranslation)
(i) Designed to meet ever-tougher safety standards ‫مصممة لمعاٌٌر أمان أشد وأمتن‬
(rhythmical and exaggerative language)
(j) As many a European knows ‫( وكما ٌعلم أوربٌون كثر فً أوربا العتٌدة‬rhetoric and poetic
rhyme with the next two lines)
(k) such things are common currency ‫هذه األشٌاء هً اآلن العملة الرائجة الفرٌدة‬
(l) with every new Volkswagen ‫مع كل سٌارة فوكسفاكن جدٌدة‬
(m) Mais oui ‫ وبالفرنسً ِوي‬،ً‫( أي نعم ٌا أخ‬cultural expression and rhyme)
156
 (n) Natϋrlich ‫ وباأللمانً ناتٌورلٌتش‬،‫( هذا طبٌعً دون شك‬overtranslation/redundancy and
semi-rhyme).
(o) Certo ‫ وباإلٌطالً سٌرتو‬،‫( نعم كما فهمتوا‬redundancy and rhyme)
(p) Claro que si ً‫ وباإلسبانً كالرو كٌو س‬،ً‫( طبعا ً ٌا تاج راس‬culture, redundancy and
rhyme).

Exceptionally, the deviant and informal word ‘chuminess’ is translated into a colloquial
term that is well-known to the target reader (i.e. ‫)هٌصة‬. A final point about handling the
translation problems of this ad is the resort to Arabic cultural terms suchlike ،ً‫ ٌا أخ‬،‫أي نعم‬
ً‫ طبعا ً ٌا تاج راس‬،‫ ٌا سالم‬which are not included in the original, but implied, for three
reasons: to establish more intimacy and informality with the target readers, and to
achieve rhyme and rhythm with the foreign words to add a bit of wit to language and style
of the translation. Is this permissible in translation, one might object? The answer could be
yes, in a commercial like this, which is translated mainly communicatively.

4.3.4 Translation Strategies

(1) Transliteration (Golf, Volkswagen, etc. ... ‫ فوكسفاكن‬،‫)جولف‬.

(2) Naturalization (e.g. Brussels → ‫)بروكسل‬
(3) Exceptional calques (e.g. oui )‫(وي‬, certo )‫(سٌرتو‬, etc.).
(4) Overtranslation (e.g. handshakes ‫ ;سالمات ومصافحات‬Claro que si ،ً‫طبعا ً ٌا تاج راس‬
ً‫وباإلسبانً كالرو كٌو س‬, etc.).
(5) Cultural translations (e.g. ً‫ تاج راس‬،‫ ٌا سالم‬،ً‫)ٌا أخ‬
(6) Religious expressions (e.g. ‘for sure’ → ‫)حق الٌقٌن‬
(7) General sense (e.g. 59 → ‫)عشرات‬
(8) Colloquialisms (e.g. ‘chuminess’ → ‫)هٌصة‬

4.4 TV Commercials

Television ads (or TV Commercials) are probably the most popular these days, probably
due their involvement of real people, especially celebrities of different fields, pictures,
singing, acting and other kinds of TV performance. Here is an example and its translation
and discussion in terms of purpose, TL readership, translation problems and translation
strategies:

157
 ‫‪Nestle's Milky Bar‬‬

‫‪Who remembers the milky bar kid shouting out "The milky bar's are on me!" in those old‬‬
‫‪TV ads? There are two ads featured in the playlist. My favourite is the western style one‬‬
‫‪with it's catchy cowboy tune. The other has a space theme. I liked the fact that the lead‬‬
‫‪character was a skinny, spectacle-wearing young boy who was probably the most-likely to‬‬
‫‪be bullied at school. He first appeared on TV in 1961 and has, obviously, been played by‬‬
‫‪many different actors since then. Milky Bar's are still going strong, although my teeth‬‬
‫!‪would no longer be able to cope with the sweetness of white chocolate‬‬

‫شوكوال حميب النسمة البيضاء المذيذة‬

‫مف منا ال يتذكر صبي شوكوال الحميب الكاوبوي وىو يصيح بأعمى صوتو‪ :‬قطع شوكوال الحميب عمي! شوكوال الحميب‬
‫عمي! في اإلعبلنات التمفزيونية التجارية؟ ىناؾ إعبلناف يظيراف في الشريط‪ ،‬أفضميما بالنسبة لي اإلعبلف المعروض‬
‫باألسموب الغربي بمحف الكاوبوي الذي يأسر القموب‪ .‬أ ما اإلعبلف اآلخر فتفاصيؿ عف الشوكوال‪ .‬أعجبتني فكرة‬
‫الشخصية الرئيسية التي تصور صبياً ىزيبلً أبمو بنظارات‪ ،‬ومحؿ سخرية مف زمبلئو في المدرسة‪ .‬ظيرت شخصيتو ىذه‬
‫ألوؿ مرة عمى شاشة التمفزيوف األمريكي في عاـ ‪ ،1961‬ومثَّؿ ىذه الشخصية مختمؼ الممثميف منذ ذلؾ الحيف‪ .‬وحتى‬
‫اآلف ما زالت شوكوال حميب النسمة ىذه واسعة الشيرة‪ ،‬عمى أف أسناني اليرمة ما عادت صالحة لحبلوة الشوكوال‬
‫البيضاء!‬

‫‪158‬‬
4.4.1 Purpose of the Translation

Obviously, the advertisement promotes the famous and delicious Nestle’s white milky
chocolate bar, illustrated mainly by symbolic pictures that may enjoy and catch the U.S.
readers’ eye. The Cowboy culture seems to have always been popular among the
Americans, particularly the bullied school boy dressed in cowboy fashion, as explained in
the translated commentary, being a foreign culture unfamiliar to the target readers. This
traditional cultural element has the utmost objective of achieving the purpose of the ad of
promoting the product concerned by means of soliciting the readers’ conviction to
purchase it. The commentary by the way gives a considerable nudge to the original ad by
leaning on reporting the story of the schoolboy’s cowboy.

4.4.2 Type of TL Readership

The readership expected to have interest in this commercial is the kids who consume
chocolates of all types ravenously. That explains the reasons behind choosing the cultural
schoolboy’s cowboy picture. The language is not difficult to read or understand, and, more
importantly, words are minor as the picture speaks for itself. Hence, there might be no
need to translate the text of the ad in full to understand it in Arabic; only the full name of
the chocolate is sufficient to translate and make prominent in bold type as a title. The ad
can be described as self-evident for the American readership in particular, and the
western readers in general. Yet, the case is not exactly so for Arab readers as the skinny,
spectacle-wearing young boy, dressed in cowboy style and bullied by his school mates is
quite alien to them. Yet, that does not stop them from understanding the ad on the basis
of the picture and full name of the chocolate. After all, trying the very delicious taste of
the chocolate will be the best tester.

4.4.3 Translation Problems

The problems of translation to be sorted out by the translator of this ad are more cultural
than linguistic. That is, there is no difficulty translating the text of the ad, but the difficult
thing is to relate the words to the boy’s picture regarding his cowboy dress, childish idiotic
smile, spectacles and his holding high a milky chocolate bar stick saying the informal,
culturally famous statement: "The milky bar's are on me!". The commentary tells us the
whole background American cultural story that without which, the target readers would
be dumbfounded about the symbolic implications pointed out earlier. Therefore, in case
such explanation is not a part of the advertisement, the translator is responsible to
provide it either succinctly in the body of the text, or detailed in a footnote.

As to the translation of the text of the ad, it is not a must that everything be translated
into Arabic, especially the information that is not relevant to the text of the ad, such as the
full address of the producing company. However, the ingredients are optionally translated,
depending on the purpose of translating. In our case, it is not essential to translate the
ingredients since the ultimate purpose of the translation of this ad here is the
advertisement promotes Nestle’s white milky chocolate bar, illustrated mainly by symbolic
pictures that may enjoy and catch the U.S. readers’ eye. In the event that ingredients are
required to be translated for health, diet or other reasons, the translator has to translate
them. The text of the ad is translated altogether summarily into the full name of the
159
product as a caption: (‫)شوكوال حميب النسمة البيضاء‬. Apparently two calques are included in this
translation: the naturalized ‫ شىمىال‬and the transliterated ‫وسلت‬, both of which are so old and
popular among Arab readers.

The problems of translating the commentary are generally lexical, or lexico-grammatical.

As to the latter, the statement uttered by the boy in the American tradition “"The milky
bar's are on me!" (i.e. the milky bars are on me) is ungrammatical, reflecting a naive,
boyish character and style of speaking. The Milkybar Kid has been used in western
television advertising promoting Nestlé Milkybar in the countries where it is sold. The
Milkybar Kid is a blond, spectacle-wearing young child, usually dressed as a cowboy,
whose ‘catchphrase’ is "The Milkybar’s are on me!". The advertisement usually takes place
in a Wild West setting. Both live-action and animated ads have been produced. Usually, it
refers to "the good taste that's in Milkybar". It must be admitted that this catchphrase can
be a real problem of translation and the translator need to work hard on it. Most likely, in
the advertisement above, it is taken in the sense that “I will pay for the milky bars today”.
Hence its translation into !‫ شوكوال الحميب عمَ ّي‬which is informal, meaning ‘the payment for the
milky bars is on me”.

Another difficult term is ‘bullied’ which does not have one-to-one equivalent in Arabic.
However, it can be translated into a collocation like the one suggested in the translation
above (i.e. ‫)محؿ سخرية‬. Other options include: ...‫مثار سخرية؛ مسخرة؛ مضطيد‬. Further, ‘a bar of
chocolate’ is translated into a popular equivalent as ‫قطعة شوكوال‬, however, ...‫إصبع؛ قضيب‬.
Yet, under no circumstance can the very formal ‫( ُمصبَّع‬Almawrid Al-Akbar, 2004: 178) be
suggested for it is simply not recognized by target readers. On the other hand, skinny,
spectacle-wearing young boy is translated by implication into ‫صبي ىزيؿ أبمو بنظارات‬, with ‫أبمو‬
(idiot) being added on the basis of the boy’s idiotic look in the picture. The same can be
said about adding )‫( (مف زمبلئو في المدرسة‬his classmates), which is not stated but implied in
the original (i.e. bullied at school). A third similar case is the translation of ‘my teeth’
)‫ (أسناني‬by implication into )‫(أسناني اليرمة‬, for the speaker is an old man. Finally, ‘milky’ is
translated into either a noun )‫(حميب‬, or a prepositional phrase )‫(بالحميب‬, but not into an
adjective )‫حميبية‬/‫(حميبي‬.

4.4.4 Translation Strategies

(1) Culture → sense (e.g. the Milky bar’s are on me → ‫)شوكوال الحميب عمي‬
(2) Naturalization (e.g. chocolate → ‫شوكوال‬, etc.)
(3) Transliteration (e.g. Nestle → ‫نسمة‬, etc.)
(4) Expansion by implication (e.g. spectacle-wearing → ‫‘ ;أبمو بنظارات‬bullied at school’
→ ‫‘ ;مف زمبلئو في المدرسة‬my teeth’ → )‫)(أسناني اليرمة‬
(5) Overtranslation (e.g. Nestle’s Milkybar → ‫)شوكوال حميب النسمة البيضاء المذيذة‬
(6) Transposition: verb → collocation (e.g. bullied → ‫مثار سخرية‬/‫محؿ‬

160
 (7) Deletion (ingredients, the company’s address and other subsidiary details of the
text of the ad are deleted).
(8) Pragmatic translation: translation by implication (e.g. my teeth → ‫)أسناني اليرمة‬
(9) Addition by implication (e.g. zero → ‫)مف زمبلئو في المدرسة‬

4.5 Radio Commercials

Radio adverts have always been popular and are still, owing to the radio’s big audience
even in the age of the most highly sophisticated electronic media. Hence, and due to its
importance and popularity, a sample radio commercial is introduced, translated and then
discussed:

WEETABIX, ‘GIRL’S BIG DAY’

Fuel your day with Weetabix, the nation’s best selling cereal

Script

Mum: That’s a large bowl of Weetabix. Big day today?

Daughter: Yes, Mum. First, I’ll empty my wardrobe on the floor and dress from head to toe
in pink. Pink socks, pink wig, pink shoes. Next, I’m going to make a tiara out of pasta and
cookies… and I’ll crumble up the bits of cookies and stick them on, to make the diamonds
for it. Then I’ll pick all the flowers in the garden and make some perfume. So, I’m going to
make the perfume like this. First, I’m going to get a sieve, two bowls from the kitchen and
then I’ll go and pick all the flowers and mash all the herbs and mints and stuff up, stir it
round with my spoon and then that will be it.
Mum: Lovely.
Daughter: Next, I’ll make a tea party in the bottom of the garden… and I’ll invite my best
friend, Savannah, and another friend, a lollipop.

... Weetabix. Fuel for big days.

161
 ‫ أكثر كورن فميكس مبيعاً في البالد‬،‫أنعش يومك بوقود الويتبكس‬

‫النص‬

‫ الظاىر أمامنا يوـ طويؿ؟‬.‫ ىذه زبدية كبيرة مف الويتبكس‬:‫األـ‬

.‫ وألبس مبلبسي الزىرية مف رأسي حتى قدمي‬،‫ أوؿ شيء سوؼ أفرغ خزانة ثيابي عمى األرض‬.‫ نعـ يا ماما‬: ‫البنت‬
‫وسوؼ أكسر‬...‫ سوؼ أصنع تاجاً مف المعكرونة والبسكويت‬،‫ بعدىا‬.‫ وحذاء زىري‬،‫ وشعر مستعار زىري‬،‫جوارب زىرية‬
ِّ ‫أح‬
.‫ضر عط اًر‬ َ ‫ سأقطؼ الورود مف الحديقة و‬،‫ بعدىا‬.‫فتافيت البسكويت وألزقيا عمى التاج لتكوف األلماسات التي تزينو‬
‫ وأجرش‬،‫ ثـ أقطؼ كؿ الورود‬، ‫ وزبديتيف مف المطبخ‬،ً‫أحضر منخبل‬
ْ ‫ سوؼ‬.‫وسوؼ أحضر العطر عمى الشكؿ التالي‬
.‫ وىذا كؿ شيء‬،‫ وأحركيا بممعقتي‬،‫كؿ األعشاب والنعناع وأسدىا بإحكاـ‬
‫ رائع‬:‫األـ‬
‫ ىي‬،‫ وصديقة أخرى‬،‫ سافانا‬،‫وسوؼ أعزـ أفضؿ صديقة لي‬...‫ سوؼ أعمؿ حفمة شاي في قاع الحديقة‬،‫ بعد ذلؾ‬: ‫البنت‬
.‫المصاصة‬
.‫ حقاً إنو وقود األياـ الطويمة‬.‫السر في الويتبكس‬

4.5.1 Purpose of the Translation

This text is a zealous promotion of the cereal product branded as Weetabix in form of
narrative dialogue as a creative means of persuasion and attraction of the readers’
attention. Further to achieve this purpose, an amusing girlish anecdote between a girl and
her mum is invented to make the dialogue and the message appear natural and
persuasive, with a pinch of the famous English naïve, idiotic cultural tone.

4.5.2 Type of TL Readership

The type of TL readership expected to be addressed by this ad is children and young

people in the first place, though adults are not excluded altogether. This can be confirmed
by the choice of the two characters, a girl and her mother; the concerns of the girl, and
her second dear friend, the ‘lollipop’! Further evidence is provided by the simple language
and style of the conversation between the mother and her daughter.

4.5.3 Translation Problems

The first translation problem is posed by ‘fuel’ as a verb for it does not have an equivalent
verb form in Arabic derived from the noun )‫(وقود‬. On the other hand, it is used
metaphorically as it is associated with people. Normally, the term is used literally with
cars. In any case, the translator has to find an appropriate metaphor to collocate with
ِ which can be
humans, like the one suggested in the translation above (i.e. ‫)أنعش يومؾ بالوقود‬,
improved on, anyway. Another problem is exhibited by the translation of ‘big day’ into ‫يوـ‬
‫ طويؿ‬in preference to ‫يوـ كبير‬, as the former implies hard work whereas the latter is a

162
reference to a ‘big event’. On the other hand, ‫( الظاىر أمامنا‬it appears that...ahead of us) is
added by implication to form a full sentence in Arabic.

A third problem, and by way of illustration, is the identification of ‘Weetabix’ with the
more widely popular ‘Corn Flakes’ )‫ (كورف فميكس‬for the target readers. The fourth problem
of translation is reflected by the translation of ‘Weetabix’ of the last line of the advert. The
two qualifying words ‘‫( ’السر في‬the secret is in) are understood by implication to illustrate
the energy allegedly included in Weetabix. The term ‘lovely’ does not pose a problem of
translation, but its familiar and popular meaning here can be the exaggerated adjective ‫رائع‬
rather than ‫جميؿ‬, which is not bad, anyway.

4.5.4 Translation Strategies

(1) Transliteration (Weetabix → ‫ويتبكس‬, etc.)

(2) Expansion by implication (e.g. a big day today → ‫)الظاىر أمامنا يوـ طويؿ‬
... Weetabix ‫السر في الويتبكس‬
ِ
(3) Transposition: verb → verb phrase (e.g. fuel: ‫ بوقود‬... ‫)أنعش‬
(4) Cultural equivalent (e.g. big day → ‫( يوـ طويؿ‬not ‫كبير‬/‫)يوـ عظيـ‬
(5) Popular equivalent (e.g. Weetabix → cereal → ‫)كورف فميكس‬
(6) Modulation (general → special: e.g. cereal → ‫)كورف فميكس‬

4.6 Online Advertising

Online adverts have become increasingly popular among the web users who are in
hundreds of millions nowadays. They are characterized with crispiness and conciseness
with illustrations, including pictures, images and/or videos. Here are two examples,
followed by translations and discussions:

(A) BUSNINESS AD:

Our business relationship does not end once you list your business in our Directory, it is
the beginning of a journey to infinite horizons!

163
 ‫‪The Middle East Business on Your Screen‬‬

‫‪Our business relationship does not end once you list your business in our Directory, it is‬‬
‫!‪the beginning of a journey to infinite horizons‬‬

‫أعمال الشرق األوسط التجارية بين يديك عمى شاشتك‬

‫إف عبلقتنا التجارية في مجاؿ األعماؿ ال تنتيي بمجرد تسجيؿ أعمالؾ التجارية في دليمنا‪ ،‬بؿ ىي بداية رحمة إلى آفاؽ‬
‫مستقبمية ال تنتيي‪.‬‬

‫‪(B) ELECTRONICS AD.‬‬

‫في مجاؿ اإللكترونيات ‪in Electronics‬‬

‫‪WTS: Buy New Apple iPhone 5, Blackberry Z10,BB Q10 and TK Victory‬‬
‫شركة دبميو‪-‬تي‪-‬إس‪ :‬اشتر جياز آبؿ آيفوف ‪ 5‬جديد‪ ،‬ومعو ببلكبيري زد‪ 10-‬و كيو‪ 10-‬وتي‪-‬كيو فيكتوري‬

‫‪RAMADAN OFFER: Buy 2 BB Porshce Design and Get 1 Free BB Porshce‬‬

‫عرض شير رمضاف‪ :‬اشتر جيازي ببلكبيري بورش واحصؿ عمى واحد مجان ًا‬

‫‪164‬‬
4.6.1 Purpose of the Translation

Of course, the purpose of translating online advertisements is to make the text as clear,
persuasive and attractive as possible. That said, the greater focus is being on colorful
picturesque images and illustrations, as the two ads here confirm.

4.6.2 Type of TL Readership

The readership aimed at by these ads is the educated type, both highly and medium
educated in particular. Yet, in principle, online ads target all types of Web users in general.
Although the language of these ads may not be reduced to a simple version due to the
foreign technical names or trademarks of the products, or the material advertised for, it is
not too difficult for the Arab readers to get the message of them, owing to the heavy
weight presence and presentation of self-evident illustrations as well as the readers’
awareness of many of the foreign names and trademarks of electronic products in
particular. Still, the translator is supposed to simplify the language as much as he/she can.

4.6.3 Translation Problems

The first problem of translation that may be urgent to fix is how to deal with the foreign
terms, names and trademarks in the text of online ads. In our examples, several types of
foreign terms are used and pose different problems of translation, as pointed out bellow:

 Acronyms: (e.g. WTS → ‫إس‬-‫تي‬-‫( شركة دبميو‬classifier + transliteration).

 Trademarks: (e.g. ‘Apple iPhone 5, Blackberry Z10,BB Q10 and TK Victory’ → ‫جياز‬
‫كيو فيكتوري‬-‫ وتي‬10-‫ وكيو‬10-‫ ومعو ببلكبيري زد‬،‫ جديد‬5 ‫( آبؿ آيفوف‬classifier
+transliterations of trade marks + translation of normal words); ‘2 BB Porshce
Design and Get 1 Free BB Porshce’ ‫جيازي ببلكبيري بورش واحصؿ عمى واحد مجان ًا‬
(translation + classifier + transliteration)
 Islamic Month (e.g. Ramadan → ‫( شير رمضاف‬classifier + original version).

Obviously, foreign names and trademarks are not translated, only transliterated. A second
slight problem of translation is that of the term ‘electronics’. It is Arabized a long time ago
by means of naturalization strategy into ‫اإللكترونيات‬, preceded by an identifying expansion
phrase, ‫في مجاؿ‬. As to ‘business’, it is not used in its normal sense of ‫شأف‬/‫عمؿ‬, but into its
commercial meaning as ‫ أعماؿ تجارية‬/‫أعماؿ‬. Hence, ‘businessman’, and ‘businesswoman’ are
widely known in Arabic as ‫ رجؿ أعماؿ‬and ‫ سيدة أعماؿ‬respectively. Though the term, ‘The
Middle East’ )‫ (الشرؽ األوسط‬does not pose a problem of translation due to its enforced
recognition as a standard translation in the Arab world, it is a western term by origin,
intended to include non-Arab countries like Israel and Iran in a map area that most of it
are Arab States.

165
4.6.4 Translation Strategies

(a) Transliteration (of acronyms, foreign names and trademarks in particular).

(b) Naturalization (e.g. electronics → ‫إلكترونيات‬, etc.)
(c) Undertranslation (e.g. BB Porshce Design → ‫)ببلكبيري بورش‬
(d) Classifier (e.g. Blackberry → ‫)جياز ببلكبيري‬
(e) Expansion (infinite horizons → .‫ ;آفاؽ مستقبمية ال تنتيي‬electronics →‫)في مجاؿ اإللكترونيات‬
(f) Back translation to origin (e.g. Ramadan → ‫)رمضاف‬

4.7 Magazine Advertisements

Like newspaper adverts, magazine advertisements are as popular for the widespread
circulation and audience of magazines up to date. They are usually texts supported and
illustrated by pictures, chromatics and other visual devices. Here is an example, followed
by translation and discussion:

(Heidi Richards Mooney)

166
 ‫قدِّم ىدية منظومة فينج شوي لمتناغم‬

!‫بث التأثيرات المتناغمة لفينج شوي في حياة شخص عزيز جداً عميؾ‬
‫ وىذه التشكيمة مصممة ومعبأة‬.‫تقوـ شركة "حياة متوازنة" بمنح شيادات لتشكيمة مف التصميمات الستشارات فينج شوي‬
‫بشكؿ بديع لتكوف اليدايا المثالية لمساعدة شخص ييمؾ عمى بث تيار متدفؽ مف التناغـ لمنظومة الفينج شوي في‬
.‫حياتيـ‬

4.7.1 Purpose of the Translation

The purpose of the translation of this magazine ad is to popularize Feng Shui among as
many readers as possible, and convince them to take it up and assume it physically,
spiritually and mentally. The means used to achieve this purpose of the ad are its text,
background, colors, environmental elements (or, plantation) and energy-like bills.
Naturally, achieving the purpose of any text requires understanding its topic. But how
many Arab readers know Feng Shui? Not many, I guess.

So, what is Feng Shui, first? The practice of Feng Shui was developed in China over a 4,000-
year period. Initially, people wanted to come up with principles that ensured their
homes—and more importantly their tombs!—were placed in a location that offered
shelter from winter storms, floods, and blazing heat.

Collins York English Dictionary defines it as “The Chinese art of determining the most
propitious design and placement of a grave, building, room, etc., so that the maximum
harmony is achieved between the flow of chi [or energy] of the environment and that of
the user, believed to bring good fortune” (2000: 564). The Merriam Webster’s describes it
as “A Chinese geometric practice in which a structure or site is chosen or configured so as
to harmonize with the spiritual forces that inhabit it”, and “orientation, placement, or
th
arrangement according to the precepts of feng shui” (2012 (11 edn): 461).

167
Feng Shui (or Wind and Water) is the practice of arranging environment so that energy or
“chi” flows gently and smoothly through home or business environment. Feng Shui is not a
meditation practice, a religion, or a New Age cult. ‘Shui’ is based on the concept that
everything in your environment has a life force or energy called ‘chi’. Just as ‘chi’ flows
through your body, it also flows through your living environment. This means that the
unbalanced ‘chi’ may lead to ill health, domestic strife, or financial concerns. In effect,
Feng Shui adjustments can help you make sure that the ‘chi’ energy flow is just right so
that everything in your environment supports your wish for good luck, good health,
harmonious relationships, and prosperity.

As the practice of Feng Shui developed, people also started to consider architectural
features, from the placement of fireplaces, windows and doors, to gardens and
landscaping. (luckypath-fengshui.com/what-is-feng-shui/)

4.7.2 Type of TL Readership

All types of readers are addressed by this ad, with the aim to teach them about ‘Feng Shui’
culture and practice, with a view to marketing its consultations and programs for
harmonious and balanced living, by the company concerned. Yet, it seems that educated
readers are more on the mind of the advertisers than uneducated readers due to this
highly sophisticated and luxurious practice.

4.7.3 Translation Problems

The problems of translating the text of this ad are numerous. The most demanding is the
topic of the ad, ‘Feng Shui’. It is a Chinese culture taken into English Language with its
Chinese sense being retained. There are four possible ways to translate the term. The first,
the poorest, is to transliterate it into Arabic letters, without providing any further details
about it, leaving it to the reader to collect its meaning from the context of the text, or
check it in a dictionary. The second is to neutralize it and translate it into its sense of
harmonious, balanced living system/practice )‫متوازنة‬/‫(منظومة حياة متناغمة‬, which is not too
bad. The third, which could be equally good, is a middle-ground choice that combines the
other two and, at the same time, makes its meaning clearer (i.e. ‫)منظومة فينج شوي لمتناغـ‬. The
fourth way is to transliterate it, or translate its sense only and provides a footnote
explaining it in short, or a note at the end of the translation if long details are required. It
is an acceptable option, but may be unnecessary in normal circumstances. In the light of
that, the third solution is applied in the translation suggested above.

The second problem is the translation of the phrasal verb ‘bring into’ into a verb that
َّ ‫ب‬,ُ which might be
collocates appropriately with ‘life’. The suggested translation above is ‫ث‬
better than other options available in Arabic, including: ‫ ازرع‬/‫اخمؽ‬/‫أوجد‬. The argument
applies to the second occurrence of ‘bring into’ later in the text, which is also translated
َّ The second and third paragraphs of the ad are not translated for their irrelevance
into ‫بث‬.
to its message, which is illustrated above.

168
4.7.4 Translation Strategies

(1) Transliteration (e.g. Feng Shui→ ‫فينج شوي‬, etc.)

(2) Classifier (e.g. Feng Shui → ‫)منظومة فينج شوي‬
(3) Translation couplet (transliteration + classifier) (e.g. ‫)منظومة فينج شوي التناغمية‬
(4) Overtranslation by implication (e.g. Feng Shui consultation options → ‫لتشكيمة مف‬
‫التصميمات الستشارات فينج شوي‬
(5) Expansion by implication (for helping someone → ‫)لمساعدة شخص ييمؾ‬
(6) Exaggeration (e.g. beautifully → ‫)بشكؿ بديع‬
(7) Reduction (e.g. ‘Inc.’ → ‫( شركة‬rather than the full version ‫)شركة محدودة‬

4.8 Street & Outdoor Advertising

McDonald’s stands out as one company with really strong outdoor advertising. You’ll see
their stuff again and again throughout this post simply because I really liked almost
everything I saw from them.

‫ لذا ترى إعبلناتيـ ىذه تبلحقؾ م ار اًر وتك ار اًر في ىذا المجمد ألنني‬.‫تتميز شركة مكدونالدز بقوة إعبلناتيا الجدارية‬
.‫شخصي ًا بالفعؿ أحببت كؿ إعبلناتيـ التي شاىدتيا‬

.‫ ساعة‬24 ‫ مكدونالدز ٌفتح‬.‫الساعة اآلن حوالً الثانٌة بعد منتصف اللٌل ونحن فاتحون‬

169
‫دعاية تويوتا مقموبة ‪Tony Divino Toyota: Upside-Down‬‬

‫اإلعبلنات المقموبة ال يمكف تجاىميا‪ .‬وىؿ يخفى القمر؟‬

‫توني ديفيدو‬
‫تويوتا‬
‫صادقة أكثر مف البلزـ؟‬

‫‪Motor Accident Commission (MAC): Cock‬‬ ‫لجنة حوادث السيارات‪ :‬إعالن الديك‬

‫‪170‬‬
 !‫إياؾ أف تقود السيارة مثؿ الديؾ النافش ريشو‬
.‫الطرؽ الزراعية تحتاج سائقيف يقودوف السيارة بأماف‬

4.8.1 Translation Purpose

The purpose of outdoor ads is to promote a product, a company, or a logo of some type
with a maximum space for the picture, and a minimum number of words that are as
expressive, concise, symbolic, suggestive and / or insinuative as required. This purpose is a
means to achieving the main purpose of catching the full attention of the public to show
interest in the ad, whether he/she likes it or not!

4.8.2 Type of Readership

Readers of all types are targeted by outdoor ads. And since they lean heavily on symbolic
pictures, these are carefully designed to make the message as clear as possible. However,
there must be an inevitable little space for words which are usually not many, but
suggestive and humorous. All these are stylistic devices to attract, entertain and persuade
readers of different types.

4.8.3 Translation Problems

There are not many linguistic translation problems in the captions of the three ads cited as
focus is mostly on the pictures and their cultural and other implications. A unique style of
presentation of an ad is suggested in the second up-side-down example above. It might be
one of the most extraordinary types of advertising due to its impressive power of
attraction and persuasion of readers, who would have a special interest in reading such an
ad, though it is awkward to read easily. Probably, the trickiest translation problem is
presented by the cultural implications and insinuation of the second and third ads. The
caption of the second up-side-down ad does not include any reference to the topic of the
ad, i.e. Toyota Car. However, it insinuates it by implication. That is, the reference of
‘ignored’ is probably meant to be taken as a reference to the contents of the ad, rather
than to its up-side-down design. In other words, it can read as follows: Toyota Cars are
hard to ignore. However, the translation of the ad is not affected by this and can be left as
such for Arab readers who can equally understand it by implication as well.

The text of the third ad is cultural, involving drawing a similarity between a snobbish
driver and a rooster (or a cock) which symbolizes snobbishness in English culture. This
culture-specific implication is translated in words into Arabic as ‫ الديؾ النافش ريشو‬as an
indication of the English cultural sense. It cannot be translated into ‫ ديؾ‬for it may not be
exactly understood in this sense as ‘cock’ implies arrogance and snobbishness in Arabic,
but only partly. That said, the fact with outdoor ads is that they rely heavily on suggestive
and symbolic pictures and other illustrations to make their message clear to readers who
may not, or cannot read the texts.

171
As to the addition of the ironical rhetorical question ‫وىؿ يخفى القمر؟‬, it is understood by
implication as an assertive meaning concluded from the previous statement of the text of
the second advertisement.

4.8.4 Translation Strategies

(1) Transliteration (of names, trademarks, etc.)

(2) Cultural equivalent (e.g. cock → ‫)الديؾ النافش ريشو‬
(3) Transposition (e.g. phrase → clause : safer drivers → ‫)سائقوف يقودوف السيارة بأماف‬
(4) Deletion (e.g. unnecessary acronyms (e.g. MAC) and part of the text of ads).
(5) Expansive addition by implication (e.g. addition of the ironical expression: ‫وىؿ يخفى‬
‫)القمر؟‬

4.9 New Media Advertising

st
‘New Media’ is a 21 Century catchall term used to define all that is related to the internet
and the interplay between technology, images and sound. Wikipedia defines New Media
as “… a broad term in media studies that emerged in the latter part of the 20th century.
For example, new media holds out a possibility of on-demand access to content anytime,
anywhere, on any digital device, as well as interactive user feedback, creative participation
and community formation around the media content. What distinguishes new media from
traditional media is the digitizing of content into bits. There is also a dynamic aspect of
content production which can be done in real time, but these offerings lack standards and
have yet to gain attraction.

Wikipedia, an online encyclopedia, is an example, combining Internet accessible digital

text, images and video with web-links, creative participation of contributors, interactive
feedback of users and formation of a participant community of editors and donors for the
benefit of non-community readers. Facebook, Twitter and so-called social website media
are an example of the social media model in which most users are also participants.

Most technologies described as "new media" are digital, often having characteristics of
being manipulated, networkable, dense, compressible, and interactive. Some examples
may be the Internet, websites, computer multimedia, computer games, CD-ROMS, and
DVDs. New media does not include television programs, feature films, magazines, books,
or paper-based publications – unless they contain technologies that enable digital
interactivity.”

Thus, loosely, ‘new media’ is a way of organizing a cloud of technology, skills, and
processes that change so quickly that it is impossible to fully define just what those tools
and processes are. Nevertheless, ‘new media’ can be characterized by the variegated use
of images, words, and sounds. These networks of images, sounds, and text data are
different from old media formats such as hardcopy newspapers (Wikipedia and other
sources). Here is an example to translate and discuss:

172
Pepsi Passes Diet Coke in Market Share as Artificial Sweeteners Fall Out of Favor
Pepsi Reclaims No. 2 Soda Spot That Was Lost in 2010

By E.J. Schultz. Published on March 26, 2015. 1

Diet Coke's reign as the nation's No. 2 soda brand is over - and it didn't last long. Pepsi,
which fell to No. 3 in 2010, has reclaimed the second slot behind regular Coke, according to
2014 U.S. carbonated soft drink market share data released today by trade publication
Beverage Digest. Both Pepsi and Diet Coke lost volume in 2014. But as consumers shied
away from artificial sweeteners, Diet Coke fared much worse, falling 6.6%. Pepsi lost only
1.8%. …

The rankings are evidence of how changing consumer tastes can alter brand fortunes in a
short amount of time.

.‫البيبسي تتفوق عمى كوال الريجيم في أسيم السوق بسبب النفور من المحميات الصناعية‬ 
0212 ‫البيبسي تستعيد نقطتين صودا خسرتيما عام‬ 

‫ فالبيبسي‬.ً‫لقد ولى زمف تربع كوال الريجيـ لمصودا عمى عرش المركز الثاني لممشروبات في الببلد – ولـ يدـ ذلؾ طويبل‬
‫ بناء عمى البيانات مف‬،‫ قد استعادت المركز الثاني بعد الكوال العادية‬2010 ‫التي تراجعت إلى المركز الثالث في عاـ‬
‫ وكانت‬.‫أسيـ سوؽ مشروبات الصودا الخفيفة التي صدرت اليوـ مف منشورات ىيئة المشروبات التجارية األمريكية‬
‫ تراجعت كوال الريجيـ إلى‬،‫لمم َحميات الصناعية‬
ُ ‫ لكف مع تجنب الزبائف‬،2014 ‫البيبسي وكوال الريجيـ قد تراجعتا في عاـ‬
... .‫ فقط‬%1.8 ‫ أما البيبسي فتراجعت بنسبة‬،%6.6 ‫مركز متأخر وانخفضت نسبتيا إلى‬

.‫ويعتبر ىذا الترتيب دليبلً عمى مدى تأثير تغير أذواؽ الزبائف حتى عمى مكاسب كبرى الشركات في فترة زمنية قصيرة‬

4.9.1 Purpose of the Translation

Obviously, the purpose of translating this ad is to promote Pepsi in an academic way, so to

speak. Pepsi is not just introduced with exaggerative and impressive language and style,
but also supported this time by hard evidence of reliable statistics in the States. This goes
hand in hand with the use of impressive and rhetorical language to enhance the argument
for the superiority of Pepsi drink and convince the reader of that.
173
4.9.2 Type of TL Readership

The expected type of target readership is the general public, especially the educated
types. The power of persuasion carried by the statistics-based argument, taken in
comparison with the Pepsi rival, Coke, may imply that the ad is rather meant only for
educated readers who visit the different sites and types of new technological devices.
However, other types of readers are not entirely excluded.

4.9.3 Translation Problems

The first problem of translation is that of translating ‘diet Coke’ which is well known
amongst people as ‫كوال الدايت‬, but it can be better translated into ‫كوال الحمية‬. However, still a
better choice is ‫ كوال الريجيـ‬which can be claimed as the first choice of Arab consumers. The
transliterated word ‫ دايت‬is not known in standard Arabic, whereas ‫ الريجيـ‬is recognized and
standardized now. As to ‘Coke’, it is usually translated into the common word ‫ كوال‬which is
a general term used to describe any type of Cola drink.

Related to this is the translation of ‘regular Coke’ into ‫الكوال العادية‬, rather than into ‫الكوؾ‬
‫ النظامي‬which is a dictionary translation that has no popularity. On the other hand, the
terminology is obviously made as simple, familiar and popular as possible.

‘Carbonated soft drink’ is translated freely into ‫مشروبات الصودا الخفيفة‬. ‘Carbonated’ is
translated into its Arabized term ‫ صودا‬not into the naturalized ‫مكربنة‬/‫كربونات‬. ‘Lost volume’ is
translated into a reduced version of ‫ تراجعت‬as probably a better translation than ‫خسرت‬
‫مركزىا‬. However, the latter is not too bad a choice.

‘Rankings’ and ‘brand’ are not quite problematic in sense, but the grammatical category of
the former is changed into singular rather than plural, whereas the latter is translated into
a noun phrase ‫ كبرى الشركات‬instead of a single word as ‫عبلمات تجارية‬/‫ماركات‬. As to ‘Beverage
Digest’, it is translated into its functional general sense as ‫ ىيئة المشروبات األمريكية‬for that is all
what the Arab readers require. Accurate details are insignificant to them in this context.

Finally, and back to the first line, ‘Diet Coke's reign ... is over’ is translated intentionally
into an over-exaggerative, impressive and pompous widely known collocation as ‫لقد ولى زمف‬
... ‫ عمى عرش‬... ‫تربع كوال الريجيـ‬, which buttresses the superiority of Pepsi, as exactly intended
by the SL ad (c.f. ... ‫انتيت سيطرة كوال الريجيـ‬, which is just normal language).

4.9.4 Translation Strategies

(1) Transliteration (e.g. of names, trademarks, etc.: Pepsis → ‫)بيبسي‬

(2) Popular translation (e.g. Coke → ‫ ;كوال‬diet Coke → ‫ ;كوال الريجيـ‬carbonated → ‫)صودا‬
174
 (3) Arabization (carbonated → ‫( صودا‬not ‫مكربنة‬/‫))كربونات‬
(4) Reduction (e.g. lost volume‫(تراجعت‬
(5) Overtranslation (e.g. ‘brand’ → ‫( كبرى الشركات‬not ‫عبلمات تجارية‬/‫(ماركات‬
(6) Impressive language (e.g. Diet Coke's reign ... is over’ → ... ‫لقد ولى زمف تربع كوال الريجيـ‬
... ‫)عمى عرش‬
(7) Paraphrase into general sense (e.g. ‘Beverage Digest’ → ‫)ىيئة المشروبات األمريكية‬
(8) General sense (e.g. regular Coke → ‫كوال عادية‬
(9) Double Transliteration (e.g. diet Coke ‫)كوال الريجيـ‬

4.10 Public Notices

A Public Notice is a notice given to the public regarding certain types of legal proceedings.
Public notices are issued by a government agency or legislative body in certain rulemaking
or lawmaking proceeding. For local government, public notice is often given by those
seeking a liquor license, a rezoning or variance, or other minor approval which must be
granted by a city council, etc.

Further, parties to some legal proceedings, such as foreclosures, probate and estate
actions are sometimes required to publish public notices. Also, in communications, public
notices are sometimes required when seeking a new broadcast license from a national
broadcasting authority, or a change to modification to an existing license. U.S. broadcast
stations, for example, are required to give public notice on the air that they are seeking a
license renewal from the U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC), or to notify
viewers of the station's purchase by another party. Records of these public notices must
often be kept in a station's public file.

As to methods of notice, one method is the publication of a public notice ad in a local

newspaper of record. Public notice can also be given in other ways, including radio, and on
the Internet. Some governments require publication in a newspaper, though there have
been attempts among some politicians to eliminate the expense of publication by
switching to electronic forms of notification.

In sum, Public Notices and Ads contain activities and events that impact citizen’s lives
because of governmental actions or requirements. They include such important actions as
government hearings and meetings; zoning, annexation and land use changes; election
notices; municipal budgets, taxes and special assessment information; requests for bids on
government construction and service contracts; permit and licensing applications, land
and water use regulations; judicial and executive sales, disposal of foreclosed and
abandoned property and many more. All these actions affect the individuals as much as
their community.

Following is a sample example of a public notice to be translated and, then, as usual,

discussed in terms of purpose, type of TL readership, translation problems and translation
strategies:

175
Department of Public Works
PUBLIC NOTICE
STREET REHABILITATION

Dear Property Owners/Residents:

The City of Berkeley will be performing pavement rehabilitation of certain streets within
the City, including the street in front of your property, as shown on the location map on the
back of this notice. The streets will be resurfaced and/or reconstructed with asphalt
concrete. Work is scheduled to begin in (approximate month will be supplied).

During construction, it will be necessary to close the street partially or completely to

vehicular traffic during construction work hours due to safety concerns. No street closure is
expected to last more than 12 hours at a time. Street parking will also be restricted. "No
Parking" signs will be posted along your street 3 days in advance and will be enforced by
the Police Department. Please see the posted signs for the exact hours and locations as
they may vary according to scheduled tasks. All other parking restrictions, including no
parking for street cleaning, will still be in effect. Residents should know that access to their
driveways may be prohibited for most of the day during the paving operations. If you plan
to drive your vehicle while rehabilitation is scheduled in your area, please park it outside
the construction area to avoid oil spray or other complications. Please note that the oil and
asphalt used during construction is not easily removed from feet, shoes, floors and rugs.

The work is expected to be completed around (approximate time will be supplied), barring
unforeseen problems and weather conditions. Construction in your vicinity may not take
place in one continuous time period as there are several phases of construction. It also may
not extend for the entire period between (approximate time will be supplied). The
contractor will complete the concrete work (such as installing curb ramps, etc.) before
undertaking pavement work. Except for special circumstances, normal work hours will be
between 7:30 a.m. and 5:00 p.m., Monday through Friday.

Please note that installation and maintenance of sidewalk, curb, and gutter is the
responsibility of the property owner. It is City policy that the installation and maintenance
of a water barrier (against runoff) with a minimum height of 6 inches is the responsibility
of the property owner. City owned trees will be trimmed by the City's Forestry Division.
Property owners are responsible for trimming trees growing from their property and
intruding into the roadway. Those trees with branches that extend out beyond the curb line
and less than 14 feet high from the road pavement must be trimmed to avoid damage to
the tree during the construction work.

The City Engineering Inspector will be on site during work hours if you have any problems
(contact name and number will be supplied). After work hours, please call the contractor
(contact name and phone number will be supplied), to report any problems associated with
street construction. If he cannot be reached, please call Public Works Customer Service at
(510) 981-6620.

The street rehabilitation may cause temporary inconvenience because of the nature of
work. We will appreciate your patience during this period and will attempt to minimize the
176
‫‪inconvenience. If you have any questions, please call the Engineering Division at (510) 981-‬‬
‫‪6400.‬‬

‫مديرية األشغال العامة‬

‫إعالن عام‬
‫إصالح الشوارع‬
‫اإلخوة سكان الحي‬

‫سوؼ تقوـ بمدية المدينة بإجراء إصبلحات ألرصفة بعض الشوارع داخؿ المدينة بما في ذلؾ الشارع الذي أماـ منزلؾ‪،‬‬
‫كما توضح خريطة الموقع في قفا صفحة ىذا اإلعبلف‪ .‬سوؼ يتـ تعبيد الشوارع باإلسفمت المسمح‪ .‬وسوؼ يبدأ العمؿ‬
‫في غضوف شير تقريباً‪.‬‬

‫وأثناء تعبيد الشوارع سوؼ يتـ إغبلؽ الشارع جزئياً أو كمياً أماـ المرور أثناء ساعات العمؿ ألسباب األماف‪ .‬ولف تتجاوز‬
‫فترة اإلغبلؽ ‪ 12‬ساعة بشكؿ متواصؿ‪ .‬كما سيتـ أيض ًا التقميؿ مف ساعات وقوؼ السيارات‪ .‬وسوؼ يتـ توزيع ممصقة‬
‫"ممنوع الوقوؼ" قبؿ ثبلثة أياـ مف بدء العمؿ‪ ،‬وسوؼ يشرؼ عمى ذلؾ مركز الشرطة‪ .‬يرجى منكـ االطبلع عمى‬
‫الممصقة ومبلحظة الساعات والمواقع بالضبط التي تختمؼ باختبلؼ مواعيد األشغاؿ ومياميا‪ .‬كما أف القيود عمى‬
‫وقوؼ السيارات بما في ذلؾ منع الوقوؼ لتنظيؼ الشوارع‪ ،‬سوؼ تكوف سارية المفعوؿ‪ .‬ونُعمـ السكاف أف طرؽ سير‬
‫السيارات سوؼ تمنع معظـ اليوـ أثناء عمميات تعبيد الشوارع‪ .‬لذا وبناء عميو‪ ،‬إذا كنت ترغب في قيادة سيارتؾ أثناء‬
‫تنفيذ أشغاؿ تعبيد شارعؾ‪ ،‬يرجى منؾ صفيا خارج منطقة األشغاؿ لتجنب رش النفط أو أي أشياء مزعجة أخرى‪ ،‬عمماً‬
‫أف النفط والمواد األخرى المستخدمة أثناء تعبيد الشوارع صعبة اإلزالة مف األقداـ واألحذية واألرضيات وسجادات‬
‫السيارات‪.‬‬

‫يتوقع االنتياء مف تعبيد الشوارع في فترة زمنية تقريبية سيتـ إببلغ السكاف عنيا في حينو‪ ،‬منعاً لحدوث أي مشاكؿ أو‬
‫أحواؿ جوية غير محسوبة‪ .‬وقد ال تجري أعماؿ اإلصبلح كميا في حيؾ دفعة واحدة بؿ ستكوف عمى عدة مراحؿ‪ .‬كما‬
‫أنيا قد ال تمتد كؿ الفترة المحددة في إعبلف الحؽ‪ .‬سوؼ يكمؿ المتعيد مرحمة األعماؿ اإلسمنتية (كتركيب منحدرات‬
‫حواؼ الرصيؼ‪ ،‬وغيرىا) قبيؿ البدء بأعماؿ تعبيد األرصفة‪ .‬ما لـ تحدث ظروؼ استثنائية‪ ،‬ستكوف ساعات العمؿ‬
‫اليومية مف الساعة السابعة والنصؼ صباحاً وحتى الساعة الخامسة مساء باستثناء اإلجازة األسبوعية‪.‬‬

‫يرجى أخذ العمـ أف مسؤولية تركيب وصيانة الرصيؼ‪ ،‬وحافتو‪ ،‬ومجراه تقع عمى عاتؽ صاحب العمارة‪ .‬وتقتضي سياسة‬
‫مجمس المدينة أف يتحمؿ صاحب العمارة تركيب وصيانة حاجز الماء (المانع لمماء الجاري) بارتفاع أدنى قدره ‪ 15‬سـ‪.‬‬
‫أما تقميـ أشجار البمدية المدينة فيي مسؤولية قسـ الغابات في البمدية‪ .‬لكف تقميـ األشجار التي زرعيا أصحاب العمارات‬
‫وتمتد أغصانيا إلى الشارع يقع عمى عاتقيـ ىـ‪ .‬إذ أف األشجار التي تمتد أغصانيا إلى ما بعد خط حافة الرصيؼ‬
‫وارتفاعيا أقؿ مف ‪ 35‬سـ فوؽ رصيؼ الطريؽ‪ ،‬يجب تقميميا لتجنب اإلضرار باألشجار أثناء أعماؿ الصيانة‪.‬‬

‫وسوؼ يكوف ميندس بمدية المدينة متواجدًا في الموقع أثناء ساعات العمؿ في حاؿ وجود أي مشكمة لديكـ (سوؼ‬
‫نوافيكـ الحقاً باسـ الميندس ورقـ جوالو لمتواصؿ معو)‪ .‬الرجاء االتصاؿ مع المتعيد خارج ساعات العمؿ (سوؼ نوافيكـ‬
‫‪177‬‬
‫ واذا لـ تتمكف مف‬.‫الحقاً باسـ المتعيد ورقـ جوالو) إلببلغو عف أي مشاكؿ تتعمؽ باألعماؿ الخاصة بتعبيد الشوارع‬
. .......... ‫ الرجاء االتصاؿ بقسـ األشغاؿ العامة – خدمة المواطنيف عمى الرقـ المدوف‬،‫التواصؿ معو‬

‫ واننا إذ نقدر صبركـ وتحممكـ أثناء فترة‬.‫سوؼ يتسبب إصبلح الشوارع في إزعاج مؤقت لمسكاف نظ اًر لطبيعة العمؿ‬
.‫ سوؼ نسعى جيدنا إلى التقميؿ مف اإلزعاج ما أمكف‬،‫التنفيذ‬

.......... :‫ يرجى االتصاؿ عمى القسـ اليندسي ببمدية المدينة عمى الرقـ التالي‬،‫إذا كاف لديكـ أي استفسارات‬

4.10.1 Purpose of the Translation

The purpose of this public notice is to inform the public of the subject matter in question
as clearly, simply, directly, firmly and politely as possible. All details are spelled out
minutely, with the aim to help the respective audience get the intended message in clear
terms, with the ultimate objective of abiding by the instructions, directives, rules and / or
regulations of the public notice. By so doing, the TL readership will make use of the text of
the public notice in a similar TL context.

4.10.2 Type of TL Readership

Adult target readers of different educational levels and ages are intended by the public
notice. In such cases, the language and style of the text are supposed to be made
uncomplicated, non-technical and easy to comprehend by everybody concerned. That is
why words and phrases are more popular than the technical ones in the whole text.
Hence, the translator is expected to be considerate with respect to his/her TL readers by
rendering the message of the source text in a language and style that would make their
tasks of reading and understanding the SL message as easy as required.

4.10.3 Translation Problems

There are several translation problems encountered by the translator of this text into
Arabic. However, they are solvable in several ways. The start is with the dropping of the
name of the American City, ‘Berkeley’ from the translation, and replacing it with the
general word )‫ (مدينة‬to help the TL readers understand the translational text in a local
context. ‘Department of Public Works’ is translated into an Arabic cultural equivalent as
‫ مديرية األشغاؿ العامة‬in preference to a literal translation like ‫قسـ األعماؿ العامة‬. Another cultural
translation is that of ‘Dear Property Owners/Residents’ into ‫ اإلخوة سكاف الحي‬as the cultural
equivalent of the SL term. Other good suggestions include ...‫ اإلخوة المواطنوف‬/‫أخي المواطف‬.
However, a literal translation of sense like ‫ أعزاءنا السكاف‬is not a part of formal address by
the government in Arabic culture. Further, the two terms, ‘Owners/Residents’ are not
translated individually into‫ ومقيموف‬/‫مبلؾ ومستأجروف‬
ّ but rather into a generic term ‫سكاف الحي‬
which has more respect than the others and is indiscriminative.

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‘Rehabilitation’, might pose a problem of accuracy of synonymy and, hence, collocation. Is
it ،‫ ترميـ‬،‫ ?إعادة تأىيؿ‬Maybe neither can fit in here for ‫ ترميـ‬is usually used with refurbishing
buildings, whereas ‫ إعادة تأىيؿ‬collocates with recovering patients in particular. So we may
try another pair of terms: ‫ تعبيد‬،‫ إصبلح‬both of which are fitting and used interchangeably,
but the second is preferred as a word of direct reference to a particular process or action.

The term ‘construction’ is translated into ‫صيانة‬/‫ تعبيد‬as more appropriate here in this
context than ‫ تشييد‬/ ‫ إنشاء‬which are not commonly used with paving streets and roads in
Arabic. However, in formal texts, we might come across ‫ شركة اإلنشاءات‬/‫شركة إنشاء الطرؽ‬
(Road Construction Company).

The term ‘vehicular traffic’ is translated into ‫ المرور‬which is inclusive of ‘vehicular’, so ‫مرور‬
‫ السيارات‬would sound tautological. As to ‘police department’, it is translated into a cultural
equivalent as ‫مركز الشرطة‬, but ‫ قسـ الشرطة‬is equally good. ‘The City policy’ is also translated
into its cultural equivalent by implication as ‫بمدية المدينة‬/‫سياسة مجمس‬, and ‫ سياسة المدينة‬is an
inaccurate word for word translation for the ‘City’ is capitalized to stand for ‘The City
Council’. Yet, at translating ‘The City Engineering Inspector’, of the penultimate paragraph,
‘City’ is translated not into ‫ مجمس المدينة‬but more accurately into ‫( بمدية المدينة‬City
Municipality/Municipal Council) in reference to ‫مجمس بمدية المدينة‬, as culturally known in
most Arab Countries. Further, related to these terms is the ‘Engineering Department’ of
the last line of the original, which is translated contextually into ‫القسـ اليندسي ببمدية المدينة‬.

On the other hand, ‘Please, note’ is translated into the cliché expression ‫ يرجى أخذ العمـ‬which
is well-known in such text, and not into the literal meaning / ‫ مف فضمؾ الحظ‬/ ‫يرجى المبلحظة‬
‫الحظ‬. By analogy, ‘special circumstances’ is translated into the familiar ‫ظروؼ استثنائية‬, rather
than ‫ظروؼ خاصة‬. The British/American ‘inch’ is transferred into ‘centimeter’ which is
culturally the common unit for Arab readers.

The interruptive clause ‘(approximate time will be supplied)’ ‫ سيتـ إببلغ السكاف عنيا في حينو‬is
translated into a cliché expression in Arabic, which is recurrent in a text like this. Hence,
translating it literally into ‫ سيتـ تزويدكـ بالوقت التقريبي‬is not workable here.

As to the word ‫( السكاف‬residents), it is added contextually after ‘convenience’)‫ (إزعاج‬in

Arabic for more cordial communication. For the same reason, the term ‘patience’ ‫ صبر‬is
translated redundantly into ‫صبر وتحمؿ‬. The same can be said of slotting ‫ جيدنا‬after
‘attempt’ ‫نسعى‬, which is a commonly used assertive cliché in such context.

Finally, the last sentence of the source text is assigned an independent paragraph to meet
the TL style of giving the necessary information for contact, with no need to mention the

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phone number and other local details of the original which are inapplicable in the target
context.

4.10.4 Translation Strategies

(1) Transliteration (of names of people, cities, etc.) e.g. Berkeley → ‫)بيركمي‬
(2) Classifier (e.g. Berkley → ‫)مدينة بيركمي‬
(3) Generalization (e.g. Berkley → ‫)مدينة‬
(4) Cultural equivalent (e.g. Department of Public Works ‫ ;مديرية األشغاؿ العامة‬City →
‫ بمدية المدينة‬/‫ ;مجمس المدينة‬Dear Property Owners/Residents → ‫ ;اإلخوة سكاف الحي‬inch →
‫سنتيمتر‬, etc.)
(5) Indiscriminative generalization (e.g. Property Owners/Residents → ‫)سكاف الحي‬
(6) Equivalent cultural Cliché expressions (e.g. Please note → ‫)يرجى أخذ العمـ‬
(7) Stylistic formulas (e.g. If you have any questions …attempt to minimize the
inconvenience → ‫)سوؼ نسعى جيدنا إلى التقميؿ مف اإلزعاج ما أمكف‬
(8) Overtranslation: (e.g. inconvenience → ‫ ;إزعاج السكاف‬Engineering Department →
‫القسـ اليندسي ببمدية المدينة‬, etc.)
(9) Translation by implication + cultural equivalent (e.g. ‘The City policy’ → ‫سياسة مجمس‬
‫)المدينة‬
(10) Reduction (e.g. vehicular traffic → ‫( المرور‬rather than the longer, but unnecessary
‫)مرور السيارات‬.
(11) Cultural replacement (e.g. Dear )‫عزيز‬/‫أخ → (أعزاء‬/‫)إخوة‬
(12) Deletion (e.g. Unnecessary local phone numbers and addresses of the original)
(13) Modulation: active → passive (e.g. Please note → ‫)يرجى أخذ العمـ‬

4.11 Summary

This chapter has investigated the problems of translating advertisements. All types of ads
have been introduced and defined in direct and simple terms. Then, the stylistic features
and functions of commercials have been discussed, followed by sample examples of the
major types of ads and public notices. These samples have been translated into Arabic and
discussed in regard to translation purpose, type of TL readership, translation problems and
translation strategies. More than one conclusion can be drawn from the foregoing
investigation of translation ads. Style is the cornerstone of translating these types of
general texts. Since they are forwarded directly to the real and supposed readers, the
translator has to bear in mind that meeting the target readers’ demands and
requirements, and influencing, persuading, attracting and, sometimes, entertaining them
should be a priority. Hence, his/her task is primarily to produce effect on them by stylistic
means of using impressive, rhetorical, effective, direct, emotive and communicative type
of language. Aesthetic and rhythmical language and style might be at times essential in
the target translation as a means of attracting, enjoying and, eventually, convincing
him/her to purchase the product advertised for. However, non-technicality and
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simplification of language and style with a tint of informality may be overwhelming in the
translation of all types of ads. In fine, these texts are the target readers’ property, and the
translator is required to respond to their needs and demands stylistically, semantically,
linguistically, aesthetically, communicatively, effectively as much as cordially.

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EXERCISES

1. Define advertising and public notice. Point out the differences and similarities
between advertisements and public notices in terms of purpose, style and
language.
2. How many types of advertisements are there? In your opinion, which five types
are the most important nowadays and why? Which type do you personally like,
and why?
3. Which stylistic characteristics of advertising are more significant to target readers
and why?
4. To what extent are aesthetic features of rhyme and rhythm impressive, and why?
5. Would you enjoy humorous ads and why?
6. What is the next advertisement for? What does the image represent? And what
do the alphabetical letters stand for?

7. Translate the following ad into Arabic. Which details are urgent to translate, and
which are unnecessary to translate, and why?

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"Free Hotel Vacation Promo," a travel deal promotion, evokes family vacation fun. 30
seconds.

8. Translate the text of the following advertisement. What do you think of this ad? Is
it attractive, convincing, unique or not, and why?

A print advertisement for the 1913 issue of the Encyclopaedia Britannica

9. How expressive is the image of the next advertisement? How do you relate the
text to the picture? How valuable is the ad without the image, and why?

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184
 CHAPTER 5

TRANSLATING NEWSPAPER ARTICLES

5.0 Introduction: Definitions

A newspaper is a periodical publication containing news, other informative articles. Most

newspapers now publish online as well as in print. The online versions are called online
newspapers, or news sites. General-interest newspapers typically publish news articles
and feature articles on national and international news as well as local news. A wide
variety of material is published in newspapers. Most modern newspapers are in one of
three sizes:

 Broadsheets: 600 mm × 380 mm (23½ × 15 inches), generally associated with

more international newspapers, although a trend towards "compact" newspapers
is changing this.
 Tabloids: half the size of broadsheets at 380 mm × 300 mm (15 × 11¾ inches),
and often perceived as sensationalist and social in contrast to broadsheets.
 Berliner, or Midi: 470 mm × 315 mm (18½ × 12¼ inches) used by European papers
such as Le Monde in France, and, since 2005,and the Guardian in the United
Kingdom. (See Wikipedia).

The front page of a newspaper has the most important stories of the day. Each story has
its own "headline" and a "by-line" giving the name of the reporter who wrote the story.
Next in importance comes the back page which usually includes light, entertaining news.
The third type is the inside pages which included details of local, national and
international news.

Types of Newspaper:

1. Public press/press: the print media responsible for gathering and publishing news
in the form of newspapers or magazines
2. Rotogravure: printed material (text and pictures) produced by an intaglio printing
process in a rotary press
3. Daily newspaper: a newspaper that is published every day
4. gazette: a newspaper or official journal
5. school newspaper/paper: a newspaper written and published by students in a
school
6. tabloid/rag/sheet: newspaper with half-size pages
7. An electronic newspaper is a self-contained, reusable, and refreshable version of
a traditional newspaper that acquires and holds information electronically.
(WhatIs.com). The electronic newspaper should not be confused with
newspapers that offer an online version at a Web site.) The near-future
technology will use e-paper (electronic paper) as the major component.
(Spiceworks)

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A newspaper is a publication intended for a broad audience that appears regularly, often
daily, and claims to contain factual accounts of recent events. Usually newspapers are
published with the intention of making a profit. Frequently, their factual content is
accompanied by advertisements and nonfactual material intended as entertainment.

Newspapers are written in haste and often contain inadvertent factual errors, large and
small. Moreover, a newspaper’s “factual” content is determined by its point of view, or
bias. This point of view is shaped by the political positions taken by editors and publishers,
and, sometimes, shaped by the newspaper’s commercial relationship with advertisers. It is
also shaped by a newspaper’s location. (Newspapers.com)

Newspaper basic terminology includes terms like: editorial, newspaper column (an article
giving opinions or perspectives), feature article/feature (a special or prominent article in a
newspaper or magazine) news article, news story, newspaper article (an article reporting
news), headline, newspaper headline (the heading or caption of a newspaper article),
sports section (the section of a newspaper that reports on sports), news item (an item in a
newspaper), cartoon strip, comic strip, funnies, strip (a sequence of drawings telling a
story in a newspaper), etc.

5.1 The Language of the Newspaper

The Language of the Newspaper (also press / journalism) is one of the main varieties of
English and, to some extent, Arabic. Although newspaper subsumes a wide range of
varieties and sub-varieties, representing different types of text (political, economic, social,
technological, sports, art, history, law, religion, etc.), it has certain characteristics of
language and style that qualify it to be an independent variety of language. These
characteristics will be pointed out below. In terms of style, both British and American
newspapers are two types: (1) Popular Newspaper, and (2) Quality Newspaper. This
division marks a major difference between Arabic and English newspaper, for Arabic has
only one formal standard type of newspaper, with traces of informality here and there.
Colloquial newspaper is not common in Arab Countries.

As to the first type, Popular Newspapers represent the informal type of English
newspapers. They were usually described as tabloids in reference to their shape, which is
small and nearly square. However, this term no longer holds these days as many quality
newspapers (like The Guardian, The Daily Telegraph, USA Today, etc.) are published with a
tabloid shape. Further, with the spread of Online Newspapers, ‘tabloids’ may have
stopped to describe ‘popular newspapers’ only. They are described as popular because
they are mainly about social events and less serious news, which is perhaps why they are
nicknamed ‘light newspapers’. Secondly, their entire concentration is on the people’s
interests and curiosities. Hence, they are labelled as leisure and pleasure newspapers.
That is why the term ‘journalese’ (or the bad style of journalism, with reference to topics
and style) is used derogatorily to insinuate their bad, poor, low and, sometimes, indecent
style for their use of any means –respectful or not – to lure the readers to buy them (see
Crystal and Davy, 1969: 172). To achieve this purpose, they make many concessions to
readers to persuade, satisfy and drag them into trivialities and sensualities, perhaps to
divert them from central serious issues of the nation and the world. That is partly true
186
because of the indecent pages of some of them (e.g. the third page of The Sun and The
Daily Star), which earned them two further nicknames as the Third-page newspapers’, and
‘Cheap newspapers’. The third reason for calling them popular is probably because they
sell better than quality newspapers (The Sun, for example, is described by some as the
best selling newspaper in Britain) (see ibid.: ch. 7; Freeborn et al, 1986: ch. 9 and Ghazala,
1994/99: chs. 2&3).

Quality Newspapers, on the other hand, are the formal type of English Press. They are
described as such for they are serious, formal, respectable and decent in terms of
language and style. They are forwarded to, and pay due respect for serious readers and
tackle serious events at the national and international levels.

Despite the several differences between them, both types can be regarded as sub-
varieties of one major variety of the Language of the Newspaper. Following are the main
features and functions of the style of each type that mark the similarities and
dissimilarities between them. The ultimate objective of that is to put it in the service of
the translation into the target language later on in this chapter when sample texts are
picked up as representative of NEWSPAPER PASSAGES AS GENERAL TEXTS IN THE SENSE
THAT THEY ARE NON-SPECIALIST, NON-TECHNICAL AND COMMON TO READERS OF ALL
TYPES. It is the case that the wording of headlines, in particular, and articles in general are
affected by the ideas to be expressed; the technology of printing and the type of readers
associated with a particular article. Indeed, the stylistic choices of mainly vocabulary and
grammatical structures made by journalists would determine our understanding of an
event which is reported as a piece of news in a newspaper (Freeborn et al, 1986: 64. See
also Carter & Nash, 1990: ch. 3)).

5.2 Stylistic features and functions of the language of the Newspaper

There are certain features that distinguish the style of the language of the two major types
of newspaper. Some of these stylistic features are similar, some are different. All these
features have functions that stand for reasons and implications for them. That is the
reason behind our interest in them in translation. Following are the main stylistic features
and functions of the two types of English newspaper, starting with those of Popular
Newspapers.

Stylistic features of Popular Newspaper Stylistic functions

I. Layout
1. Headlines: versatile and vital
especially those of front and
back pages.
2. Paragraphing: paragraphs are
short, haphazard and not well-
organized.
3. Punctuation: frequent use of:
a. The question mark
187
I. Layout
1. To attract attention and
emphasise the significance of
headlines.
2. To accentuate all information,
help readers scan, and indicate
informality of style.
3. Punctuation
a. To get readers engaged in
communication with what
they read.
 b. The exclamation mark b. To imply irony or surprise.
c. Dashes, brackets and c. To assert important
quotation marks information.
d. The comma which is used d. To avoid interruptions of
haphazardly. reading and facilitate
skimming.
4. Chromatics, photography and 4. To make the newspaper look
typography. more attractive, interesting and
picturesque to readers, and to
fascinate readers and highlight
something important.
II. Grammar II. Grammar
1. Sentences: 1. Sentences:
a. Simple a. To make reading task
simples and encourage
skimming.
b. Sometimes ungrammatical b. To reflect informality of
style.
c. Declarative type is c. To report news to readers
dominant. more fluently.
d. Rhetorical questions d. To involve as much as
communicate readers.
2. Clauses: 2. Clauses:
a. Usually simple a. To add to simplification and
easiness of language.
b. Occasionally complicated. b. To interest and please
readers.
3. Noun phrase: 3. Noun phrase
a. Premodification is more a. To be concise, indicate
frequent than unusual use of informal
postmodification. language and highlight
something important.
4. Verb phrase: 4. Verb phrase:
a. The absence of main verb a. To save space and assert
informal style.
b. The use of simple present b. To save space especially in
headlines.
c. The use of to-infinitive c. To save space and reflect
d. The frequent use of active. informality.
d. To reflect openness and
subjectivity of style.
e. The occasional use of e. To avoid mentioning
passive. insignificant doer of action.
f. Subject-verb inversion is f. To demonstrate deviation
exploited. from normal English, and
g. reflect literary style.
5. Adjectival phrase 5. To provide detailed and precise
Adjectives of all types, including description, show exaggeration
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 intensifiers and outlandish and please readers.
adjectives, are recurrent. 6. For more accuracy of reference
6. Adverbial phrase and specification of events and
Adverbs of all types are news.
frequent.
III. VOCABULARY III. VOCABULARY
1. Word formation: 1. Word formation:
a. Unusual compounds a. To interest readers.
b. New words b. To demonstrate inventive-
ness to please readers and
contribute to everyday
English.
2. Colloquialisms: contractions, 2. To achieve intimacy and better
colloquial words and phrasal communication with readers,
verbs are common place. and indicate informal style.
3. Characteristic vocabulary: 3. To save space, and affect English
informal, short forms of words. lexicon.
4. Rhetorical figures: metaphors, 4. To criticise, undermine,
similes, puns, personification exaggerate, make fun of,
and irony are quite common. respect, despise, etc., to beautify
language and style, and to
entertain readers.
5. Emphatic vocabulary: words of 5. To give the impression of
exaggeration, intensifiers and certainty, assertiveness and
words of emphasis and credibility of news, which in turn
obligation are recurrent. creates a kind of trust that may
convince the audience to
purchase and read the
newspaper.
6. Biased vocabulary: dominant. 6. To report the news with an
explicit, straightforward stance.
7. Core vocabulary: preferred to 7. To be short, simple, direct and
non-core vocabulary. familiar.
8. Acronyms and abbreviations: 8. For brevity and saving space.
used widely.
IV. Phonology IV. Phonology
Features of alliteration, To add more zest and aesthetic
rhythmical language, rhyme, flavour to language to please
assonance and consonance are and attract readers.
used.

Quality Newspaper:

Stylistic features of Quality Newspaper Stylistic functions

I. Layout 1. To attract attention, give the
1. Headlines: versatile and vital essence of the news, and imply a
especially those of front and variation of the emphasis of

189
 back pages. news.
2. Paragraphing: paragraphs are 2. To reflect seriousness of news,
generally well-organized and formality of style and
relatively long. precedence of details over
considerations of fluent
communication with readers.
3. Punctuation: used formally, 3. Punctuation
normally and unmarkedly To reflect the formality of
style, avoid frequent
interruptions of reading and
help readers concentrate
better on the topic.
4. Chromatics, photography and 4. To catch the readers’ eyes,
typography. satisfy them, assert and relate
fiction to facts.
II. Grammar II. Grammar
1. Sentences: usually complex and 1. Sentences:
sometimes complicated long. To give a great deal of
information, keep the tempo of
reading flowing and
concentrated, and stress
formality.
2. Clauses: complex and at times 2. Clauses: (the same functions of
complicated. sentences).
3. Noun phrase: formal and 3. Noun phrase
complex.
a. Postmodification is more a. To reflect normality of
frequent than premodifica- language, logical sequence
tion. of events, and formality of
style.
b. Coordination is remarkable. b. To supply details with
minimum interruptions
c. The ‘of-genitive’ is quite c. To keep things flowing
recurrent. smoothly and normally, and
assert the preference of
postmodification to pre-
modification.
4. Verb phrase: 4. Verb phrase:
a. The use of simple present a. To save space and be
concise.
b. The use of to-infinitive b. To save space, especially in
headlines.
c. The frequent use of perfect c. To indicate formality.
tense.
d. Passive is more prominent d. To reflect the insignificance
than active. of the doers of the action,
objectivity and formality.
5. Adjectival phrase 5. To provide full and precise
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 Formal adjectives of all types are description of things, people and
employed, attributive, predica- events.
tive, postpositive, nominal,
double attributive and
attributive nominal adjectives.
6. Adverbial phrase 6. To accomplish precision and
Adverbs of all types are used formality.
normally and formally in their
proper places.
7. Frequent, especially probability
modals.

III. VOCABULARY III. VOCABULARY

1. Word formation: 1. Word formation: to assert
Formal and traditional, save the formality and traditionality
overuse of nouns as adjectives. of style and language.
2. Colloquialisms: quite rare apart 2. To ensure the formal nature
from phrasal verbs which are of quality newspaper.
formalized in English now.
3. Characteristic vocabulary: use 3. To avoid informality of style.
occasionally, especially informal
words.
4. Rhetorical figures: used formally 4. To interest readers, make
and subliminally. style more appealing and
language less boring and
reflect formality and
sublimity of style.
5. Emphatic vocabulary: used only 5. To assert formality of style
when necessary. of quality newspaper.

6. Unbiased vocabulary: dominant. 6. To have a claim for

objectivity and make events
7. Core vocabulary: not insisted and fiction look like facts.
upon. 7. To reflect precision, highly
educated style and
formality.
8. Acronyms and abbreviations: 8. To save space and show
used widely. commitment to formality
and tradition.
IV. Phonology IV. Phonology
Sound features of different kinds To reflect occasional interest in
are infrequent. pleasing readers, which in turn
reflects the seriousness of
quality newspapers and
determination not to make
concessions to readers.

191
These features and functions of the style of journalism can be described as guidelines for
the translator who may find some of them useful at translating newspaper texts of general
nature. Although the general trend of newspaper articles can be political in the first
instance, in practice, they are not exactly so for they are not forwarded to specialists, nor
do they use many technical political terms. Rather, they are directed to the general public
who might be low or highly educated, which means that they mainly use non-technical,
non-complicated and fairly simplified language and style, with few exceptions of course. A
familiar example would be the daily news bulletins which are targeted at the people at
large who can follow most of the items of news comfortably.

Next is an anthology of journalistic texts of different topics, styles, purposes, sources and
from the two main types of newspaper, Quality and Popular. They are translated into the
other language, followed, as usual, by a discussion of the translation in terms of purpose,
type of TL readership, translation problems and translation strategies.

5.3 Political Texts

Political articles are dominant in newspapers of either type, quality and popular. Yet, they
are not written in a specialized language, nor are they meant to specialists and politicians
only, but to readers at large of different educational levels. Therefore, they are treated as
general texts in most cases. Here is an example, followed, as usual, by translation into
Arabic, and discussion of the translation in terms of purpose, type of target readership,
translation problems and translation strategies:

King Salman of Saudi Arabia Names Mohammed bin Nayef Next in Line of Succession

Saudi Arabia shakeup as much about retrenchment as reform

(The GUARDIAN APRIL 29, 2015)

King appoints nephew Mohammed bin Nayef as crown prince and heir to the kingdom.

Saudi Arabia’s interior minister, Mohammed bin Nayef, has been designated as the
kingdom’s crown prince.

Saudi Arabia’s real-life game of thrones has taken a dramatic turn with the surprise
designation of Mohammed bin Nayef, its formidable interior minister and counter-
terrorism chief, as the crown prince and heir to the kingdom.

Despite hopes of a new beginning following King Salman’s accession in January, this latest
shakeup, announced on Wednesday, is as much about retrenchment as reform as Riyadh’s
royals confront potentially existential changes.

The promotion of the king’s son, Prince Mohammed Bin Salman, 35, to the position of
deputy crown prince – or second-in-line to the throne – looks in part like a reward for his
recent work as defence minister overseeing the Saudi-led coalition’s controversial military

192
campaign against Iranian-backed Houthi rebels in Yemen. Both Mohammed and Bin Nayef,
the king’s nephew, are grandsons of the kingdom’s founder monarch, Abdulaziz Ibn Saud.

... By dismissing his half-brother and Abdulaziz’s youngest son, Prince Muqrin, 69, as
crown prince, Salman has performed the equivalent, in British terms, of defenestrating
Prince Charles and installing Prince William as the Prince of Wales.

At the age of 79, King Salman may not expect his reign to be lengthy – which is one reason
for imposing his will and establishing a clear, undisputed succession early on. The changes
mark the first time that power has passed beyond the control of the numerous sons of
Abdulaziz, who died in 1953. However, as when he launched a less extensive reshuffle in
January, Salman’s royal decree stressed continuity “on the basis of service to faith, the
nation and the people”. This was a sop to Saudi Arabia’s powerful religious establishment,
the self-appointed guardians of the status quo and the Sunni Muslim tradition.

55-year-old Bin Nayef’s elevation is likely to be welcomed in conservative and

establishment circles at home and abroad. Well regarded internationally as a pragmatic,
professional politician, he is seen by the US administration and other western governments
as a reliable ally. Bin Nayef will continue as the interior minister in charge of Saudi Arabia’s
200,000-strong security forces. Not coincidentally, Salman announced on Wednesday a
one-month salary bonus for all military and police personnel.

.‫ إعادة تمركز قوي وحركة إصالح في آن واحد‬:‫تغيير جذري في المممكة العربية السعودية‬

،‫عيف الممؾ السعودي الجديد سمماف بف عبد العزيز ابف أخيو محمد بف نايؼ بف عبد العزيز ولياً لمعيد ووريثاً لمعرش‬
.‫ووزي اًر لمداخمية‬

.‫تـ تعييف وزير الداخمية لممممكة العربية السعودية األمير محمد بف نايؼ ولياً لمعيد‬

‫اتخذت المعبة الحقيقية وراثة العرش منحى دراماتيكياً مع التعييف المفاجئ لؤلمير محمد بف نايؼ وزير الداخمية القوي‬
.‫ورئيس مكافحة اإلرىاب ولياً لمعيد لمعيد ووريثاً لمعرش‬
‫ تعتبر ىذه اليزة العنيفة األخيرة‬،‫برغـ اآلماؿ العريضة لبداية جديدة تبعت اعتبلء الممؾ سمماف العرش في يناير الماضي‬
‫التي أعمف عنيا األربعاء الفائت بمثابة إعادة تمركز قوي بقدر ما ىي خطوة إصبلحية في وقت تواجو األسرة المالكة في‬
.‫الرياض تغييرات وجودية محتممة‬

‫ويبدو أف ترقية األمير محمد بف سمماف صاحب الخامسة والثبلثيف سنة ولي ًا لولي العيد بمثابة مكافأة لو عمى أدائو‬
‫المتميز مؤخ اًر كوزير دفاع قاد التحالؼ العربي في حممتو العسكرية [عاصفة الحزـ] المثيرة لمجدؿ[؟] ضد المتمرديف‬

193
‫ ىذا ويعتبر محمد بف سمماف ومحمد بف نايؼ مف أحفاد مؤسس المممكة عبد‬.‫الحوثييف المدعوميف مف إيراف في اليمف‬
.‫العزيز آؿ سعود‬

‫ قاـ‬،‫ كولي لمعيد‬،‫ وىو أصغر أبناء األب المؤسس عبد العزيز‬،)‫ سنة‬69( ‫ األمير مقرف‬،‫ وبإبعاد أخيو غير الشقيؽ‬...
.‫الممؾ سمماف بخطوة موازية لممكة بريطانيا بإزاحة األمير تشارلز أمي اًر لويمز وتعييف نجمو األمير ويميامز في منصبو‬

‫لعؿ الممؾ سمماف وىو في سف التاسعة والسبعيف مف عمره ال يتوقع أف يدوـ حكمو طويبلً – وىذا مف أسباب فرض‬
‫ كما تدؿ ىذه التغييرات وألوؿ مرة أف‬.‫إرادتو وتوطيد دعائـ خبلفة لمعرش واضحة وغير قابمة لمجدؿ في وقت مبكر‬
‫ لكف األمر السامي الذي‬.)1953 ‫السمطة ما عادت تحت سيطرة أبناء الممؾ عبد العزيز الكثر (والمتوفى في عاـ‬
‫أصدره الممؾ سمماف بإجراء تعديؿ وزاري شبو شامؿ في يناير الماضي أكد عمى استمرار "خدمة الديف الحنيؼ واألمة‬
‫ وىي التي جعمت نفسيا الحارس‬،‫ كاف ذلؾ استرضاء لممؤسسة الدينية القوية في المممكة العربية السعودية‬."‫والشعب‬
.‫ والسمفية السنية في اإلسبلـ‬،‫األميف عمى الوضع الراىف‬

‫ وبما أنو يتمتع بشيرة دولية كسياسي‬.ً‫يتوقع أف يرحب باألمير محمد بف نايؼ الدوائر المحافظة والرسمية داخمياً وخارجيا‬
‫ ىذا وسوؼ يستمر األمير بف نايؼ‬.‫ ترى فيو اإلدارة األمريكية والحكومات الغربية حميفاً جدي اًر بالثقة‬،‫براجماتي محترؼ‬
‫ ولـ يكف مستغرباً أف يعمف الممؾ سمماف عف صرؼ راتب‬.‫ مف قوى األمف القوية‬200000 ‫كوزير لمداخمية وتحت إمرتو‬
.‫شير إضافي لكؿ المنتسبيف لمقوات العسكرية واألمنية‬

5.3.1 Purpose of the Translation

The purpose of translating this political text is multiple: (i) to demonstrate to readers the
facts about the new Saudi leadership and latest changes by King Salman Bin Abdul Aziz; (ii)
to express the paper’s pro-point of view of about that between the lines; and (iii) to
persuade readers of that view by claiming to have provided hard evidence, however, from
a western standpoint. As is usually the case, the Guardian sends a commending message
through some hints and insinuations that its readers are expected to conclude. For
example, the article treats the top three figures, King Salman, Prince Mohammad bin
Nayef and Mohammad Bin Salman with due respect, with special appreciation for King
Salman’s pioneering changes, and the newly appointed Crown Prince as the strongest man
in the country who has wide reputation in the West as a pragmatic politician. However, it
criticizes the Religious Establishment’s continuous role and control in the country,
however by implication. Further, it criticizes the ‘Determination Storm” by insinuation,
using ‘controversial’, and not mentioning the name of the battle. However, it backs
strongly and clearly the Saudi military campaign against the Houthis by declaring the
double fact about “the Iranian-backed Houthi rebels” (i.e. Iran backs the Houthis, and the
Houthis are rebels )‫(متمردون‬. All this is put in the service of the purpose of the source text
to be taken into account by the translator who has to clarify one or two missing things for
the target readers who need some insinuations about the purpose to be made clear to
them.

194
5.3.2 Type of TL Readership

The type of Arab readership to which the translation of this text is directed would be
educated readers who are interested in political news and events. However, the general
public cannot be written off for many common readers have special interest in the new
developments in their country in particular, and in any Arab country in general, especially
when the newspaper is trusted by them. This means that the translator has to be as
simple, clear and non-technical as possible in language and style, and, at the same time,
respectful to readers, without changing or dropping the negative points, or amplifying the
good points about the politicians concerned. This is by the way an essential feature of the
translator’s ethics of honesty and faithfulness (see also Ghazala, 2014).

5.3.3 Translation Problems

The first translation problem is the translation of proper names. The names of the figures
mentioned in the source text are translated in full, regardless of whether the original
writes them in full or not. This is done for two reasons: to make them clear to all types of
readers of different nationalities; and to treat them with respect. A part of the problem
here is cultural for, in English culture, the surname is enough to state when the same
name is repeated, whereas in Arabic culture, the title and the full, or first name are
repeated as well for considerations of respect – and not hypocrisy. On the other hand, the
original misunderstands ‘bin Nayef’ as the surname of prince ‘Mohammad bin Nayef. So a
correction is due here.

The second problem of translation is that of the cliché’ metaphor, ‘game’ which is
translated literally into ‫ لعبة‬to reproduce the same kind of metaphor, which is at the end, a
calque borrowed from the English political idiom. It could be neutral in English, but in
Arabic, it might be a bit negative for it turns a very serious subject of accessing the throne
into a game, which might be justified politically only.

Similar to ‘game’ is the translation of the negative word ‘dismiss’ into a less aggressive
equivalent ‫ ُيبعد‬rather than into the aggressive ‫ يفصؿ‬/‫يتخمص مف‬/‫يطرد‬, which is not the case,
anyway as Prince Muqrin asked for retirement from the position of ‘Crown Prince’. The
same can be said of the translation of ‘self-appointed’ into a less pejorative term as ‫جعمت‬
‫نفسيا‬, rather than into the pejorative ‫عينت نفسيا‬/‫بت‬
ّ ‫نص‬.
ّ In a similar way, ‘military campaign’
is translated into its direct Arabic adopted equivalent ‫ حممة عسكرية‬followed by its name as
‫( عاصفة الحزـ‬Determination Storm), which is dropped by the original as a negative sign
indicated by describing it later as ‘controversial’ )‫(مثيرة لمجدؿ‬, i.e., there is no consensus
about it as some (enemies of the Kingdom) describe it as ‘aggression’. On the other hand,
‘rebels’ is translated appropriately and directly into its intended negative sense of ‫متمردوف‬
rather than into the positive ‫ ثوار‬which is out of context due to the term qualifying it,
‘Iranian-backed’. Finally, ‘not coincidently’ is translated into the positive ً‫ليس مستغربا‬, and

195
not into the insinuative ‫مف قبيؿ المصادفة‬/‫ ليس مصادفة‬which implies that the one-month bonus
salary might be a kind of bribe.
A further problem is posed by the term ‘retrenchment’ which is normally translated into
the technical military term ‫إعادة خندقة‬/‫ خندقة‬in this context, but it is overtranslated non-
technically into ‫ إعادة تمركز قوي‬to become clearer.
‘Military personnel’ can be translated into several equally accepted translations (e.g. ‫(أفراد‬
)‫القوات المسمحة؛ السمؾ العسكري؛ قوى األمف؛ العسكر؛ منسوبو القوى العسكرية واألمنية‬/‫قوى األمف‬. The last
version is preferred here due to its formal use and general reference to all those
employed in the military and security forces.

Finally, quotations from political speeches or statements have to be checked by the

translator in their Arabic original version to be translated literally, as is the case with “on
the basis of service to faith, the nation and the people” which is translated exactly into its
Arabic original "‫"خدمة الديف الحنيؼ واألمة والشعب‬, as stated by King Salman’s royal decree
concerned.

5.3.4 Translation Strategies

(1) Back transliteration (i.e. of Arab names into their Arabic origin: Salman ‫سمماف‬,
etc.)
(2) Transliteration of foreign names (e.g. Charles → ‫تشارلز‬, etc.)
(3) Back naturalization into Arabic origin (e.g. countries into their full Arabic
origin: Saudi Arabia → ‫المممكة العربية السعودية‬, rather than just ‫;(العربية السعودية‬
Houthi/Houthis → ‫)حوثيوف‬
(4) Overtranslation (e.g. King Salman →‫الممؾ سمماف بف عبد العزيز‬, not only into ‫الممؾ‬
‫ ;)سمماف‬retrenchment →‫( إعادة تمركز قوي‬c.f. ‫تمركز‬/‫تخندؽ‬/‫خندقة‬, etc.))
(5) Paraphrase: (e.g. ‘military campaign → ]‫)الحممة العسكرية [عاصفة الحزـ‬
(6) Back literal translation into the Arabic original (e.g. the quotation from King
Salman’s royal decree. See above).
(7) Euphemization (e.g. dismiss → ‫( يبعد‬replacing harsher words like ‫يفصؿ‬/‫;)يطرد‬
self-appointed → ‫( جعمت نفسيا‬not the negative ‫;نصبت نفسيا‬
ّ not coincidently →
ً‫( ليس مستغربا‬instead of the insinuative ‫ ;)ليس مصادفة‬etc.
(8) Naturalization (e.g. pragmatic → ‫)براجماتي‬
(9) Naturalization (in preference to translation) (e.g. dramatic → ‫ دراماتيكي‬which is
more impressive than the Arabic term ‫ ;)مذىؿ‬etc.

5.4 Social Texts

Monday, April 20
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196
Quarter of Britons will be from an ethnic minority within decades

(Reuters: Richard Ford, April 20 2015)

The ethnic minority population will be more than double by 2051 due to a baby boom
among people of Pakistani, Bangladeshi and African origin, according to detailed
projections for a government-sponsored study.
Almost one in four Britons (24 per cent) will be from black and minority ethnic groups, the
research says.
The projected surge in the non-white population will be driven by fertility rates among the
UK’s youthful ethnic-minority communities and points to a much more diverse nation.

Researchers estimate that the overall UK population will rise from 63.4 million in 2011 to
77.4 million in 2051 over the next three and a half decades. ... While the white population
is expected to increase marginally by 3.3 million to reach 58.6 million, the ethnic minority
population is predicted to more than double to 18.7 million in total. ...Philip Rees, emeritus
professor of population geography at Leeds University told the Times: “Even if you shut
the borders — which is impossible under international law — the minority ethnic groups,
with the possible exception of the Chinese, would continue to grow because of their age
structures ... Britain’s ethnic minority populations tend to be younger than the British
average: the median age for white Britons is 38; for those of Bangladeshi origin it is 22, for
those of Pakistani origin it is 24; for Black Africans it is 25, and for Indians, 30. Only Black
Caribbeans approach the white British median, with an average age of 37.

197
‫‪... Alp Mehmet, vice-chairman of Migration Watch UK, which campaigns for lower‬‬
‫‪immigration, said: “All such projections are uncertain but they do underline the huge‬‬
‫”‪impact of mass immigration on our society.‬‬

‫ُيخشى أن يكون ربع البريطانيين من األقميات العرقية في العقود القادمة في بريطانيا‬

‫سوؼ يتضاعؼ عدد سكاف األقميات العرقية الممونة والسوداء في بريطانيا إلى الضعؼ بحموؿ عاـ ‪ 2051‬نظ اًر لبلرتفاع‬
‫اليائؿ في نسبة الوالدات بيف الباكستانييف والبنغالييف واألفارقة المعروفيف بكثرة والداتيـ‪ ،‬حسب ما أوردتو تكينات دراسة‬
‫تدعميا الحكومة‪.‬‬

‫تقريباً سيكوف واحد مف بيف كؿ أربعة (أي ‪ 24‬بالمئة) مف البريطانييف مف أصوؿ سوداء أو أقميات عرقية آسيوية‬
‫باكستانية وىندية وبنغالية بشكؿ خاص‪ ،‬كما يقوؿ البحث‪.‬‬

‫الجيشاف العرقي المفاجئ المتوقع ارتفاع نسب الوالدات بيف األقميات العرقية البريطانية الشابة ‪...‬‬
‫وسوؼ يحرؾ ىذا َ‬
‫عمى مدى خمس وثبلثيف سنة قادمة‪ ... .‬فبينما يتوقع أف يزيد السكاف البيض زيادة ىامشية قدرىا ‪ 3.3‬مميوف لتصؿ‬
‫إلى ‪ 58.6‬مميوف‪ُ ،‬يتوقع أف يزيد عدد سكاف األقميات العرقية بنسبة أكثر مف الضعؼ لتصؿ في مجمميا إلى ‪18.7‬‬
‫مميوف‪ ... .‬وصرح البروفسور فيميب ِريس المتخصص في الجغرافية السكانية مف جامعة ليدز في بريطانيا‪ ،‬لصحيفة‬
‫التايمز بقولو‪ :‬حتى لو أغمقت الحدود في وجو السود والممونيف مف اآلسيوييف – وىذا مستحيؿ في القانوف الدولي – فإف‬
‫مجموعات األقميات العرقية‪ ،‬باستثناء الصينييف‪ ،‬سوؼ تستمر في النمو السكاني بسبب تركيباتيا العمرية‪ ... .‬فالسكاف‬
‫مف األقميات العرقية في بريطانيا أصغر نسبياً مف البريطانييف‪ :‬إذ يبمغ متوسط أعمار البريطانييف البيض ‪ 38‬عاماً‪ ،‬لكنو‬
‫‪ 22‬عاماً لمبنغاؿ‪ ،‬و‪ 24‬لمباكستانييف‪ ،‬و‪ 25‬لؤلفارقة السود‪ ،‬و‪ 30‬لمينود‪ .‬سكاف البحر الكاريبي السود ىـ وحدىـ الذيف‬
‫يقتربوف مف البريطانييف بمعدؿ قدره ‪ 37‬عاماً‪.‬‬

‫‪ ...‬قاؿ السيد ألب ُمياميت‪ ،‬نائب رئيس ىيئة اليجرة البريطانية التي تطمؽ حمبلت لمتقميؿ مف اليجرة‪" :‬كؿ ىذه‬
‫التكينات غير مؤكدة لكنيا تبرز المخاطر اليائمة لميجرة عمى مجتمعنا"‪.‬‬

‫‪5.4.1 Purpose of the Translation‬‬

‫‪This text is racist by implication. In appearance, it is a demographic text, providing‬‬

‫‪statistics and facts about the British population in percentages. Well, this is on the face of‬‬
‫‪it, but the fact is that the article has sinister and provocative implications of discrimination‬‬
‫‪and racism against the British minor communities of Asian and Black African origins in‬‬
‫‪particular. This gives us a good idea about the non-innocent unpronounced purpose of the‬‬
‫‪source text, which has to be made explicit by the translator into the target language in‬‬
‫‪several ways in the translation. The original tries hard to ‘camouflage’, as it were, its real‬‬
‫‪undercover purpose by claiming to give evidence for facts through statistics based on an‬‬
‫‪academic study of a sort.‬‬

‫‪198‬‬
5.4.2 Type of TL Readership

The Arab readership is supposed to be educated, mainly highly or middle-class, who are
interested in such serious topics and have a general background about minorities in the
UK and the discrimination practiced against them by the white Britons, however indirectly.
The language of the translation is recommended to be MSA that may make all points of
the original fairly clear. Low educated readers and the general public may have occasional
interest in such a source text, yet the language and style of the translation would be
preferably non-technical and simplified as much as possible.

5.4.3 Translation Problems

Perhaps the key translation problem of this text is to understand its implications that are
crucially important to the target readers. Although the translator may turn deaf ears to
these implications and translate the text directly and superficially, leaving inferences and
conclusions to readers, inserting hints and insinuations explicitly to reflect the pejorative
and provocative tone of the source text can be a good idea, with the aim to make the
covert message overt to Arab readers. In other words, pragmatic and free translation
methods can be adopted here due to the seriousness of the implications of the original
text. This has been done in application in the translation suggested above through the
following:

 Translating the heading of the article “Quarter of Britons will be from an ethnic
minority within decades” both directly and pragmatically into: ‫ُيخشى أف يكوف ربع‬
‫البريطانييف مف األقميات العرقية في العقود القادمة في بريطانيا‬, with ‫ ُيخشى‬added to express the
fears of the newspaper implied in the statement.
 “The ethnic minority population” is overtranslated into ‫سكاف األقميات العرقية الممونة‬
‫والسوداء‬, with the extra words ‫ الممونة والسوداء‬being concluded from the implications
of the context of the source text.
 Translating “due to a baby boom among people of Pakistani, Bangladeshi and
African origin” into ‫نظ اًر لبلرتفاع اليائؿ في نسبة الوالدات بيف الباكستانييف والبنغالييف واألفارقة‬
‫ المعروفيف بكثرة والداتيـ‬by implication, with the last pejorative phrase ‫المعروفيف بكثرة‬
‫( والداتيـ‬notorious for their high birth rates) brought out to surface.
 The overtranslation of “from black and minority ethnic groups” into more explicit
pragmatic translation as ‫مف أصوؿ سوداء أو أقميات عرقية آسيوية باكستانية وىندية وبنغالية بشكؿ‬
‫خاص‬, where the targeted nationalities are specified for the Chinese, for example,
are not included by the article, as pointed out in it later on.
 “The projected surge” is translated into ‫ يحرؾ ىذا الجيشاف العرقي المفاجئ‬stating in
clear terms the pejorative type of surge meant exactly here.
 Translating “Even if you shut the borders” pragmatically into ‫في وجو السود والممونيف‬
‫ مف اآلسيوييف‬as those are the people intended by the Professor quoted in the
source text.

199
  Translating ‘projections’ into ‫تكينات‬, which implies unreliable predictions, in
preference to ‫ إسقاطات‬which implies more reliability and authenticity in Arabic. In
the same way, ‘impact’ is not translated normally into ‫تأثير‬, but into ‫ مخاطر‬by
implication.
 The two key terms ‘black’ and ‘white’ are translated literally and bluntly into their
Arabic equivalents: ‫ سود‬and ‫ بيض‬to maintain the sharp contrast between them in
the SL text. Hence, ‘black Africans’ as translated literally into ‫ األفارقة السود‬without
euphemizing it into ‫األفارقة السمر‬, as we usually do with the translation of ‘Black
Africa” (‫)القارة السمراء‬.
 “Mehmet” as transliterated into Arabic as ‫ ماىميت‬on purpose to imply that it is not
‘Mohammad’, for the former is used by some Non-Muslims pejoratively to refer
to the Messenger of God, Mohammad, peace be to him. So, the two names do
not translate each other. There are doubts that the newspaper used ‘Mehmet’ to
imply this negative meaning.

Otherwise, the source text’s lexicon is not hard to handle comfortably by a good
translator. Yet, from time to time, a classifier is borrowed from outside the text to
illustrate terms that may not be clear to the target readers. Examples include the
translation of “The Times” into ‫ ; صحيفة التايمز‬Leeds University into ‫جامعة ليدز في بريطانيا‬

5.4.4 Translation Strategies

(1) Transliteration (e.g. names of people, places, countries, nationalities, etc.: Leeds
‫ ;ليدز‬Philip Rees → ‫ ;فيميب ريس‬Mahmet → ‫ماىميت‬, Pakistan → ‫باكستاف‬, etc.)
(2) Naturalization (e.g. names of countries, nationalities, etc.: Britain →‫;بريطانيا‬
Britons → ‫ ;بريطانيوف‬Pakistani →‫ ;الباكستانيوف‬Chines →‫ ;الصينيوف‬Caribbeans ‫الكاريبيوف‬,
etc.)
(3) Overtranslation (e.g. three and a half decades → ‫ ;عمى مدى خمس وثبلثيف سنة قادمة‬the
professor ... told the Times →‫“ ;صرح البروفسور لصحيفة التايمز بقولو‬The ethnic minority
population” → ‫ ;سكاف األقميات العرقية الممونة والسوداء‬Even if you shut the borders ‫حتى لو‬
‫ أغمقت الحدود في وجو السود والممونيف مف اآلسيوييف‬etc. (see 5.4.3 above)
(4) Classifier (e.g. The Times → ‫ ; صحيفة التايمز‬Leeds University → ‫;جامعة ليدز ببريطانيا‬
projected surge → ‫الجيشاف العرقي المفاجئ‬, etc.)
(5) Pragmatic translation: translation by implication (e.g. see example in 5.4.3
earlier).
(6) Cultural equivalence (e.g. Migration Watch UK → ‫ىيئة اليجرة البريطانية‬, etc.)
(7) Paraphrastic sense (e.g. fertility rates → ‫ارتفاع نسب الوالدات‬, etc.)

200
5.5 Scientific Texts

Could humans hibernate? Scientists claim astronauts will be put into sleep-like state.

"HIBERNATING" astronauts could be sent further into space than mankind has ever
ventured before within a matter of years, claims a scientist who helps run the International
Space Station.
By Jon Austin (The Express (Daily and Sunday) Apr 20, 2015 5

Could astronauts be put into hibernation to get further into space?

Leopold Summerer, also head of the advanced concepts team at the European Space
Agency, said scientists were actively studying how some animal species slow their bodies
down to hibernate to see if it is possible for humans to do the same.
Mr Summerer is convinced that it could be possible to place humans in a sleep-like state
"within our lifetimes" and the science fiction concept of cryogenic sleep could become a
reality.

If possible, it could potentially allow for deep space travel – something which has so far
eluded all space programmes on Earth.

Researchers are looking at various techniques used by animals to lower their body
temperature before hibernation. Mr Summerer said tests were now underway to see if it is
possible to drop their body temperatures and keep astronauts in a sleep-like state for days
or weeks, without harming them.

He told the Washington Post: “It doesn't mean we will have hibernating astronauts
anytime soon, but we are learning from nature how to understand some of the things that
happen to animals during hibernation, such as preventing bone loss or preventing muscle

201
‫‪loss. This is already something that would be a great benefit for long-distance space‬‬
‫”‪flight.‬‬

‫‪NASA has been investing millions of dollars on the impact of long-term periods spent in‬‬
‫‪space on the human body.‬‬

‫ىل يمكن لبني البشر أن يسبتوا؟ يزعم العمماء أنو يمكن جعل رواد الفضاء في حالة من التنويم الطويل‪.‬‬
‫المسبتيف إلى الفضاء أبعد مما وصؿ إليو البشر مف قبؿ بكثير في غضوف سنوات‪ ،‬كما ذكر‬‫َ‬ ‫يمكف إرساؿ رواد الفضاء‬
‫أحد العمماء الذيف يساعدوف في إدارة المحطة الفضائية الدولية‪.‬‬

‫ىؿ يغط رواد الفضاء في حالة مف اإلسبات ليسيروا في الفضاء إلى مسافات أبعد؟‬

‫قاؿ ليوبولد سامرر‪ ،‬رئيس فريؽ األفكار المبتكرة في وكالة الفضاء األوربية‪ ،‬إف العمماء قد أجروا دراسة متحمسة حوؿ‬
‫بعض أنواع الحيوانات التي ترخي أجساميا لتغط في حالة إسبات ليروا ما إذا كانت العممية ممكنة التطبيؽ عمى البشر‬
‫ليفعموا الشيء نفسو‪.‬‬

‫لدى السيد سامرر قناعة أنو باإلمكاف وضع البشر في حالة مف السبات "وىـ أحياء" وبذلؾ تصبح فكرة مف أفكار الخياؿ‬
‫العممي لمنوـ في درجة ح اررة منخفضة جداً حقيقة واقعة‪.‬‬

‫واذا كانت ىذه الفكرة ممكنة‪ ،‬قد تسمح بسفر طويؿ إلى أعماؽ الفضاء – وىو أمر غاب عف برامج الفضاء عمى‬
‫األرض حتى اآلف‪.‬‬

‫وينظر الباحثوف في الطرؽ المتعددة التي تستخدميا الحيوانات لتخفض ح اررة أجساميا قبؿ اإلسبات‪ .‬وقاؿ السيد سامرر‬
‫إف االختبارات جارية اآلف لمعرفة مدى إمكانية خفض درجة ح اررة رواد الفضاء واإلبقاء عمييـ في حالة شبيية بالنوـ‬
‫ألياـ أو أسابيع‪ ،‬مف دوف إيذائيـ‪.‬‬

‫وصرح لصحيفة الواشنطف بوست بقولو‪" :‬ىذا ال يعني أننا سوؼ ُنسبت رواد الفضاء في وقت قريب‪ ،‬لكننا نتعمـ مف‬
‫الطبيعة كيؼ نفيـ بعض األشياء التي تحدث لمحيوانات أثناء اإلسبات‪ ،‬كمنع فقد العظاـ أو العضبلت‪ .‬وسيكوف في ىذا‬
‫األمر – إف ثبت – فائدة عظيمة لمرحبلت الفضائية الطويمة‪".‬‬
‫ىذا وتستثمر وكالة الفضاء األمريكية ناسا مبلييف الدوالرات في دراسة تأثير قضاء فترات طويمة في الفضاء عمى جسـ‬
‫اإلنساف‪.‬‬

‫‪5.5.1 Purpose of the Translation‬‬

‫‪The main purpose of translating this text is to render the new scientific experiment and‬‬
‫‪concept concerned in as simplified, straightforward, non-technical and convincing‬‬
‫‪language and style as possible. This can be achieved by means of employing several‬‬
‫‪stylistic techniques and translation strategies so that the new technology can be‬‬
‫‪comprehensible and persuasive to TL readers.‬‬
‫‪202‬‬
5.5.2 Type of TL Readership

All types of Arab readers have a special interest in such a new scientific technology for
reasons of curiosity to learn about new explorations and technologies in the world around
them. Further, they like to know about other peoples’ experiences and experiments,
especially western nations for they are the source of advanced technology nowadays. This
makes it necessary for the translator to minimize the technical language to a minimum,
and avoid specialist technical terminology altogether. Several stylistic and linguistic
techniques are used: simplification, explanation, providing details, non-technical words
and phrases, expansion, overtranslation, paraphrases, etc. as illustrated in the next two
points.

5.5.3 Translation Problems

The most demanding problem of translating this text is how to deal with technical
terminology in a general text forwarded to the general public, most of who are non-
specialists. Luckily, the text does not include many technical terms. The most important
and recurrent technical term is ‘hibernation’ which is translated technically into ‫ إسبات‬due
to a special reason related to the Arab readers’ familiarity with the term from the Holy
Koran (see the verse from the Chapter of Al-A’raaf (The Heights) (163): ‫اسأَْليُ ْـ َع ِف اْلقَ ْرَي ِة الَّتِي‬ ْ ‫َو‬
ِ َٰ ِ ِ ِ ِ ِ ِ ِ
‫وىـ‬ َ ‫وف َال تَأْتي ِي ْـ ۚ َك َذل‬
ُ ُ‫ؾ َنْبم‬ َ ُ‫َّعا َوَي ْوَـ َال َي ْسبِت‬
ً‫وف في الس َّْبت إِ ْذ تَأْتي ِي ْـ حيتَ ُانيُ ْـ َي ْوَـ َس ْبت ِي ْـ ُشر‬
َ ‫ت َحاض َرةَ اْلَب ْح ِر إِ ْذ َي ْع ُد‬
ْ ‫َك َان‬
َ ُ‫بِ َما َك ُانوا َي ْف ُسق‬. The two terms, ‫ إسبات‬and ‫ سبت‬meet in the general sense of a state of non-
).‫وف‬
action, stagnation and lethargy, yet the former is used here to mean exactly a state of long
sleep. However, the translator can use a non-technical term like ...‫سبات؛ نوـ طويؿ؛ تنويـ دائـ‬.
Although ‫( تنويـ مغناطيسي‬hypnotism) is used in a specific sense, it can be used in its general
reference to ‘putting to sleep’ on purpose, which is very much like ‘hibernation’.

The second technical term is ‘cryogenic sleep’, which is technically ‫ي‬ ّ ‫النوـ القُّر‬. However,
since it is not familiar to people, it is translated into an explanatory paraphrase as ‫النوـ في‬
ً‫درجة ح اررة منخفضة جدا‬, which is quite clear, though long. The third term, ‘astronauts’ is
translated directly into the well-known term ‫ رواد فضاء‬which was Arabized a long time ago,
and is now a recognized translation of the English word. Also, ‘science fiction’ is not
translated literally into the dumb version of ‫القصص العممي‬, but rather into the familiar
Arabized collocation ‫الخياؿ العممي‬, especially when linked to science fiction films/cartoons.

Other problems of translation include translating the term ‘head of advanced concepts
team’ freely into ‫رئيس فريؽ األفكار المبتكرة‬, not literally into ‫ رئيس فريؽ المفاىيـ المتقدمة‬which does
not sound as acceptable collocation, for, in Arabic, we talk about )‫ متطورة‬/‫ أفكار المبتكرة (جديدة‬,
not about ‫مفاىيـ متقدمة‬. In a similar fashion, ‘actively studying’ is translated into ‫دراسة متحمسة‬,
as )‫فاعمة‬/‫ دراسة نشطة (نشيطة‬does not work in Arabic.

203
On the other hand, the complicated statement, “Leopold Summerer, also head ... said…”
which includes a long interruption that separates the subject from the verb, is translated
more easily and conveniently into normal Arabic structure as‫قاؿ ليوبولد سامرر‬.

As usual, the problems of word combination (i.e. collocation) are always lurking there in
almost any type of translation. For example, ‘be put into hibernation’ cannot be translated
into ‫نوـ‬/‫يضع في إسبات‬, for, in Arabic, we do not say this; we say ‫نوـ‬/‫يغط في إسبات‬. By analogy,
‘deep travel’ cannot be translated into ‫ سفر عميؽ‬because we do not have such
combination; we say ‫( سفر طويؿ‬well, we may say ‫)سفر طويؿ في أعماؽ الفضاء‬. Yet, sometimes,
there might be no one-to-one collocation in the target language, for one word in the
source language can be translated into a collocation in the target language, and vice versa.
For example, ‘astronauts’ is one word in English, whereas, in Arabic, it is a collocation (i.e.
)‫ رجاؿ الفضاء‬/ ‫رواد‬, and cannot be translated into one word only as, say, ‫ فضائيوف‬as the latter
might have different meanings.

Finally, the acronym, NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration) is translated
into its general and familiar translation as ‫ وكالة الفضاء األمريكية ناسا‬rather than formally and
literally as ‫اإلدارة الوطنية لمطيراف والفضاء‬. Even its translation into ‫ ناسا‬is good enough for it is
known to Arab readers.

5.5.4 Translation Strategies

(1) Transliteration (e.g. Proper names and Acronyms: NASA: ‫)ناسا‬

(2) Naturalization(e.g. European → ‫أوربية‬/‫أوربي‬, etc.)
(3) Overtranslation (e.g. cryogenic sleep → ً‫)لمنوـ في درجة ح اررة منخفضة جدا‬
(4) Expansion (of a word into a collocation) (reality →‫حقيقة واقعة‬
(5) Approximation (e.g. hibernation →‫)تنويـ مغناطيسي‬
(6) Translation couplet: Translation + transliteration (e.g. NASA: ‫وكالة الفضاء األمريكية‬
)‫ناسا‬
(7) Modulation: Passive → active (e.g. ‘be put into hibernation’ → ‫)يغط في إسبات‬
(8) Transposition: Adv. → adj. (e.g. underway → ‫ ;جارية‬actively → ‫متحمسة‬, etc.)
(9) Transposition: phrase → n. (e.g. within ... lifetimes → ‫)أحياء‬

204
5.6 Weird Texts

This type of text is not formally recognized. Yet, in newspaper, we can come across it
frequently as one of the main types of articles of a newspaper, especially Popular
Newspaper. Most of the weird texts are about unexpected, amazing or tragic events and
accidents. Here is an example to translate and discuss on the same bases of previous
translation in terms of purpose, TL readership, translation problems and translation
strategies:

Family Pit Bull

Brayden Lamar Wilson, was savaged while he sat in a bouncy chair at home
The parents of a two-month-old baby have been left devastated after their son was
mauled to death by the family's pit bull.
Authorities in Dallas, Texas, say Brayden Lamar Wilson, was savaged while he sat in a
bouncy chair at home.
The baby’s father had gone into the garden to turn off a garden sprinkler when the dog
pounced.
As he came back into the house he was greeted by the sight of his son covered in blood as
the attack continued.
As he tried to stop the attack, the mother walked in and was bitten twice by the animal.
Police say the father eventually managed to grab the dog by the collar dragging it outside
before shooting it dead.
Brayden was taken to the Children's Medical Centre in Dallas, where he was pronounced
dead. … (Mail Online, 20 April 2015)

‫كمب األسرة المفترس‬

‫طفؿ يتعرض ليجوـ وحشي وىو جالس عمى كرسي ىزاز في بيتو‬
.‫الد ي طفؿ عمره شيريف بعد أف تعرض ليجوـ شرس مف كمب األسرة المفترس مما أدى إلى وفاتو‬ َ ‫انيارت أعصاب و‬
‫وذكرت السمطات في والية داالس األمريكية أف برايدف المار ويمسوف قد تعرض ليجوـ وحشي بينما كاف جالساً في‬
.‫كرسيو اليزاز في المنزؿ‬

.‫خرج األب إلى الحديقة ليغمؽ رشاش الماء حيف انقض الكمب عمى الطفؿ‬

.‫وعندما عاد إلى المنزؿ ألقى عميو التحية منظر ابنو مضرجاً بالدماء وىجوـ الكمب ما ازؿ مستم اًر‬

.‫ ودخمت األـ مسرعة إلى المنزؿ فتعرضت لعضتيف مف الكمب‬،‫حاوؿ األب إيقاؼ اليجوـ‬

.‫تقوؿ الشرطة نجح األب أخي اًر باإلمساؾ بالكمب مف طوقو وجره إلى خارج المنزؿ قبؿ أف يقتمو‬
... .‫ال يوجد أي إشارة إلى توجيو أي تيـ ألحد‬

205
5.6.1 Purpose of the Translation

Weird texts serve a means to an end. A weird text like this has the main purpose of
arousing the readers’ curiosity, entertainment and excitement, with a view to surprising,
enjoying, adding to the readers knowledge, and, above all, attracting them to buy the
newspaper concerned. Several linguistic and stylistic techniques of excitement, surprise,
suspense, fun, exaggeration and rhetoric are expected to be employed by the translator to
achieve this purpose, as demonstrated earlier in the translation, and below in the
discussion of translation problems and strategies.

5.6.2 Type of TL Readership

Although many TL readers are interested in such text, the general public can be the most
interested type for reasons of leisure and pleasure. Broadly speaking, people are fond of
queer, weird, odd and abnormal kinds of news and texts which usually take the form of
narrative, a short story or an anecdote that may have a good deal of excitement and
suspense. So readers love to know about them and narrate them to other people as a
source of surprise news, amusement and fun. Perhaps many of those readers start reading
the newspaper with them, especially when they are on the front or back page, the two
most important pages of any newspaper. Weird news used to be on the back page, but,
now, it is assigned special pages in the Online-issue of a newspaper. Hence, the translator
has to construct the Arabic translation in lucid, fluent and simplified style and language
that may respond appropriately to the TL readership’s requirements, purposes and
educational level.

5.6.3 Translation Problems

This text is about a tragedy caused by the family’s own dog which suddenly turned savage
and killed the family’s poor child. Therefore, the choice of words and other stylistic and
linguistic choices should suit the occasion, as it were. The first translation problem is
posited by the term ‘pit bull’, a short form for ‘pit bull terrier’, which is a reference to a
bulldog, a very big dog usually developed for dog-fight. Literally, it is ‫كمب مبارزة؛ كمب معارؾ بيف‬
‫الكبلب‬, but the translation suggested is ‫ كمب مفترس‬which is a translation by implication for a
dog-fight involves ferocity and savageness. Though ‫ متوحش‬is so strong and expressive, ‫مفترس‬
is favored for its yet more accurate, stronger and more expressive sense, for the dog had
nearly devoured the child in reality.

206
Similarly, ‘mauled’ has one more horrible sense of pawing, beating, biting and attacking
ferociously at the same time. So a translation that might subsume all these meanings can
be ‫تعرض ليجوـ شرس‬, where ‫ شرس‬implies all senses of ferocity. Further, it goes well with
‫ مفترس‬in the same sentence. In a similar context, ‘left devastated’ counterbalances the
tragedy, so it is translated into the expressively strong ‫انيارت أعصاب‬. Other options like ‫تفطر‬
...‫ قمب؛ تقطع قمب؛ تمزؽ قمب‬are not bad here too. For the same reason, ‘pounced’ is
translated into ‫ انقض‬instead of the normal ‫ وثب‬to go parallel to the same strongly
expressive tone of the previous options of strong words and terms. “Covered in blood’ is
obviously translated with the same line of expressivity of horrendous tragedy into ‫مضرج‬
‫ بالدماء‬which is definitely stronger than ‫مغطى بالدماء‬.

The surprising and unexpected figurative expression of bitter irony is “he was greeted
by…” which is retained literally as ‫ ألقى عميو التحية‬to give the bitter paradoxical impact
intended in Arabic, to echo the bitterness of the great shock of the father at the sight of
his poor son covered in blood and still is attacked by the savage dog. An equally good
option can be ‫استقبمو‬.

5.6.4 Translation Strategies

(1) Transliteration (of proper names, places, etc.)

(2) General sense (e.g. pit bull → ‫كمب مفترس‬, etc.)
(3) Paraphrastic generalization (e.g. mauled → ‫(تعرض ليجوـ شرس‬
(4) Cultural correspondence (e.g. he was greeted by …‫(ألقى عميو التحية؛ استقبمو‬
(5) Literal translation of Socratic Irony (the irony of fate) (see previous example).
(6) Hyperbolic translation (e.g. pounced → ‫انقض‬, etc. See examples in the previous
subsection)
(7) Popular translation (e.g. bouncy chair ‫( كرسي ىزاز‬c.f. ‫رجاج‬/‫رجوع‬/‫))كرسي مرف‬.
(8) Modulation: Passive → active (e.g. was mauled →‫ تعرض ليجوـ شرس‬he was greeted
by … → ‫ استقبمو‬/ ‫ ;ألقى عميو التحية‬have been left devastated → ‫ ;انيارت أعصاب‬was
bitten twice → ‫)تعرضت لعضتيف‬.

5.7 Humanitarian Texts

These texts are among the most popular and influential in the newspaper industry. They
are about mass human crises like earthquakes, floods, hurricanes Tsunamis, sea disasters
of capsized ships and drowning people, landslides, and so on. These so-called natural
disasters arouse deep sympathy in people with their victims. The sympathy becomes

207
deeper when those victims are victims of another disaster, thus, adding insult to injury, as
it were.

Following is a text about a tragedy that befell miserable Syrian migrants who fled the
destructive war launched by their country’s savage dictator, Bashar Assad, to have their
ship capsized in the Mediterranean, leaving 1000 people dead. The text is followed by
translation into Arabic, to be discussed later from the same perspective of purpose, TL
readership, translation problems and translation strategies:

The woman who survived ... and the child who died: Heartbreaking scenes on Greek
island as rescuers drag drowning migrants from capsized ship after 1,000 die in THREE
tragedies in just 24 hours:

 The pair were passengers on board a wooden migrant boat from when it ran
aground in Rhodes, Greece.
 Three died in the tragedy which is the third in 24 hours across European waters
with up to 1,000 feared dead.
 Yesterday a ship carrying a reported 950 people capsized off Libya when its
passengers rushed to one side.
 Some 300 people who were locked in its hull by callous human smugglers 'died
like rats in a cage' when it sank.
 Italian prosecutors are investigating claims the vessel may have overturned after
colliding with a merchant ship.
Two more boats in distress on Monday afternoon as European leaders call an emergency
summit to handle crisis. (Mail Online 20.4.2015)

A member of the Italian Coast Guard carried a young migrant rescued from the capsized
boat early on Monday in Sicily. (From New York Times, 20.4.2015)

208
‫(أحد خفر السواحؿ اإليطالييف وىو يحمؿ طفمة سورية مياجرة تـ إنقاذىا مف القارب الغرقاف يوـ اإلثنيف في جزيرة‬
)2015.4.20:‫(صحيفة نيويورؾ تايمز‬ .‫صقمية‬

ِّ ُ‫ مشاىد ت‬:‫ والطفل الذي مات‬... ‫قصة المرأة التي نجت‬

‫قطع القمب عمى الجزيرة اليونانية حين كان رجال اإلنقاذ‬
02 ‫ مياجر في ثالث مآسي خالل‬1222 ‫يسحبون المياجرين الغرقى جثثاً ىامدة من السفينة المقموبة بعد موت‬
:‫ساعة فقط‬
‫كاف اثناف مف الركاب عمى متف قارب خشبي لممياجريف حينما ارتطـ باألرض في جزيرة روِدس اليونانية في‬ 
.‫بحر إيجة‬
‫ويخشى أف‬
ُ ،‫ ساعة في المياه األوربية‬24 ‫ وىي الثالثة في غضوف‬،‫مات ثبلثة أشخاص في ىذه المأساة‬ 
.‫ ضحية مف المياجريف‬1000 ‫يكوف عدد الوفيات قد وصؿ‬
‫ مياج اًر قرب الشواطئ الميبية حينما اندفع كؿ ركابيا إلى أحد‬950 ‫يوـ أمس انقمبت سفينة عمى متنيا‬ 
.‫جوانبيا‬
‫ "ماتوا‬،‫ مياجر منيـ كانوا محتجزيف في قعر السفينة مف ميربيف لمبشر وحوش ال قموب ليـ‬300 ‫حوالي‬ 
.‫كالجرذاف في قفص" حينما غرقت السفينة‬
.‫قضاة إيطاليوف يحققوف في مزاعـ بأف السفينة ربما قمبت بعد اصطداميا بسفينة تجارية‬ 
‫كارثة غرؽ قاربيف آخريف يوـ اإلثنيف الفائت مما دفع القادة األوربييف إلى التداعي لعقد قمة طارئة لمعالجة‬ 
.‫األزمة‬
5.7.1 Purpose of the Translation

The main purpose of the translation is to break the horrendous news of a humanitarian
tragedy which resulted in the death of hundreds of poor people in the Mediterranean Sea
off the Greek and Italian coasts. Secondly, it calls upon the whole world to sympathize
with them and hasten to help them and take all possible measures to prevent such
disaster from taking place again. Simultaneously, it aims to provoke people to act against
those who were behind this disaster, the smugglers and, more urgently, the Syrian tyrant
who launched bloody war against the poor Syrian People. This requires from the translator
to bear these purposes in mind, and how to make them as explicit and prominent as
possible in the Arabic translation via linguistic and stylistic means to be illustrated below.

5.7.2 Type of TL Readership

The general public as well as readers of different educational levels and all human beings
are meant by the translation of this humanitarian text. All of them are supposed to be
interested to know about, sympathize with and, maybe, give a helping hand in such
human disaster. The translation has, therefore, to get to them all as directly, conveniently
and passionately as possible by using language of emotive tone that may win their hearts
and, probably, evoke them to do something for the victims in some way. Translators are
expected to get the TL readers involved in the text in a way or another by means of using
direct language and style, sympathetic phrases, evoking expressions, rhetorical
hyperboles, comments, and so on, as pointed out in the next point.

209
5.7.3 Translation Problems

The trickiest problems of translating this text are not lexical, or grammatical, but rather
stylistic and pragmatic. The first problem is the creation of impressive tone in the
translation of the first part of the heading: “The woman who survived ... and the child who
died” which has a discontinuous poetic, rhythmical and rhymed tone of sadness and
tranquillity. So the translator has to attend to this tone in Arabic to create strong
emotional impact on the TL readers, as suggested above in the translation:

‫ والطفؿ الذي مات‬... ‫قصة المرأة التي نجت‬, with the intent of constructing such a tragic tone. The
tragedy speaks for itself through the perfect parallelism, rhythm, rhyme and contrast in
between the words, as demonstrated in the following:
‫الطفؿ↔ المرأة‬
‫الذي↔التي‬
‫مات ≠ نجت‬
Commenting on that, we may notice that parallelism is perfect between the pairs of
words. More striking are the symbolic implications of the woman, who symbolizes any
woman, regardless of age, religion, race or color, and the child, who stands for any child in
the world. Still, more striking is the contrastive irony between ‘died’ and rescued’, which
creates a feeling of sharper agony and pain, on the one hand, and the aesthetic prosodic
feature of rhyme which is paradoxical with the sad occasion.

“heartbreaking scenes” is another key passionate term that requires a very affectionate
translation into Arabic, as the one suggested here: ‫تقطع القمب‬. Other excellent options
include (see also Al-Yaziji, 1985: 200-203):

‫) مشاىد تتفطر ليا القموب‬1(

‫) مشاىد تُبكي الحجر‬2(
‫) مشاىد تدمي القموب‬3(
‫) مشاىد تقمع القموب‬4(
ً‫) مشاىد تقطع األحشاء حزناً وليفا‬5(
‫) مشاىد تنقصؼ ليا الضموع‬6(
‫) مشاىد تقرع ساحة األحزاف‬7(
‫) مشاىد تنفطر ليا المرائر‬8(
‫) مشاىد تقوـ عندىا قيامة األحزاف‬9(
‫) مشاىد غـ يذيب شحـ الكمى‬10(
‫) مشاىد حزف تنقض منيا الجوارح‬11(
‫) مشاىد تفتت الكبد‬12(
‫) مشاىد تمزؽ األحشاء‬13(
‫) مشاىد تفطر الم اررة‬14(

210
 ‫) مشاىد تشخص ليا األبصار‬15(
‫) مشاىد تحز في النفس ح اًز‬16(

Obviously, the translator has a wide range of choices that he/she can pick up the
expression he/she finds the most expressive of the sad feelings of such a colossal tragedy.

The phrase “drag drowning migrants” of the heading is translated pragmatically and by
implication into “‫"يسحبوف المياجريف الغرقى جثثاً ىامدة‬, where the underlined collocation is
concluded from the context of the whole article to sharpen the tragic situation yet more.
Similar to this, and for the same reason, ‘up to 1,000 feared dead’ is translated
pragmatically into a more tragic tone as ‫ ضحية مف المياجريف‬1000 ‫وصؿ‬, with the underlined
phrase being added inferentially. Likewise, ‘callous human smugglers’ is translated
pragmatically into ‫ميربيف لمبشر وحوش ال قموب ليـ‬, where ‘beasts’ is added by implication, and ‫ال‬
‫ قموب ليـ‬is stronger in effect than, say, ‫حجارة‬/‫ قساة القموب؛ قموبيـ مف حجر‬which implies that they
still have hearts, but these hearts are hard, whereas the former states explicitly the they
have no hearts, or, in other words, they are inhuman creatures.

On the other hand ‘three tragedies’ is translated literally and directly into ‫ ثبلث مآسي‬in
preference to, say, ‫ ثبلث حوادث مأساوية‬for the latter is less intense that the former. Similarly,
the bitter simile 'died like rats in a cage' is translated closely into its sharp direct Arabic
equivalent ‫ ماتوا كالجرذاف في قفص‬to make the inhumanity of those bestial creatures so-called
smugglers of humans more intense and disgusting to Arab readers.

Finally, the core of the whole source text is illustrated accurately and passionately enough
by the picture, which is the least problematic to translate as it speaks for itself.

5.7.4 Translation Strategies

(1) Transliteration (of names of people, places, etc.: Libya → ‫ ;ليبيا‬Rhodes → ‫روِدس‬,
etc.)
(2) Naturalization (e.g. Greece → ‫ ;اليوناف‬Greek → ‫ ;يوناني‬Italy → ‫ ;إيطاليا‬Syrian ‫سوري‬,
European →‫ ;أوربيوف‬Sicily → ‫ ;صقمية‬etc.)
(3) Pragmatic translation (e.g. “drag drowning migrants” → “ ً‫"يسحبوف المياجريف الغرقى جثثا‬
‫( ىامدة‬see previous sub-section for further examples)).
(4) Passionate hyperboles (e.g. ‘callous human smugglers’ → ‫ميربيف لمبشر وحوش ال قموب‬
‫ليـ‬, etc.
(5) Parallel, rhythmical and rhymed translation (e.g. “The woman who survived ...
and the child who died” → ‫ والطفؿ الذي مات‬... ‫)قصة المرأة التي نجت‬
(6) Classifier (e.g. the addition of ‫ قصة‬at the beginning of the article; young migrant
→ ‫ ;طفمة سورية مياجرة‬Sicily → ‫جزيرة صقمية‬, etc.)

211
 (7) Paraphrase (e.g. up to 1,000 feared dead → ‫ ضحية مف المياجريف‬1000 ‫)عدد الوفيات‬
(8) Translation couplet: classifier + classifier (e.g. in Rhodes, Greece → ‫في جزيرة روِدس‬
ِ ‫ ;في جزيرة‬and paraphrase:.‫)في بحر إيجة‬
.‫(( اليونانية في بحر إيجة‬classifier: ‫رودس اليونانية‬

5.8 Entertainment Texts

Drivers down a terrifying descent

The incredible slopes - a gradient of 6.1 percent - twists and turns for over a mile long

Terrifying: Eshima Ohashi Bridge in Japan looks more like a rollercoaster than a bridge.
This terrifying 'rollercoaster bridge' forces drivers to vintage down a steep descent so ships
can pass underneath.

The Eshima Ohashi bridge in Japan – the third largest of its kind in the world - twists and
turns for over a mile long.

The concrete road bridge spans across Lake Nakaumi and links the cities of Matsue and
Sakaiminato.

But it's still not the most terrifying in the world.

The Sidhue River Bridge in China holds the top spot. At an incredible 1509ft high, it's the
tallest bridge in the world and connects the cities of Shanghai and Chendo.

The Millau Viaduct in France comes in at number two.

212
‫‪When it was opened in 2004, this was the world’s tallest vehicular bridge and it is still‬‬
‫‪taller than the Eiffel Tower at its highest point.‬‬

‫‪Number three goes to Monkey Bridges in Vietnam.‬‬

‫‪Made from one single bamboo log for your feet and another for an unsteady handrail, they‬‬
‫‪get their name from the monkey-like posture of people trying to cross.‬‬

‫?‪Would you drive over this‬‬ ‫)‪(The Daily Mirror, 29.4. 2015‬‬

‫السائقون اليابانيون ييوون في نزلة مرعبة‬

‫المنحدرات الرىيبة بزاوية انحدار ‪ - %1.1‬لفات وبرمات عمى مسافة ميل‬

‫يبدو الجسر الياباني المعمؽ إيشيما أوىاشي ليس جس اًر بؿ لعبة الحية الممتوية في مدينة المبلىي‪ .‬ويضطر ىذا الجسر‬
‫الممتوي السائقيف أف يطموا مف عمو شاىؽ عمى منحدر شديد االنحدار فيروف السفف تعبر مف تحتيـ‪.‬‬

‫يعتبر جسر إيشيما أوىاشي المعمؽ في الياباف أكبر ثالث جسر معمؽ في العالـ بالتواءاتو ولفاتو وبرماتو التي تمتد عمى‬
‫مسافة ميؿ‪.‬‬
‫يمتد الجسر اإلسمنتي ىذا فوؽ بحيرة ناكومي ويربط مينتي ماتسو وسكايميناتو اليابانيتيف‪.‬‬
‫لكنو ليس ىو الجسر المعمؽ األكثر إرعاباً في العالـ‪.‬‬

‫أرعب جسر معمؽ في العالـ ىو جسر نير سيدىو في الصيف‪ .‬إذ يمتد عمى مسافة ‪ 1509‬قدـ (‪3772‬ـ)‪ ،‬وىو أطوؿ‬
‫جسر في العالـ ويربط مدينتي شانغياي وشيندو الصينيتيف‪.‬‬

‫أما جسر مالو فيادكت في فرنسا فيأتي في المرتبة الثانية‪.‬‬

‫حينما تـ افتتاحو في عاـ ‪ ،2004‬كاف أطوؿ جسر سيارات‪ ،‬وما زاؿ أطوؿ مف برج إيفيؿ في فرنسا وأعمى قمة فيو‪.‬‬

‫أما المرتبة الثالثة فتحتميا جسور القرود في فيتناـ‪.‬‬

‫وىي مصنوعة مف خشبة خيزراف واحدة لمقدميف‪ ،‬وواحدة أخرى لمسند اليد (درابزوف)غير متوازف‪ .‬وسميت بيذا االسـ‬
‫ألف األشخاص الذيف يعبرونيا يبدوف في وضعية تشبو القرد‪.‬‬

‫ترى ىل أنت مستعد لتقود سيارتك فوق جسر كيذا؟؟؟؟!!!‬

‫‪213‬‬
5.8.1 Purpose of the Translation

The purpose of such texts is mainly to entertain readers by an item of news that may
interest, attract and enjoy them. That is why it is picked up by the newspaper. Breaking a
surprising, enjoyably amazing and frightening piece of news would be the reason behind
purchasing the paper by readers after all. To achieve this purpose, words and terms of
exaggeration and hyperbole are employed on a large scale in the text, that translators are
expected to attend to carefully to achieve the purpose of the translation into the target
language.

5.8.2 Type of TL Readership

The type of readership to which this type of text is forward would be the general public in
particular. The majority of the public is expected to be especially attracted to
entertainment news as many spend much of their time in hunt for such news in several
newspapers, on Websites and almost anywhere. The translator has, then, to look for the
key stylistic features of language and translation procedures that may help Arab readers
enjoy entertainment English texts as much as the source readers do, using techniques of
humour, irony, wittiness, over-exaggeration and several rhetorical figures that can help
achieve entertainment, as illustrated in the next point.

5.8.3 Translation Problems

The primary preoccupation of the translator is usually with problematic words and terms
of any text. Next comes here the choice of words appropriate for the occasion, which is
entertainment, excitement, suspense, overexaggeration and fun. Starting with the
translation of the heading, its problem is more stylistic than lexical, requiring from the
translator special care. The statement “drivers down a terrifying descent’ stresses the
sense of danger of a frightening way down, so the TL translation tries to construct this
tense and the intense tone of the sense of the original as follows: ‫السائقوف اليابانيوف ييووف في‬
‫نزلة مرعبة‬, where ‫( ييووف‬fall down sharply and strongly based on ‘down’) and ‫ مرعبة‬are very
strong indeed, and add much to suspense and entertaining tension and expectancy.
Further, while the former gives the impression of somebody who is falling from a very high
point down like a shot, the latter reflects a sense of terror, however psychologically and
mentally rather than in reality.

214
In the same way, ‘the incredible slopes’ is translated hyperbolically into ‫المنحدرات الرىيبة‬,
where the choice of ‫( الرىيبة‬formidable, horrendous) instead of ...‫ ال تصدؽ؛ تفوؽ الخياؿ‬is
based on the attempt of creating great exciting impact on the target reader. Likewise, the
collocation ‘twists and turns’ adds to the excitement created by the sense, synonymy and
alliteration between ‘twists’ and ‘turns’. Hence, it is translated into equally synonymous,
alliterative, familiar and semi-formal collocation ‫( لفات وبرمات‬both formal).

Adding to that is likening the slopes of the bridge to a rollercoaster, which is really
amusing and expressive, so it is retained in Arabic to create yet more intense
entertainment by translating it into ‫لعبة الحية الممتوية في مدينة المبلىي‬. Although the more
formal term is ‫األفعوانة‬, which is interestingly short and expressive, but not quite familiar to
target readers, this long translation is preferred for it is simpler and easier to comprehend
by Arab readers.

As to the expression “to vintage down a steep descent so ships can pass underneath” is
translated by implication into the long, exaggerated but accurate sense as: ‫أف يطموا مف عمو‬
‫ شاىؽ عمى منحدر شديد االنحدار فيروف السفف تعبر مف تحتيـ‬where the two translations of ‫ شاىؽ‬and
the repetitive but emphatic ‫ منحدر شديد االنحدار‬reflect the function of excitement and
amazement. Further hyperbolic translation is suggested in the translation of “twists and
turns for over a mile long” into the longer, but more expressive and impressive ‫التواءات ولفات‬
‫وبرمات‬, which supports the previous senses and implications of the text.

The concluding statement for the whole article is a very important functional and
expressive rhetorical question – that is why it is printed in bold type -that sums its
implications of excitement, amazement and entertainment: “Would you drive over this?”.
That is the reason behind translating it into Arabic with several questions and exclamation
marks that are possible to use only in Arabic – not in English – to mock, dismiss or
contradict the message implied by the question: ‫ترى ىؿ أنت مستعد لتقود سيارتؾ فوؽ جسر‬
!!!‫كيذا؟؟؟؟‬. An instant response by many readers would be a big ‘NO’.

215
A stylistic point about the layout of the source text is due here. Sentences are laid out in
paragraph shape, which is a frequent feature of popular newspapers like The Daily Mirror
of the UK. Probably, they mean to emphasise every item of information about the topic.
For these reasons, the translation retains the layout of the English original.

5.8.4 Translation Strategies

(1) Transliteration (e.g. Eshima Ohashi Bridge → ‫ ;جسر إيشيما أوىاشي‬Lake Nakaumi and
links the cities of Matsue and Sakaiminato → ‫بحيرة ناكومي ويربط مينتي ماتسو وسكايميناتو‬
‫ ;اليابانيتيف‬Sidhue River → ‫ ;نير سيدىو‬Vietnam → ‫فيتناـ‬, and several other examples).
(2) Naturalization (e.g. Japan → ‫ ;الياباف‬China ‫)الصيف‬
(3) Classifier (e.g. Drivers → ‫ ;السائقوف اليابانيوف‬Eiffel Tower → ‫ ;برج إيفيؿ في فرنسا‬the cities
of Shanghai and Chendo → ‫مدينتي شانغياي و شيندو الصينيتيف‬, etc.)
(4) Paraphrase (e.g. the rollercoaster → ‫ ;لعبة الحية الممتوية في مدينة المبلىي‬etc.)
(5) Overtranslation (e.g. twists and turns → ‫التواءات ولفات وبرمات‬, etc.).
(6) Literal translation (e.g. Monkey bridges ‫جسور القرود‬, etc.)
(7) Expansion (e.g. bridge →‫ ;جسر معمؽ‬the top spot → ‫أرعب جسر معمؽ في العالـ‬, etc.).
(8) Cultural equivalent (e.g. feet (in English) → meter (in Arabic), etc.).

5.9 Cultural Texts

Culture occupies a special space of pages in every newspaper, be it popular or quality.

Journalistic cultural texts take the shape of generalization about specific topics, with
greater emphasis on art, fashion designs, and similar topics that may attract readers most.
Of course, culture involves a number of special terms and expressions usually described as
culture-specific (or cultural-specific). They pose some demanding problems of translation
to translators. In the next section, an English newspaper cultural text is translated into
Arabic, to be discussed later in regard to the four points in terms of which all texts of the
book are discussed.

The Met Ball 2015: six style talking points

Did anyone dress offensively?
The big question hanging over the Met Ball’s red carpet ahead of the event was: how much
guests would embrace this year’s Chinese theme and who would cross the line into
offensive sartorial stereotype dressing. Each year, the Costume Institute Gala has a focus,
and sometimes a dress code, based around the exhibition. This year there were no rules
and red carpet watchers braced themselves for a car crash of cultural appropriation. In the
main this didn’t happen. “China: through the looking glass” inspired twists on Chinese
dressing – designer cheongsam, headgear and gowns in auspicious yellow all made an
appearance. Sarah Jessica Parker’s headpiece by Philip Treacy was arguably too close to
the stereotyping bone. Her flaming-red number was more dragon costume than chic,
216
‫‪despite the actor having form for extravagant headdress on the red carpet. SJP claimed‬‬
‫‪that the real story was her dress which she helped design with the H&M Conscious‬‬
‫‪collection (not buying that, sorry). ...‬‬ ‫)‪(The Guardian, 2015‬‬

‫‪1‬‬
‫حفمة ميت لألزياء‪ :‬ست نقاط في الحديث حول األزياء‬
‫ترى ىل ىناك من يمبس زياً خادشاً لمحياء؟‬
‫كاف السؤاؿ الكبير الذي يحوـ حوؿ مسار البساط األحمر الخاص بحفمة ميت الخيرية السنوية لعرض األزياء قبيؿ‬
‫الحدث ىو‪ :‬كـ مف الضيوؼ سوؼ يتقبموف الفكرة الصينية في عرض ىذا العاـ ويتجاوز الخط األحمر في تفصيؿ أزياء‬
‫عادية تخدش الحياء؟ في كؿ عاـ ‪ ،‬تركز الحفمة الخيرية ل معيد األزياء عمى كود معيف لؤلزياء يدور حوؿ العرض‪ .‬أما‬
‫ىذا العاـ فمـ يوجد قواعد ‪ ،‬لذا أعد الحاضروف أنفسيـ لصدمة قوية مف العيار الثقيؿ تيز أركاف الثوابت الثقافية‪.‬‬
‫لكف عموماً لـ يحصؿ ىذا‪ .‬فقد أليـ شعار الحفمة‪" :‬الصيف في المرآة" بعض التعديبلت عمى األزياء الصينية –‬
‫الجونكساـ (وىو ثوب صيني ضيؽ طويؿ)‪ ،‬وأغطية رأس‪ ،‬وثياب نوـ نسائية بالموف األصفر الزاىي ىي التي طغت‬
‫عمى المشيد العاـ‪ .‬فقد كاف غطاء الرأس الذي ارتدتو عارضة األزياء سارة جيسيكا باركر الذي صممو فيميب تريسي‪،‬‬
‫مثي اًر لمجدؿ وال يختمؼ كثي اًر عف التصميـ المألوؼ‪ .‬وكاف رقميا األحمر المتأجج أشبو ما يكوف بزي التنيف ال بزي‬
‫عصري شيؾ‪ ،‬برغـ أف العارضة أظيرت أكثر ما أظيرت عمى بساط العرض األحمر وشاح ًا فارى ًا‪ .‬زعمت العارضة‬
‫جيسيكا أف السر الحقيقي ىو في فستانيا الذي شاركت في تصميمو مع شركة إتش إـ الشييرة لؤلزياء (أي لـ تقـ‬
‫بش ارئو)‪... .‬‬
‫‪5.9.1 Purpose of the Translation‬‬

‫‪The purpose of translating a cultural foreign text like this is to inform the TL readership of‬‬
‫‪aspects of foreign culture that can be as interesting, enjoyable as attractive to them. This‬‬
‫‪obliges the translator to explain the vague or unfindable terms and concepts of a foreign‬‬
‫‪culture using different translation strategies, as is shown below in the fourth point of this‬‬
‫‪section.‬‬

‫‪5.9.2 Type of Readership‬‬

‫‪The types of readers aimed at by this type of text could be the educated, medium and‬‬
‫‪highly educated. However, the translator is supposed to forward his/her translation to all‬‬

‫‪1‬‬
‫‪(In footnote: “The Met Gala, formally called the Costume Institute Gala and also known as the Met Ball, is an‬‬
‫‪annual fundraising gala for the benefit of the Metropolitan Museum of Art’s Costume Institute. It marks the‬‬
‫‪grand opening of the Costume Institute’s annual fashion exhibit. Each year’s event celebrates the theme of that‬‬
‫‪year’s Costume Institute exhibition, and the exhibition sets the tone for the formal dress of the night since guests‬‬
‫”‪are expected to choose their fashion to match the theme of the exhibit.‬‬
‫(ٌعتبز مهزجان مٍت الذي ٌسمى رسمٍاً مهزجان معهذ األسٌاء‪ ،‬وٌعزف أٌضا ً بحفلت ِمٍت‪ ،‬مهزجاواً سىىٌاً خٍزٌاً لصالح معهذ أسٌاء متحف العاصمت‬
‫للفىىن فً مذٌىت وٍىٌىرك‪ .‬وٌقام هذا المهزجان إٌذاواً بافتتاح عزض األسٌاء السىىي للمعهذ‪ .‬وٌحتفل هذا الحذث مل سىت بمىضىع معٍه ٌختاري عزض‬
‫المعهذ لألسٌاء‪ ،‬وٌضع العزض الخطىط العزٌضت لشنل سي السهزة ألن الضٍىف فً تلل اللٍلت ٌتىقعىن أن ٌختاروا الشي الذي ٌتماشى مع‬
‫مىضىع العزض المحذد مه المعهذ‪( .‬‬

‫‪217‬‬
types of readers to give everybody interested the opportunity to know about other
people’s cultures in as simple, straightforward and normal language and style as possible.
A balance of some kind has to be stricken by the translator between the simplification of
cultural terms and expressions so as to be absorbed by the TL readership, and the
retention of some of these terms and expressions as they are in the source culture to help
TL readers widen their scope of knowledge about other cultures. In other words, it is an
adoption of foreign cultural words into Arabic culture (see Ghazala, 2015). This claim for
educating TL readers about foreign culture is strongly held some time ago by Pannwitz
who has voiced an appeal for welcoming the foreign culture by means of language to
expose the TL readership to some kind of shock of the foreign. He says (adopted from
Ghazala, 2015: ch. 1):

"Our translations, even the best, proceed from a false premise. They want to Germanize
Hindi, Greek, English, instead of hindi-izing, grecizing, anglicizing German. They have a
much greater respect for the little ways of their own language than for the spirit of the
foreign work... . The fundamental error of the translator is that he maintains the accidental
state of his own language, instead of letting it suffer the shock of the foreign language. He
must, particularly if he translates a language very remote from his own, penetrate to the
ultimate elements of language itself, where word, image, tone become one; he must
expand and deepen his language by means of the foreign language. It is not generally
realized to what extent this is possible… ." (In Schulte et al, 1992: 81)

‫ إذ نسعى فييا إلى تحويؿ المغات األخرى إلى لغتنا األـ بدالً عف تحويؿ‬.‫(تنطمؽ أفضؿ ترجماتنا مف منطمؽ خاطئ‬
‫ ويكمف الخطأ الجسيـ لممترجـ في‬.‫ إذ ُنعنى بصغائر لغتنا عمى حساب روح النص اآلخر‬.‫لغتنا إلى المغات األخرى‬
.‫حرصو عمى اإلبقاء عمى وضع لغتو عمى ما ىو عميو عوضاً عف جعميا تتعرض ليزة عنيفة مف المغة األجنبية األخرى‬
‫ حيث تتوحد الكممة والصورة‬،‫ أف يتغمغؿ في أعماؽ المغة نفسيا‬،‫ السيما إذا كاف يترجـ لغة بعيدة جداً عف لغتو‬،‫لذا عميو‬
‫ لكف ال أحد يعرؼ مدى‬.‫والنغمة في بوتقة واحدة؛ وعميو أيض ًا أف يوسع آفاؽ لغتو ويعمقيا مف خبلؿ المغة األجنبية‬
)" ...‫إمكانية تحقيؽ ذلؾ‬

This is a clear invitation to translators to make use of the foreign culture with the aim of
enriching and contributing to the TL culture. It can be useful in relation to the translation
of many cultural terms with reference to newspaper cultural texts in particular.

More significantly, it eases down the negative attitude held by some TL readers toward
the foreign terms (hence, the pejorative Arabic term )‫ (الترجمة الدخٌلة‬for loan translation, or
calques), however on the condition that it does not exceed the normal limits of borrowing
into the TL. Practical application of that can be sought for in the next point.

218
5.9.3 Translation Problems

Several vague translation problems need be fixed by the translator. The first is ‘The Met
Ball’, which, if translated as such, would produce a vague riddle-version like ‫حفمة ميت‬. They
understand ‫ حفمة‬but do not know of what. To improve on this translation, a classifier like
‫ أزياء‬can be added to define the type of ‘ball’ for target readers. Although it is understood
in general terms, it is not satisfactory to a good translator because it is not like any
‘fashion ball’, but a very special party. That means it is urgent to provide more details
about it in a footnote, as done above. By the way, footnotes and endnotes are used only
occasionally, and when quite urgent for readers of newspapers in particular do not wish to
read two texts as the body of the translation text is fair enough. ‘Style’ of the heading is
translated here not into its primary sense as ‫ أسموب‬but into its contextual meaning of ‫زي‬, in
the appropriate plural form of ‫ أزياء‬here. By contrast, ‘red carpet’ is translated literally into
Arabic as ‫ البساط األحمر‬being one of the established calques today that was originally
borrowed from western culture, used in formal receptions and occasions. Its reference is
to the floor for the models participating in the exhibition. Similar to that is the translation
of the metaphor “China: through the looking glass” identically, and by way of
reconciliation between the two SL and TL cultures into "‫"الصٍه فً المزآة‬, being the slogan of
the gala which is usually retained literally in the TL for cultural reasons. On the other hand,
it has a correspondent cultural metaphor a long time ago in Arabic. By the way, ‫شعار‬
(slogan) is translated inferentially from the original. A third term that is translated literally
for the same reason preserving its culturality is ‘dragon costume’ )‫(زي التنيف‬.

‘Offensive’ is translated euphemistically into ‫ مخؿ باآلداب( خادش لمحياء‬is another good version
for considerations related to avoiding insulting readers by direct translations like ‫مييف؛‬
ٍ
‫مشيف؛ عدواني‬, or obscene translations suchlike ‫عار؛ متعر؛ سكسي؛ قميؿ حياء‬. I guess that in
western culture, ‘dressing offensively’ is not necessarily pejorative or offensive as many
westerners regard it as some kind of fun, and that’s all. It is not taken as seriously as we,
Arabs and Muslims, do.

219
The ‘red line’ in the statement “cross the line into offensive sartorial stereotype dressing”
)‫ (يتجاوز الخط األحمر في تفصيؿ أزياء عادية تخدش الحياء‬is translated literally by adoption as a
calque into ‫الخط األحمر‬, which is usually understood in its general sense as a reference to
something not allowed. However, in this text, it means ‘disregarding decency )‫ (الحشمة‬and
going for indecency )‫(قمع الحياء؛ التعري‬, which is left to target readers to conclude from
context to avoid insulting anybody, as the original also does. Identical to this is the
indecent, sexy insinuations of the phrase ‘Her flaming-red number’ which is translated
again into sense in Arabic as ‫وكاف رقميا األحمر المتأجج‬, where ‫ متأجج‬has obscene implications,
but it is left in Arabic as such as in the original to show respect for SL readers (as the
newspaper, The Guardian, is a quality newspaper), and so does the Arabic translation.

That said, the metaphorical expression ‘a car crash of cultural appropriation’ is translated
into its Arabic cultural equivalent .‫صدمة قوية مف العيار الثقيؿ تيز أركاف الثوابت الثقافية‬, and a literal
translation like ‫ صدمة سيارة‬is not known to target readers. In any case, when a recognized
cultural equivalent is available, usually, it is highly recommended.

Another metaphor (i.e. stereotyping bone) is translated into sense as ‫ التصميـ المألوؼ‬for it
has no equivalence in Arabic. On the other hand, ‘code’ is Arabized into ‫ رمز‬, but its
transliterated version ‫ كود‬is widely adopted in Arabic. The term ‘chic’ is by analogy
translated into ‫ شيؾ‬which is too popular among Arab people to dismiss. The Arabic word is
‫أنيؽ‬/‫أناقة‬. However, two terms are used to translate the English term here: translation
into ‫زي عصري‬, followed by the adopted transliteration ‫شيؾ‬. Another full Arabic version can
be ‫زي عصري أنيؽ‬. This is an example of duplicated terminology in Arabic, but we give in to
such duplication in popular terms like ‫مصرؼ‬/‫( بنؾ‬for bank); ‫حاسب‬/‫( كمبيوتر‬for computer),
Internet )‫ اإلنترنت‬/‫الشبكة العنكبوتية‬/‫(شبكة المعمومات‬, etc. (see Ghazala, 2012 for further examples).

The culture-specific term ‘cheongsam’ (i.e. a straight dress, usually of silk or cotton, with a
stand-up collar and a slit in one side of the skirt, worn by Chinese women) is adopted into
Arabic by way of transliteration followed by paraphrase in brackets to explain it shortly as
follows: )‫الجونكساـ (ثوب صيني ضيؽ طويؿ‬. Cultural dresses like this including ‘Sari’ ‫ ثوب‬:‫(الساري‬
)‫ىندي طويؿ‬, ‘Kimono’ )‫ رداء ياباني فضفاض‬:‫(الكيمونو‬, ‘Jeans’ )‫ لباس أمريكي لمرجاؿ والنساء‬:‫(الجينز‬, are
translated in the same way to keep the cultural touch of the term, and add to the target
readers’ knowledge of foreign cultures (see Ghazala, 2015 for hosts of examples).

As to the two synonyms, ‘headgear’ and ‘headpiece’, they are translated into their general
sense of ‫ غطاء رأس‬based on approximation, or ‘proximity principle’ which means to give
the meaning of words in general sense, not specifically, or in detail. This principle is quire
recurrent in translating cultural terms in particular (see Rojo, 2009, Hatim and Mason,
1990 and Ghazala, 2014 for further details).
220
Although the trickiest translation problems of cultural terms and expressions have been
sorted out somehow satisfactorily on the basis of approximation (i.e. translating English
cultural terms approximately, not perfectly into Arabic), there is still something cultural
implied in the sub-text of the article as a whole that many non-English and non-western
people cannot understand in full. There is behind the lines and behind the scenes an erotic
factor that they cannot absorb or sense physically. What makes all that explicit is the
collections of profligate pictures of the models on the red carpet of the exhibition. For
reasons of decency, I refrain from including any one of them here.

5.9.4 Translation Strategies

(1) Transliteration / adoption(e.g.: names of people, companies, places, etc.).

(2) Calques /adoption (e.g. chic →‫ ;شيؾ‬code →‫ ;كود‬red carpet → ‫ ;البساط األحمر‬red line
→ ‫خط أحمر‬, etc.)
(3) Naturalization (e.g. Chinese → ‫ صينية‬China → ‫الصيف‬, etc.)
(4) Paraphrase (e.g. cheongsam → )‫الجونكساـ (ثوب صيني ضيؽ طويؿ‬, etc.)
(5) Classifier (e.g. Met Ball →‫ حفمة ميت لؤلزياء‬, etc.).
(6) General sense (e.g. stereotyping bone → ‫التصميـ المألوؼ‬, etc.)
(7) Cultural equivalent / clash (e.g. ‘a car crash of cultural appropriation’ → ‫صدمة قوية‬
‫ ;مف العيار الثقيؿ تيز أركاف الثوابت‬headdress →‫ وشاح‬, etc.).
(8) Cultural correspondence / reconciliation (e.g. “China: through the looking glass”
→"‫"الصيف في المرآة‬, etc.)
(9) Approximation (e.g. costumes → ‫ ;أزياء‬headpiece/headgear → ‫ ;غطاء رأس‬ball →
‫حفمة‬, etc.).
(10) Literal translation (e.g. dragon costume → ‫زي التنيف‬, etc.).
(11) Euphemization (e.g. offensive → ‫ ;خادش لمحياء؛ مخؿ باآلداب‬red line → ‫خط أحمر‬, etc.).
(12) Insinuation (e.g. red line → ‫‘ ;خط أحمر‬Her flaming-red number’ → ‫وكاف رقميا األحمر‬
‫( المتأجج‬both insinuate obscene senses)).
(13) Footnoting (e.g. the footnote for explaining ‘Met Ball’. See above)

5.10 Health Texts

Specialist medical texts about health are usually translated as directly and accurately as
possible into Arabic. Due to their nature and function as a source of medical facts and
data, none of these facts and data should be left out in translation. However, a newspaper
health text is not technical or complicated as specialist health texts might be; rather, they
are non-technical and simplified as any general text directed to the common public. Next
is an English newspaper text translated into Arabic, followed by discussion on the bases of
purpose, TL readership, translation problems and strategies:

221
Big Controversy Over Amanda's Life Changing Weight Loss. The Story is Going Viral - Has
She Gone Too Far?

Dr. Thomas Green investigates this weird weight loss result

Amanda's Interview After Her 88-Pound Weight Loss With The Tolerance Suppressing
Method.

A woman has documented her incredible 88lb weight loss with a series of photos showing
just how dramatically her body - and self-confidence - has changed.

36-year-old Amanda, who did not reveal her last name, used advanced tolerance
prevention system to shrink her 222lb frame.

 By sticking to this advanced formula and doing 'virtually zero intentional exercise',
Amanda managed to shed the weight while gaining self-confidence.
 Indeed, the Reddit user responded to some viewers who commented on the fact
that her smile gets broader as her waist gets smaller in the photo series. 'In the
early stages of taking progress pictures, I literally only took one photo of myself. I
hated the way I looked,' she wrote. 'I had so little self-confidence that the thought
honestly never crossed my mind.'
 Slimfy's three‐stage weight loss system has everyone changing the way they
think of weight loss. As many weight loss systems claim to offer fat burning
ingredients and amazing results, the true secret rests within the dosage and
mixture of ingredients your body absorbs over a period of time.
 Slimfy's progressive three‐stage system was created to offer all of the best fat
burning ingredients while managing to sustain the peak of their potency.
 Slimfy's ground breaking Tolerance Prevention System was created by an
experienced group of nutritionists, endocrinologists, and experts in the health and
beauty industry. Their intensive research discovered how the human body must
increase and differentiate the ingredients in weight loss formulas for the product
to continue working. Slimfy's progressive three‐stage system uses a different
compound of NON-GMO, ORGANIC ingredients in each stage to increase the
results. Manufacturer claims: ‘Slimfy’ has already helped millions of people
around the world to experience a happier and more fulfilling life through
successful weight‐loss.”

 Although we were pretty skeptical, we wanted to find out for ourselves if this
product could actually do everything that it claimed. …Most of the success stories
talk about combining all Three Stages of ‘Slimfy’ to achieve maximum weight loss
result. The idea behind combining the three formulas was discovered when
studies had shown that people who regularly take supplements or medication
develop a phenomenon called tolerance (if substance is used over 30 days).

222
 ‫‪Physical Tolerance when an organism builds up a resistance to the effects of a‬‬
‫‪substance after repeated exposure, decreasing the amount of the substance‬‬
‫‪reaching the site it affects. This is usually caused by an increase in induction of the‬‬
‫‪enzymes required for degradation of the supplement or medication. ...‬‬
‫))‪(The Observer USA, 6 May 2015‬‬

‫جدل كبير حول التغيير الذي طرأ عمى حياة السيدة أماندا من جراء إنقاص وزنيا‪.‬‬
‫القصة تنتشر انتشار النار في اليشيم‪ .‬ىل زودتيا؟‬

‫قاـ الدكتور توماس جريف بالبحث في ىذه النتيجة العجيبة الغريبة لمتخسيس‪.‬‬

‫المقابمة التي أجريت مع أماندا بعد تخفيؼ وزنيا ‪ 88‬رطبلً إنجميزياً (حوالي ‪ 40‬كيمو جراـ) اعتماداً عمى طريقة كبت حد‬
‫التحمؿ‪.‬‬
‫قامت سيدة بتوثيؽ مراحؿ تخفيؼ وزنيا المذىؿ بمقدار حوالي ‪ 40‬كيمو جراـ بسمسمة مف الصور تظير كيؼ تغير‬
‫جسميا بشكؿ مذىؿ وكذلؾ ثقتيا بنفسيا‪ .‬استخدمت أماندا البالغة مف العمر ‪ 36‬عاماً – والتي لـ تفصح عف اسميا‬
‫العائمي – نظاـ منع تحمؿ متقدـ لتنقص مف وزنيا الذي وصؿ إلى ‪ 222‬رطبلً (حوالي ‪ 100‬كج) مف خبلؿ المراحؿ‬
‫التالية‪:‬‬

‫االلتزاـ التاـ بيذا النظاـ وعدـ ممارسة أي نوع مف التماريف الرياضية‪ ،‬استطاعت أماندا أف تتخمص مف‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫الوزف وتكسب ثقة أكبر بنفسيا‪.‬‬
‫رد موقع رديت األمريكي المفتوح لمتواصؿ االجتماعي عمى بعض المشاىديف الذيف عمقوا عمى حقيقة‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫ابتسامتيا التي أصبحت أعرض فأعرض كمما أصبح خصرىا أصغر فأصغر في سمسمة الصور التي‬

‫‪223‬‬
‫التقطتيا لنفسيا بنفسيا‪ :‬كتبت تقوؿ‪" :‬في المراحؿ األولى لعممية التقاطي الصور لنفسي‪ ،‬التقطت سمفي‬
‫واحدة فقط‪ .‬عندىا كرىت شكمي‪ .‬وكانت ثقتي بنفسي شبو معدومة بحيث لـ تخطر الفكرة في بالي إطبلقاً‪.‬‬
‫برنامج سميمفي إلنقاص الوزف ثبلثي المراحؿ الذي جعؿ الجميع يغيروف طريقة تفكيرىـ بتخفيؼ الوزف‪ .‬كثير‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫مف برامج التخسيس تزعـ أنيا تقدـ مكونات لحرؽ الدىوف وتحقؽ نتائج مذىمة‪ ،‬لكف السر الحقيقي يكمف في‬
‫الجرعة وخمطة المكونات التي يمتصيا جسمؾ في فترة زمنية محددة‪.‬‬
‫برنامج سميمفي ثبلثي المراحؿ المتدرج الذي تـ تركيبو ليعطي أفضؿ مكونات حارقة لمدىوف في الوقت الذي‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫يحافظ عمى طاقتيا‪.‬‬
‫برنامج سميمفي ثبلثي المراحؿ المتدرج الذي تـ تركيبو مف مجموعة مف أخصائيي الغذاء والغدد الصـ‪،‬‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫وخبراء في الصحة والجماؿ‪ .‬كشفت أبحاثيـ المكثفة كيؼ يقوـ جسـ اإلنساف بزيادة المكونات والتفريؽ فيما‬
‫بينيا في أنظمة التخسيس لكي تواصؿ العمؿ واإلنتاج‪ .‬يستخدـ نظاـ سميمفي ثبلثي المراحؿ المتدرج مركباً‬
‫مختمفاً مف مكونات غير معدلة وراثيأ وعضوية في كؿ مرحمة لزيادة النتائج‪ .‬يزعـ أحد المصنعيف أف‬
‫"سميمفي ساعد مبلييف مف الناس حوؿ العالـ عمى أف يعيشوا حياة أسعد وأىنأ مف خبلؿ تخسيس ناجح‪.‬‬

‫مع أنو كانت لدينا شكوؾ‪ ،‬أردنا أف نكتشؼ بأنفسنا ما إذا كاف ىذا المنتَج يفعؿ كؿ شيء قيؿ عنو‪ ... .‬تتحدث معظـ‬
‫قصص النجاح حوؿ تركيب المراحؿ الثبلث لسميمفي لتحقيؽ أفضؿ نتيجة تخسيس‪ .‬وتـ اكتشاؼ قكرة تركيب المراحؿ‬
‫ىذه حيف أثبتت الدراسات أف األشخاص الذيف يتناولوف إض افات وأدوية بشكؿ دائـ يصابوف بظاىرة تسمى حد التحمؿ‬
‫(إذا استعمموا المادة لثبلثيف يوماً)‪.‬‬

‫يحصؿ حد التحمؿ الجسدي حينما يبني الكائف الحي جدار مقاومة آلثار مادة ما مف جراء التعرض المتكرر ليا‪ ،‬مما‬
‫يقمؿ مف حجـ المادة التي تصؿ إلى المنطقة التي تحدث تأثي اًر عمييا‪ .‬وسبب ىذا عادة زيادة إفراز األنزيمات المطموبة‬
‫لتفسخ المضافات الغذائية واألدوية‪... .‬‬

‫‪224‬‬
5.10.1 Purpose of the Translation

The purpose of this text is to inform, advertise, surprise, and enjoy readers. It aims at
informing readers of a genuine experience about a lady who narrates its true story on the
new technology of ‘selfy’ photos representing the stages of her weight loss. Then, a
slimming medication is introduced with medical facts, a diagram about it and an indirect
promotion of the product. Furthermore, there is an attempt to introduce new terminology
to readers by way of updating them about new words and expressions in the field in
language. Throughout, some surprising figures and expressions are included. Alongside
with all these are entertaining and aesthetic features of language and style are slotted. A
glaring example for the time being is the word play suggested by ‘Slimfy’, as suggested
below.

5.10.2 Type of TL Readership

Texts on diet are among the most popular for readers of all types and levels of education.
This text is aimed at educated readership in the first place, with a view to have interested
readers from the general public who might follow the text at least in part. The general
nature of the text entails that the translator has to address readers at large with language
made simple and convenient as much as possible. So, non-technicality is the rule, whereas
technicality is the exception in the language and style of the translation.

5.10.3 Translation Problems

One of the major points of focus and, hence, of translation problems, is the recurrent use
of exaggerations and expressive features of language. The heading, to start with, is
crammed with exaggerations that require to be attended to by translators. The statement,
“The story is going viral - Has she gone too far?” is translated into equally exaggerative
statement as ‫ القصة تنتشر‬.‫(جدؿ كبير حوؿ التغيير الذي ط أر عمى حياة السيدة أماندا مف جراء إنقاص وزنيا‬
)‫ ىؿ زودتيا؟‬.‫انتشار النار في اليشيـ‬. The punch line of exaggeration is ‫تنتشر انتشار النار في اليشيـ‬,
which is a well-known metaphorical catchphrase in Arabic that implies a reference to
something which has so rapidly spread out that almost everybody knows about it. It can
be described as a double-entendre phrase that may be taken either negatively or
positively. The second interesting translation is that of the rhetorical question‫ ىؿ زودتيا؟‬for,
first, it is informal to suit the occasion both in sense and style; secondly, it casts doubts
about the lady’s allegations and, thirdly, and more significantly, it arouses suspense about
reading the whole story.

225
Following the same tone of exaggeration, the phrase “this weird weight loss result” is
translated into ‫ ىذه النتيجة العجيبة الغريبة لمتخسيس‬exaggeratedly, collocationally, rhetorically and
interestingly. Triggered by the exaggerated word ‘weird’, ‫ عجيبة غريبة‬or ‫ غريبة عجيبة‬is picked
up as a familiar collocation of synonyms used as a cliché of exaggeration. Originally, it is
derived from the formally recognized collocation ‫( عجائب وغرائب‬i.e. wonderments and
bewilderments). Also, to continue with this tone of hyperbole, the statement “her smile
gets broader as her waist gets smaller in the photo series” is translated into ‫ابتسامتيا التي‬
‫ أصبحت أعرض فأعرض كمما أصبح خصرىا أصغر فأصغر‬which enlarges ‘wider smile’ into double
‘wider’ as ‫ أعرض فأعرض‬and ‘smaller waist’ into parallel ‘double smaller’ as ‫ أصغر فأصغر‬to
match and strike a balance with one another more beautifully and expressively.

Now, back to the key word ‘weight loss’ which is translated into Arabic in four
interchangeable versions: ‫ رشاقة‬/ ‫ تخسيس‬/ ‫ تخفيؼ الوزف‬/ ‫ إنقاص الوزف‬any one of which is equally
applicable as all of them are positive and recurrent. Two further terms can be added to
them: ‫( رجيـ‬regime/diet) and ‫( تنحيؼ‬slimming) due to their frequency and positivity.

Further five terms are suggested as relatively new in English. The first is “tolerance
prevention system”, which is translated literally and directly into ‫نظاـ منع التحمؿ‬. In fact, it
is not explained or commented on because it is defined in detailed and simple terms down
in the same text. Related to it is the second term ‘tolerance suppression method’ which is
translated directly again into ‫طريقة كبت حد التحمؿ‬. The third term “physical tolerance” is
interconnected with the previous two and translated literally as ‫حد التحمؿ الجسدي‬. The three
terms overlap in sense and may translate one another. Related to these three terms is
‘tolerance’ which is usually used in its primary sense as ‫تسامح‬. Next to this in recurrence
comes the meaning of ‫تحمؿ‬, which is close to its sense here as ‫حد التحمؿ‬. The latter refers to
a special concept related to the human body, as illustrated in the source text as well.

The fifth term, perhaps the most important of all, is ‘Slimfy’, which is a weight loss product
and a 3-stage program for slimming. Not for sure, the term looks like an invented
compound derived from ‘slimming’ and ‘selfy’. Anyway, it is translated through
transference into Arabic, followed, or preceded by a classifier like ‫برنامج‬/‫منتَج‬/‫نظاـ‬, which is
good enough since full details about it are provided in the text itself. In between the lines
of the text, there is a promotion of some kind for this product and interested readers are
recommended to purchase it.

226
A further tricky problem of translation is presented by the term ‘Reddit’ which has no
details about it in the SL text which presupposes that SL readers know it. Yet, target
readers have no idea about it, and the translator has to interfere here to illustrate its
meaning to TL readers. ‘Reddit’ is an entertainment, social networking, and news website
where registered community members can submit content, such as text posts or direct
links. Registered users can then vote submissions "up" or "down" to organize the posts
and determine their position on the site's pages. Content entries are organized by areas of
interest called ‘subreddits’. ‘Reddit’ was founded by Virginia University and acquired the
site in October 2006. As of August 2012, Reddit operates as an independent entity,
although Advance is still its largest shareholder. (Wikipedia.com).

Hence, Reddit is a very famous and popular American social networking and news
Website. As to translating it, a paraphrase is the strategy suggested to translate it shortly
into its general, basic sense as ‫موقع رديت األمريكي المفتوح لمتواصؿ االجتماعي‬.

A little snag is posed by the translation of the very popular word ‘system’ which is
translated mainly into its primary meaning as ‫نظاـ‬, but it is not quite fitting here, and its
sense as ‘program’ ‫ برنامج‬is more accurate than the former.

The final tricky problem of translation is that of translating technical terms like
nutritionists, endocrinologists, NON-GMO, ORGANIC ingredients, supplements or
medication, organism, induction of enzymes, efficacy and supplement. They are translated
as non-technically as possible to make them comprehensible to target readers as follows:

- Nutritionists (‫( أخصائيو الغذاء‬not the technical ‫)غذويوف‬

- Endocrinologists)‫(أخصائيو الغدد الصـ‬
- NON-GMO, ORGANIC ingredients ( ‫)مكونات غير معدلة وراثيأ وعضوية‬
- Supplements (‫مواد مضافة‬/ ‫(مضافات غذائية‬
- Medication )‫مداواة‬/‫)أدوية‬
- Organism (‫( كائف حي‬preferred to the technical ‫(المتغضي‬
- induction of enzymes )‫ إفراز األنزيمات‬rather than the less clear ‫)إحداث األنزيمات‬
- efficacy (‫( فعالية‬in favor of the frozen formal ‫))نجاعة‬

5.10.4 Translation Strategies

(1) Transliteration (e.g. of proper names and titles (Amanda → ‫ ;أماندا‬Dr. Thomas
Green ‫ ;)الدكتور توماس جريف‬medications, products like ‘Slimfy → ‫ ;سميمفي‬Websites:
Reddit → ‫ريديت‬, etc.)

227
 (2) Naturalization (e.g. enzymes→ ‫)أنزيمات‬
(3) Paraphrase (Slimfy → ‫ ;برنامج سميمفي إلنقاص الوزف‬Reddit → ‫(موقع رديت األمريكي المفتوح‬
‫لمتواصؿ االجتماعي‬
(4) Cultural equivalent (e.g. of weight: 222lb → ‫ كج‬100 ‫)حوالي‬
(5) Expansion (e.g. ‘weird’ → ‫ ;عجيبة غريبة‬tolerance suppression method → ‫طريقة كبت‬
‫)التحمؿ‬
(6) Overtranslation of parallelism (e.g. “her smile gets broader as her waist gets
smaller in the photo series” → ‫ابتسامتيا التي أصبحت أعرض فأعرض كمما أصبح خصرىا‬
‫)أصغر فأصغر‬
(7) Calques/adoption (e.g. lb → )‫)رطؿ (إنجميزي‬
(8) Informal cultural correspondence (e.g. Has she gone too far? → ‫)ىؿ زودتيا؟‬.
(9) Positive equivalence (e.g. weight loss ...‫إنقاص وزف؛ تخسيس؛ تنحيؼ‬/‫)تخفيؼ‬.
(10) Literal translation (“tolerance prevention system” → ‫)نظاـ منع التحمؿ‬.
(11) Accurate contextual translation (e.g. system → ‫( برنامج‬not ‫(نظاـ‬

5.11 Psychological Texts

Psychology is a specialized field of study that has its technical vocabulary and concepts of
its own right. Psychology texts of all types are technical in language and style as they are
meant to address specialists and highly educated people interested in them. Hence,
semantically, they are translated as closely as possible. Yet, newspaper psychology texts
are different for they are not forwarded to specialists, but to general readers of all levels
of education, nor are they so technical in terminology. So, in translation, they are not
treated in the same way as specialist psychological texts. That is, the language is simpler,
less technical, more straightforward in addressing readers and freer in method. This can
be demonstrated by translating a psychological text picked up from a famous American
Newspaper, to be followed by discussion with respect to purpose, TL readership,
translation problems and translation strategies:

(USA Today 6.52015)

Insulting yourself could be more about bonding and avoiding jealousy, scientists say

A RECENT article in Psychology Today suggests people put themselves down in order to
protect themselves from jealousy because the curse is more trouble than it’s worth.

It also turns out women are better at it, and use it as a tactic to avoid being the target of
envy — with good reason.
People deemed attractive could lose out in situations such as job interviews, if the people
they were trying to impress felt threatened by them.
The premise is based on a series of studies on the positive and negative effects of
attractiveness on decision making.
It turns out in job interview situations, when the employer saw a same-sex applicant as
more attractive than they were, they were less likely to hire them.
228
‫‪But when interviewing the opposite sex, attractiveness made the subject more‬‬
‫‪employable.‬‬
‫‪In her article, ‘Why Women Put Themselves Down’, Dr Denise Cummins, a cognitive‬‬
‫‪scientist and a Fellow of the Association for Psychological Science, suggests drawing‬‬
‫‪attention to someone’s attractiveness or achievements could be dangerous for the person‬‬
‫‪receiving the compliment.‬‬

‫‪And she said by using self-depreciating humour and poking fun at themselves women‬‬
‫‪reduced the risks associated with attracting jealousy.‬‬
‫…‬
‫‪But the trick only worked if you’re likely to be the subject of envy, Dr Cummins warned.‬‬
‫…‬
‫‪Dr Cummins argued self deprecation was a disarming feature which made others feel more‬‬
‫‪included and less threatened and the act of putting oneself down was not necessarily a‬‬
‫‪sign of low self-esteem.‬‬

‫يقول العمماء إن إىانتك لنفسك ربما بسبب إثبات الثقة أكثر مما ىو الغيرة‪.‬‬
‫يذكر مقال صدر حديثاً بعنوان عمم النفس اليوم بأن الناس ييينون أنفسيم لكي يحموا أنفسيم من الغيرة ألن عقاب‬
‫المعنة أسوأ من جزائيا‪.‬‬

‫الظاىر أف النساء أفضؿ حاالً في ىذا األمر‪ ،‬ويستخدمنو كوسيمة تكتيكية لكي يتجنبف تحوليف إلى فريسة لمحسد‬
‫والبغضاء لسبب وجيو‪.‬‬

‫فاألشخاص الجذابوف قد يخفقوف في مواقؼ عدة كالمقاببلت الشخصية لموظيفة‪ ،‬إذا ما شعر األشخاص الذيف يحاولوف‬
‫التأثير فييـ أنيـ ميددوف منيـ‪.‬‬

‫تقوـ الفرضية عمى سمسمة مف الدراسات النفسية حوؿ التأثيرات اإليجابية والسمبية لمجاذبية واإلغراء في صنع القرار‪.‬‬

‫أحد المتقدميف لموظيفة مف الجنس‬

‫ويظير ىذا أكثر ما يظير في المقاببلت الشخصية لموظائؼ حينما يرى أرباب العمؿ َ‬
‫نفسو أكثر جاذبية منيـ‪ ،‬فتصبح فرص حصولو عمى الوظيفة قميمة‪.‬‬
‫لكف حيف تكوف المقابمة مع الجنس اآلخر‪ ،‬تصبح الجاذبية سبباً وجيي ًا في الحصوؿ عمى الوظيفة‪.‬‬

‫ففي بحثيا بعنواف ‪" :‬لماذا تقمؿ النساء مف قدرىف"‪ ،‬تقترح الدكتورة دنيس كمينز العالمة المعرفية وعضو جمعية عموـ‬
‫النفس‪ ،‬أف تركيز االىتماـ عمى الجاذبية واإلنجازات قد يشكؿ خط اًر عمى الشخص الذي يتمقى المديح‪.‬‬

‫وأضافت الدكتورة كمينز في بحثيا أف استخداـ النساء ألسموب التنكيت عمى أنفسيف واإلنقاص مف قدرىف قد قمؿ مف‬
‫مخاطر الغيرة مف الجاذبية‪... .‬‬

‫لكف الدكتورة كمينز حذرت مف أف ىذه الطريقة تنجح في حاؿ كنت موضعاً لمغيرة فقط‪.‬‬

‫‪229‬‬
 ...
‫أيضاً أكدت الدكتورة كمينز أف اإلنقاص مف قدر الشخص لنفسو عامؿ ميدئ لمخواطر يجعؿ اآلخريف يشعروف أنيـ‬
.‫ وأف عممية تقميؿ الشخص مف قدر نفسو ليس بالضرورة عبلمة عدـ احتراـ الذات‬،‫ليسوا ميمشيف وأنيـ غير ميدديف‬

5.11.1 Purpose of the Translation

The purpose of translating such a newspaper psychological text is to teach, excite, attract
and persuade readers in as simple type of language and style as possible. Many readers
have some interest in psychological texts provided they are about hot issues, trustworthy,
non-technical, experimental and, above all, readable and comprehensible.

5.11.2 Type of TL Readership

Readers of different types are interested in psychology. Yet, educated and highly educated
people are more likely to be attracted to psychological texts, especially when they involve
experimental updated stories. The language of the TL translation is supposed to respond
to the needs of the general public readers who are disposed to easy-read texts with
technical terminology brought to a minimum, as shown in the translation.

5.11.3 Translation Problems

The main translation problem of this text is probably terminology. It has to be carefully
handled to make comprehension conveniently easy. Fortunately, technical terms are not
many. The first term that displays this problem of technical / non-technical choice is
‘bonding’. In psychological technical terminology, it is ‫( إيثاؽ‬see Al-Mawrid Al-Akbar, 2004:
247), which is not known to the vast majority of target readers. Further, it may be
confused with chiming words like ‫( وثاؽ‬bond), ‫( ميثاؽ‬Charter/Statute), etc. So, it has to be
changed into a non-technical term like, say, ‫إثبات الثقة‬. ‘Premise’ is translated into ‫فرضية‬,
though ‫ مقدمة‬is not a bad choice, but more technical than the former. ‘Cognitive scientist’ is
translated directly into ‫ عالمة معرفية‬for it is not difficult to understand by readers in general.
‘Self-depreciating’ is overtranslated in the expression ‘self-depreciating humor’ as ‫أسموب‬
‫ ;تنكيت النساء عمى أنفسيف واإلنقاص مف قدرىف‬and in ‘self-deprecation’ into another overtranslated
version as ‫اإلنقاص مف قدر الشخص لنفسو‬, which is preferable to ‫ االستيانة بالذات‬/ ‫االنتقاص مف الذات‬
for it might sound more insulting than the former, and more than intended in the text.
Similar to this term is its synonym, ‘low self-esteem’, which is translated into ‫عدـ احتراـ الذات‬
being an insult, whereas the former is not. A third related and key informal recurrent term
in the text is ‘put oneself down’ is translated respectfully into ‫ يقمؿ مف قدر نفسو‬which is done
on purpose and may result in the other people’s respect for the person doing that.
Therefore, it should not be translated into the quite insulting ‫احتقار الذات‬.

In addition, three further expressions require special attention by the translator for they
cannot be translated directly, but by implication. The first one is “be dangerous for the

230
person receiving the compliment” which ends with ‘compliment’ to mean praise rather
than salutation, as suggested by the translation ‫تشكؿ خط اًر عمى الشخص الذي يتمقى المديح‬. The
second is ‘they were less likely to hire them’ which cannot be translated into Arabic
directly for it does not mean exactly ‫( استئجار‬hiring), but, rather, ‫( توظيؼ‬employment).
Hence the following translation into Arabic: ‫تصبح فرص حصولو عمى الوظيفة قميمة‬. The third
‘attractiveness made the subject more employable’ is, likewise’ translated by implication
and freely into a familiar equivalent in Arabic as: ‫تصبح الجاذبية سبب ًا وجيي ًا في الحصوؿ عمى الوظيفة‬,
rather than the awkward literal translation of sense as: ‫جعمت الجاذبية مف الشخص قاببلً لمتوظيؼ‬.

One abstracted metaphorical and proverbial statement occurs in the source text: “the
curse is more trouble than it’s worth”, and it is retained in the target translation as ‫عقاب‬
.‫المعنة أسوأ مف جزائيا‬, which could be somehow vague. So the translator may change it into a
cultural equivalent like ‫الرسوب أسوأ مف ;عقاب المعصية أسوأ مف لذتيا ;درء المفاسد مقدـ عمى جمب المصالح‬
‫سير الميالي‬. In the same context, ‘the target of envy’ is not translated directly into ‫ىدؼ لمحسد‬
which is possible, but normal. So, instead, it is translated into the expressive, exaggerative
and negative ‫ فريسة لمحسد والبغضاء‬which matches the ugliness of envy in Arabic culture. By
contrast, ‘trick’ has negative implications and, hence, is translated into a neutral word ‫طريقة‬
to avoid misunderstanding on the part of the target readers, for the source text does not
mean it.

A further stylistic point about quoted statements: while in English, it is possible to start
with the name of person quoted, or end with it, in Arabic, the rule is to start with the
name – though exceptions may occasionally occur. For example, ‘scientists say’ (of the
heading) is delayed to the end of the statement in English, whereas we start with it in
Arabic )...‫(يقوؿ العمماء‬. The same is done with other quotations in the translation above.

Finally, it must be stressed that the key term of the text, ‘psychology’ is definitely
translated into a very well-established and long lasting Arabic term ‫عمـ النفس‬, and any
attempt to replace it with an outrageous transliteration into the English ‫سيكولوجيا‬, or,
worse, the French ‫ بسيكولوجي‬would be a defamation of the Arabic term.

5.11.4 Translation Strategies

(1) Transliteration of proper names, title, etc. (e.g. Dr. Denise → ‫)الدكتورة دنيس كمينز‬
(2) Arabization (e.g. e.g. psychology → ‫( عمـ النفس‬not ‫))سيكولوجيا‬
(3) Naturalization (e.g. tactic → ‫)تكتيكية‬
(4) Overtranslation (e.g. ‘self-depreciating humor’ → ‫‘ ;أسموب تنكيت النساء عمى أنفسيف‬self-
deprecation’ into an overtranslated version as well as ‫)اإلنقاص مف قدر الشخص لنفسو‬

231
 (5) Euphemization (e.g. ‘put oneself down’ → ‫( يقمؿ مف قدر نفسو‬c.f. the insulting ‫احتقار‬
‫))الذات‬
(6) Expansion (e.g. ‘attractiveness made the subject more employable’ → ‫تصبح الجاذبية‬
‫ ;سبباً وجيياً في الحصوؿ عمى الوظيفة‬the target of envy → ‫)فريسة لمحسد والبغضاء‬
(7) Cultural equivalence (e.g. “the curse is more trouble than it’s worth” → ‫درء المفاسد‬
‫)الرسوب أسوأ مف سير الميالي ;عقاب المعصية أسوأ مف لذتيا ;مقدـ عمى جمب المصالح‬
(8) Cultural correspondence (e.g. “the curse is more trouble than it’s worth” → ‫عقاب‬
.‫)المعنة أسوأ مف جزائيا‬
(9) Modulation: positive → negative (e.g. more include →‫)ليسوا ميمشيف‬
(10) Cultural functional overexaggeration (e.g. ‘the target of envy’ → ‫(فريسة لمحسد‬
‫والبغضاء‬
(11) Non-technical translation (e.g. bonding → ‫( إثبات الثقة‬not the technical ‫)إيثاؽ‬.
(12) Addition by implication (e.g. a series of studies → ‫)سمسمة الدراسات النفسية‬

5.12 Summary

In this chapter on translating the general texts of the newspaper, several conclusions can
be drawn. The first is that not all newspapers are of the same type in terms of language,
style, seriousness and respectability. There are two main types in English: Quality
Newspapers (formal, serious and respected), and Popular Newspaper (informal, less
serious and less respectable). However, in Arabic there is only one type, Formal
Newspaper. Focus has been on translation from English into Arabic only, as usually the
case in practice, and the stylistic features of both types of newspaper are put to use in
translation later on in the practical part of the chapter. Second, all types of texts are
present in newspapers, but they are treated as general texts for they are not forwarded to
specialists, and technical language is generally avoided in favor of simple, easy-going,
general and comprehended language and style for they are meant to address the general
public at large.

The third conclusion is that the purpose of the translation and type of TL readership are
generally taken into account by translators, for newspaper texts are vocative texts,
directed to TL readers in a straightforward way. Therefore, they are always borne in mind
by translators. Further, the problems of translating the different types of newspaper texts
centre around translating words of different types (technical, non-technical, concept
words, cultural words, words in contexts, etc.), features of style ((formal, informal,
expressive, rhetorical, repetitive, variant, hyperbolic, ironical, serious, respectful,
disrespectful, passive, active, etc.), literal, free translation and/or pragmatic translation
methods, and occasional grammatical and phonological problems of translation. Solutions
to the translation problems have been suggested and investigated in detail in relation to
each text handled in the chapter.

The final conclusion is that a huge number of translation strategies are employed on a
large scale to help solve many problems of translation. At the end of the discussion of the

232
translation of each text handled earlier is a list with the translation procedures used to
translate that text, with illustrative practical examples from the translation.

It is hoped that the translation of samples of the different types of newspaper texts would
justify classifying them as general texts addressing the common public regarding all issues
and topics of human life in a simplified, non-technical and direct language and style.

Now, it is possible to introduce the sixth chapter of the book which investigates translating
miscellaneous general texts from the same quadrilateral perspective of the translation’s
purpose, type of TL readership, translation problems and translation strategies. It is hoped
that the next chapter would give the opportunity for further explorations about
translating general texts both in theory and practice, in both directions.

233
EXERCISES

(1) How (dis)similar are the two main types of English newspaper: Quality and
Popular, in terms of style? How can translators make use of these stylistic
features in use in their translation of newspaper texts?
(2) The overwhelming newspaper articles are either political, or politicized, yet they
are described as general texts alongside with all types of text. What are the
justifications for that, especially with respect to technical vs. non-technical
terminology, formality vs. informality, simplicity vs. complexity, addressing the TL
readership and methods of translation?
(3) Which method of translation is more appropriate to translating general
newspaper texts: literal, free, communicative, pragmatic? Why?
(4) With reference to translating newspaper texts, to what extent can the translator
make concessions )‫ )تنازالت‬to TL readers regarding purpose of the translation,
educational levels, simplification and requirements? Why? Give an example.

(5) The next English text is translated into Arabic. Are you a ‘beard owner? What type
of text is it? How important is the topic of the text to you? Do you trust the
information provided about ‘bears’? Why has the word ‘beard’ appeared in the
headline, but disappeared from the text? What are the terms used to substitute
for ‘beard’? Are they positive, negative, or neutral? Do you agree that the text is
pejorative against ‘beard owners’? Why? Is there an implicit tone of racism?
How?

234
 Beard owners defend themselves after bacteria study

Is it worth showering twice a day to maintain this?

WHEN news broke on Monday about the hygienic hazards of the decade’s most enduring
hipster accessory, a hush fell over hip suburbs around the world.

In effect, that lady-magnet beard might be a gnarly breeding ground for major bacteria.

Microbiologists from Quest Diagnostics revealed that some of the bacteria the kind of
things that you find in faeces

The security blanket for every hirsute hipster has suddenly been called into question — and
now, they’re valiantly pushing back against the bad press, while stroking their beards and
egos, of course.

“I shower twice a day and use a beard wash in the shower and a beard butter after,”
counterpunches Brett David, a 35-year-old creative director from New York. “It cleans,
conditions and makes it shine. Upkeep is key, but that’s universal.”

Another chin rug defender also maintains his cleanliness.

235
‫‪“I promise I do not have poop on my face,” protests 29-year-old photographer Madison‬‬
‫… ‪McGraw‬‬

‫‪“I take care of it — I go to a barber every other week. I comb it and wash it with special‬‬
‫‪products a couple of times a day and I wash my beard whenever I shower,” he said. “And,‬‬
‫”‪yes, I shower every day.‬‬

‫أصحاب المحى الكثة يدافعون عن أنفسيم بعد شيوع دراسة حول بكتيريا المحية‬

‫ىؿ يستحؽ الحفاظ عمى ىذا الشيء تكبد عناء االستحماـ مرتيف في اليوـ؟‬

‫ُفشي يوـ اإلثنيف خبر المخاطر الصحية ألكثر لوازـ الييبييف أصحاب المحى الوسخة بقاء في ىذا العقد‪ ،‬خيـ‬
‫حينما أ َ‬
‫صمت رىيب عمى تجمعات الييبييف الممتحيف حوؿ العالـ‪.‬‬

‫ونتيجة لذلؾ‪ ،‬قد تصبح المحية‪ ،‬وىي مغناطيس السيدات في الغرب‪ ،‬أرضاً خصبة فظيعة لبكتيريا خطيرة‪.‬‬

‫ىذا وقد كشؼ عمماء األحياء مف ىيئة التشخيص والتحقيؽ أف بعض ىذه البكتيريا ىي مما يوجد في البراز‪.‬‬

‫ما لبث ىذا الخبر أف أثار الشكوؾ حوؿ البطانية األمنية لكؿ ىيبي مزود بمحية قاسية الشعر (أىمب؟) – وىـ اآلف‬
‫يردوف بشجاعة نادرة عمى الخبر بكيؿ التيـ لمصحافة السيئة‪ ،‬طبعاً وىـ يمسدوف لحاىـ بغرور‪.‬‬

‫رد بريت ديفيد (‪ 35‬سنة)‪ ،‬المخرج األمريكي المبدع بقوة قائبلً‪ :‬أنا أستحـ مرتيف يومياً وأمشط لحيتي أثناء االستحماـ‬
‫وأستعمؿ ْكريـ خاصاً بالمحية‪ ،‬مما يجعميا نظيفة وناعمة وتممع لمعاناً‪ .‬العناية الدائمة (صيانة؟) بالمحية أساسية‪ ،‬لكف‬
‫ىذا أمر عالمي"‪.‬‬

‫كما يؤكد أحد المدافعيف عف لبادة الذقف عمى العناية بنظافتيا‪.‬‬

‫أما المصور الفوتوجرافي ماديسوف ماكجو (‪ 29‬سنة) فقد احتج ساخ ًار‪" :‬أعدكـ بأال أترؾ عمى وجيي قاذورات!!!"‬

‫وتابع قائبلً‪" :‬إنني أعتني بمحيتي‪ .‬أذىب إلى الحبلؽ كؿ أسبوع‪ ،‬وأمشطيا وأغسميا بكريمات خاصة مرتيف في اليوـ‪،‬‬
‫وأغسميا كمما استحممت‪ .‬نعـ‪ ،‬أستحـ يومياً!!!"‪.‬‬

‫‪(6) The following two texts are taken from two famous western newspapers, The‬‬
‫‪Times, and The Economist. Translate either of the two texts into Arabic as‬‬
‫‪pragmatically and expressively as possible in regard to the words describing the‬‬
‫‪tyrant, Assad, and his murderous actions in particular. If you feel adding a‬‬
‫‪comment is sometimes necessary, do it after the word concerned between‬‬
‫‪brackets. Is the article biased with, or against the bloody dictator of Syria? Or,‬‬
‫‪perhaps it is neither with, nor against? Say why.‬‬
‫‪236‬‬
(A)

Rattled Assad accused of new chlorine gas attacks

(Damien McElroy Published: 10 May 2015)

IN SYRIA’S frontline villages the danger of chemical weapons attacks has returned.
A reinvigorated opposition offensive against the Assad regime has drawn a lethal daily
response of chemical-laced bombs dropped from helicopters.

Two barrels filled with chlorine gas were dropped on the town of al-Janoudiyah in
northwestern Syria on Thursday night.

“There were 150 people injured who we found with coughing and asphyxiation, weeping
eyes, swollen eyes and running noses — typical of chlorine attacks,” said an activist named
Majid.

Civil defence members in Syria with what they claim was a chlorine gas canister (Abed Kontar/Reuters)

One man was taken to hospital in Turkey for life-saving treatment by White Helmets, a
Syrian volunteer rescue operation supported indirectly by British taxpayers.
The incident was the latest of 15 attacks since early April that mock UN resolutions
adopted after almost 1,500 civilians were killed in sarin gas attacks in 2013.
President Bashar al-Assad’s troops and militias have lost ground to rebel fighters in his
own Alawite heartland. (The Sunday Times)

(B)

Bashar Assad is weaker than ever; but peace is not nigh

May 9th 2015 | CAIRO | (The Economist)

IT IS hard to find a sitting ruler with more blood on his hands than Syria’s Bashar Assad.
The war, sparked largely by his heavy-handed response to protests in 2011, has killed over
200,000 people and displaced half the population of 24m. In the 15 months to March this
237
year, 3,124 civilians were killed by the regime’s bombs in Aleppo alone, according to an
independent report this week. But now there are signs that his regime may be faltering.

A year-long equilibrium in which the regime and its backers (Iran, its Lebanese client,
Hizbullah, and Russia) had the upper hand has come to an end. Last month Mr Assad lost
Idleb and Jisr al-Shughour, two key towns in the north-west, to rebel fighters. On May 4th
a suicide-bomber made it into central Damascus, the heavily guarded capital. Latakia, the
port city close to the Assads’ ancestral home, is now within the range of rebel mortars.

The regime is short of men, despite its use of foreign militias. Hizbullah and Iranian forces
have withdrawn from some areas in the south of the country to protect Damascus and the
border with Lebanon where Jabhat al-Nusra, a rebel group affiliated to al-Qaeda, launched
an offensive on May 4th. Syrian soldiers grumble about being used as cannon fodder. A
recent fight between two security chiefs, the subsequent mysterious demise of one of
them, and rumours that a third is ill, all hint at disagreements in the ruling cabal.

At the same time the rebels, most of whom are Islamists, have become more organised
both on and off the battlefield. Several groups, including Jabhat al-Nusra, banded together
as Jaish al-Fatah (Army of Conquest) to take—and try to administer rather than run into
ruin—Idleb. Deraa, the southern city where Syria’s uprising first began, is now within their
sights. Aleppo, the recent target of a big regime offensive, now looks more likely to fall
under full rebel control than into the regime’s grip.
The rebels are getting more of a helping hand. Their foreign backers, whose fractious
relations have long hampered the effectiveness of their support, now appear to be better
co-ordinated. Saudi Arabia, more assertive under King Salman, has reached out to Recep
Tayyip Erdogan, Turkey’s president; co-operation with Qatar has also improved. “The
takeover of Idleb was a sign of these changing dynamics,” says Lina Khatib, the head of the
Carnegie Middle East Centre, a think-tank in Beirut. ...

238
 CHAPTER 6

TRANSLATING MISCELLANEOUS GENERAL TEXTS

6.0 Introduction

This chapter will tackle the translation of various types of SL general texts into the TL with
the aim to find out about further explorations about the purposes, problems and
strategies of translating these texts, with special emphasis on the TL readership
throughout. Next is an anthology of texts of general topics, addressing the readers with
the purpose of informing, pleasing, provoking, persuading and influencing them in some
way. The ultimate objective of translating them is to respond to their needs and
requirements in as much appropriately as possible.

6.1 TEXT 1: Smoking

“Smoking is undoubtedly a pleasure to many people, but it can hardly be thought a good
habit to acquire. In the first place, its correlation with bronchitis, heart disease and cancer
of lung is too well established to be doubted. In the second place, tobacco and cigarettes
are no longer modestly priced and the smoker has to pay dearly for his enjoyment.
Furthermore, what is a pleasure to him is often an ordeal to others, whose reactions may
give him the unpleasant sensation of being a social outcast. It might seem, in short, that
the next best thing to giving up smoking is never to have acquired the habit.”
(Nash, 1980: 23).

‫ ال أحد ينكر ارتباطو‬،ً‫ أوال‬.‫ لكنو ليس عادة حسنة نتمنى اكتسابيا لؤلسباب التالية‬،‫(ال شؾ أف التدخيف متعة لمكثيريف‬
‫ وعمى‬،‫ أسعار السجائر والتبغ مرتفعة جداً وفي الريح‬،ً‫ ثانيا‬.‫الوثيؽ بالتياب القصبات وأمراض القمب وسرطاف الرئة‬
‫ ما يعتبره المدخف متعة لو ىو مصيبة لغيره مف غير المدخنيف مما‬،ً‫ أيضا‬.‫المدخف أف يدفع ثمناً غالياً لمتعة التدخيف‬
‫ أفضؿ مف اإلقبلع عف التدخيف بالنسبة لممدخنيف ىو عدـ اكتساب‬،‫ باختصار‬.ً‫جعميـ يعتبرونو مف المنبوذيف اجتماعيا‬
).‫عادة التدخيف مف أساسيا‬
6.1.1 Purpose of the Translation

The SL text tackles the popular topic of smoking. It points out realities that people know
about smoking. Though it starts with a positive statement about it in the smokers’ eyes,
the rest of it is switched to the hazards of smoking with an aim to convince smokers to
give up smoking in as polite and logical way as possible. As to the purpose of the
translation into Arabic, it is to convey the message of the SL text about the concrete facts
about smoking as clearly and convincingly as possible, using formal – but not frozen formal
– straightforward and uncomplicated language and style. Therefore, technical terms, if
any, and complicated grammatical structures have to be avoided even if that would be at
the expense of changing stylistic focus, as explained in 6.1.3 below.

239
6.1.2 Type of TL Readership

All types of TL readers are supposed to be aimed at by this translation which tackles one of
the most popular and sensitive subjects amongst them. Moreover, the majority of readers
have special interest in smoking and the facts about it. Some readers are smokers and are
concerned about the serious consequences of the bad habit of smoking; other readers are
non-smokers but would like to know more about this habit due to its health and social
repercussions. The translator has to address the TL readers at large directly, politely and in
as clear, simple and persuasive terms as possible. This does not mean that informal
language and style is preferred to formality; it means rather, to be formal but not very
formal, nontechnical and not complicated.

6.1.3 Translation Problems

The first translation problem that may face the translator is the technical/nontechnical
terminology. He/she is recommended to use nontechnical (or popular) terms and sacrifice
technical terms for the sake of comprehensibility, simplification and readability. The
technical terminology of the text includes the following medical terms: ‘bronchitis’, ‘heart
disease’ and ‘lung cancer’. Fortunately, the three terms have popular Arabic terms which
are: ’‫ و‘سرطاف الرئة‬،’‫ و‘أمراض القمب‬،’‫‘التياب القصبات‬. The first is preferred to the unpopular
‫ ;التياب شعبي‬and the second is favored to the very formal ‫اعتبلالت القمب‬.

The second problem is the translation of complicated grammatical structures into simpler,
less complicated or even uncomplicated structures in the target language. The first three
and final sentences are complicated to translate directly into the same type of
complicated structure in Arabic as: ‫ لكنو مف النادر أف تعتبر عادة حسنة‬،‫ال شؾ أف التدخيف متعة لمكثيريف‬
‫ في المقاـ‬.‫ ارتباطو بالتياب القصبات وأمراض القمب وسرطاف الرئة وطيد جداً ُليشؾ بيا‬،‫ في المقاـ األوؿ‬.‫لتكتسب‬
َ
‫ أفضؿ شيء بعد اإلقبلع عف‬،‫ باختصار‬. ... ‫ أسعار السجائر والتبغ أصبحت مسعرة بش كؿ غير متواضع‬،‫الثاني‬
.ً‫كتسب عادة التدخيف أبدا‬
َ ُ‫التدخيف ىو أال ت‬. The grammatical complication results from the use of
passive, abstract structure demonstrated in the postmodifying clauses and phrases (‘... but
it can hardly be thought a good habit to acquire’ (‫لتكتسب‬
َ ‫‘ ;(لكنو مف النادر أف تعتبر عادة حسنة‬... is
too well established to be doubted’ (‫ )وطيدة جداً ُليشؾ بيا‬and ‘... is never to have acquired the
habit’ )ً‫كتسب عادة التدخيف أبدا‬
َ ُ‫(أال ت‬. They appear to be complicated for the TL readers if
translated into a literal, academic and identical Arabic structure of passive voice,
abstraction and indirectness. That is why the translation suggested above changes them
into active, concrete and direct Arabic structures to be more understandable and readable
than their passive, abstract counterparts as follows in a row: ‫ لكنو اليعتبر عادة حسنة نتمنى‬...‘
‫ىو عدـ‬...‘ ‫ أسعار السجائر والتبغ مرتفعة جداً وفي الريح’؛‬...‘ ’... ‫ال أحد ينكر ارتباطو الوثيؽ‬...‘ ‫اكتسابيا’؛‬
)’‫اكتساب عادة التدخيف مف أساسيا‬. Now they are simplified, clear and easy to follow and
understand. In a similar context of simplification, the two very formal phrases: ‫في المقاـ األوؿ‬
and ‫في المقاـ الثاني‬, which are replaced by their simpler and more popular equivalents ً‫ أوال‬and
ً‫ثانيا‬.

240
The third potential problem is the translation of ‘tobacco’ and ‘cigarettes’ into Arabic
words. Unfortunately, there are no Arabic terms for them due to the fact that they are not
of Arabic origin, and, more importantly, they have been naturalized comfortably a long
time into ‫ تبغ‬and ‫ سجائر‬consecutively. So, the translator has not to waste much time trying
to Arabize them.

The four type of problem is presented by choosing the right Arabic word for the English
original. For example, ‘ordeal’ is naturally translated as ‫محنة‬, which fits well here, but
another synonymous choice could be better here (i.e. ‫ (مصيبة‬to match ‫ متعة‬based, by
implication, on the well-known proverb ‫ ( مصائب قوـ عند قوـ فوائد‬a man’s meat is another
man’s poison). ‘Outcast’ can be translated appropriately into ... ‫ محتقر‬/‫ ممفوظ‬/ ‫مرفوض‬, yet, it
is translated into the very formal ‫ منبوذ‬due to its familiarity among readers of different
educated levels. Further, it is more accurate and powerful in sense and implications than
the other three.

The final translation problem is presented by the method of translation to be applied by

the translator. Certainly, it is not literal translation of meaning. It can be either bound free
translation, or communicative translation, both of which give more freedom to translators
to dispose of technical terminology, frozen formality and structural complications. The
whole source text is approached in terms of these two methods. To cite one example, the
third sentence “Furthermore, what is a pleasure to him is often an ordeal to others, whose
reactions may give him the unpleasant sensation of being a social outcast” ‫ ما‬،‫(عبلوة عمى ذلؾ‬
)‫ يعتبر متعة لو ىو محنة لآلخريف الذيف تعطيو ردود أفعاليـ اإلحساس المزعج بأنو منبوذ اجتماعي‬is not
translated literally and complicatedly, (as in the former translation) , but rather freely and
communicatively as: ‫ ما يعتبره المدخف متعة لو ىو مصيبة لغيره مف غير المدخنيف مما جعميـ يعتبرونو‬،ً‫(أيضا‬
)ً‫ مف المنبوذيف اجتماعيا‬in which the literal translation of words (especially ‘whose reactions
may give him the unpleasant sensation’) is dismissed in favour of recreated and rephrased
contextual translation into ‫مما جعميـ يعتبرونو‬, in addition to slotting the explanatory phrase
‫ مف غير المدخنيف‬by implication.

6.1.4 Translation Strategies

(1) Naturalization (e.g. tobacco → ‫ ;تبغ‬cigarettes → ‫)سجائر‬

(2) Modulation: passive → active (e.g. is too well established to be doubted → ‫ال أحد‬
‫)ينكر ارتباطو الوثيؽ‬
(3) Modulation: negative → positive (e.g. no longer modestly priced → ‫أسعار السجائر‬
‫)والتبغ مرتفعة جداً وفي الريح‬
(4) Translation by implication (e.g. “whose reactions may give him the unpleasant
sensation of being a social outcast” → ‫)مما جعميـ يعتبرونو‬.

241
 (5) Technical → nontechnical (e.g. ‘bronchitis’, ‘heart disease’ and ‘lung cancer’ →
’‫ و‘أمراض (القمب’ و‘سرطاف الرئة‬،’‫التياب القصبات‬
(6) Unpopular → popular (e.g. ‘bronchitis’ → ‫التياب القصبات‬, not into ‫(التياب شعبي‬.
(7) Less familiar → more familiar (e.g. ‘bronchitis’, ‘heart disease’ → ‫ أمراض القمب‬rather
than into ‫)اعتبلالت القمب‬
(8) Very formal → formal and recurrent (e.g. in the first place’ … ‘in the second place’
)‫ في المقاـ الثاني‬... ‫ ثاني ًا → في المقاـ األوؿ‬... ً‫)أوال‬.
(9) Redundant functional translation (e.g. no longer modestly priced → ‫أسعار السجائر‬
‫ مرتفعة جداً وفي الريح‬...)
(10) Transposition: adv. & pp. → n. & adj. ( not modestly (adv.) priced (pp.) → ‫(األسعار‬
‫ مرتفعة‬...
(11) Non-cultural → cultural equivalent by implication (e.g. ordeal → ‫( مصيبة‬borrowed
from the cultural proverb ‫(مصائب قوـ عند قوـ فوائد‬
(12) Contextual Addition phrase (e.g. ‫)لؤلسباب التالية‬

6.2 TEXT 2: Living in London

“Until 1952, I had been quite content to eke out an existence in London, though even in
those uninflated days, an assistant lecturer’s salary (paid quarterly in arrears) required
very careful budgeting. At the time I had a room in a cheap boarding house in Brunswick
Square in an elegant if decaying terrace that was subsequently demolished to make a
room for a red slab of modern brutality. That was the base from which I made raids on
London, not the London of the theatres and stores, but a London of byways, barrows, pubs,
chop-houses. I enjoyed it enormously and after two years had begun to think of myself as a
Londoner. ... When I left London, shortly afterwards, there were pleasant domestic
prospects to console me for whatever sadness I might have felt on parting from my little
room in Bloomsbury. Only in later years did I sometimes feel, in self-dramatising moods,
that maybe the room had contained the last and best of my youth.” (Nash, ibid.: 36).

‫ مع أف راتب المعيد في الجامعة‬،‫ كنت راضي ًا تماماً عف التحايؿ عمى المعيشة بشؽ األ نفس في لندف‬،1952 ‫(حتى عاـ‬
‫ استأجرت غرفة‬،‫ في ذلؾ الوقت‬.‫[يتقاضاه كؿ أربعة أشير بمفعوؿ رجعي) كاف في أياـ الرخص بحاجة إلى شد الحزاـ‬
‫في فندؽ شعبي رخيص في منطقة ساحة برانزويؾ [اآلف وسط لندف] في حارة ضيقة أنيقة لكنيا ميرىرة قامت بمدية لندف‬
‫ كاف ذلؾ المكاف قاعدة‬.‫بيدميا بعد فترة وجيزة لتبني مكانيا صروح القرميد األحمر رمز المدنية الحديثة المتوحشة‬
‫ بؿ لندف الشعبية والطرؽ الفرعية المجيولة وعربات‬،‫ ليس لندف المسارح والمتاجر‬،‫انطبلقي في شف غاراتي عمى لندف‬
‫ وبعد سنتيف بدأت أظف أنني‬،‫ لقد استمتعت كثي اًر بإقامتي في لندف‬.‫ والمطاعـ الرخيصة‬،‫ والحانات‬،‫الباعة الجواليف‬
‫ كانت آمالي المستقبمية السعيدة في ديرتي عزاء ألحزاني التي‬،‫ حينما تركت لندف بعد فترة قصيرة‬... .ً‫أصبحت لندنيا‬
‫ في السنوات األخيرة بدأت أشعر في لحظات‬.‫شعرت بيا حينما فارقت غرفتي الصغيرة في حي ْبمومزبيري في وسط لندف‬
).‫درامية بالحنيف يتدفؽ في نفسي إلى تمؾ الغرفة الصغيرة التي كانت شاىداً عمى أحمى أياـ شبابي‬

242
6.2.1 Purpose of the Translation

The source text appears to present a real affectionate experience of the author himself
when he was young in London, and how he recalled it when he became old. The purpose
of the translation into Arabic, then, is to render this experience with the most affectionate
type of language and style available in the target language being brought into the
translation, with the aim to make the target readers enliven and recreate this experience
in their own culture, mind and heart. The translator’s task, and to introduce to his/her TL
readers an impressive translation, is recommended to construct the meanings of the SL
text with much sentimentality, passion, affections and emotions more than with logic,
reason and deliberation. This implies that the choice of words and other stylistic devices
have to be at par with this line of argument to achieve the ultimate purpose of the target
translation.

6.2.2 Type of TL Readership

Many readers would have some interest in recollections of pleasant past memories that
may affect man’s life in later years. This can be allegedly common practice among people
in general. Therefore, although educated readers can be singled out and addressed solely
by this type of text and purpose of translation, the Arab translator is highly recommended
to have at the back of his/her neck that he/she forwards translation to every reader who
can potentially have some interest in an emotional text of this kind. Consequently, he/she
will be concerned about all language and stylistic features that may meet the
requirements of all types of target readers.

6.2.3 Translation Problems

The problems of translating the source text into Arabic are mainly lexical, stylistic and
cultural. Some key lexical terms pose one or two difficulties understanding as much as
expressing them in the target language. One of these terms is ‘eke out’ (an existence in
London), which can be understood generally as ‘manage to live somehow’. In Arabic,
several options are available, all of which imply the sense of hardship of managing to live
in London: ‫يتدبره أموره؛ بالكاد يعيش؛ يحتاؿ عمى المعيشة (بشؽ األنفس)؛ يحاوؿ أف يسد رمقو؛ يكابد شظؼ‬
...‫العيش؛ يكسب قوت يومو بشؽ النفس؛ يشقى في الميؿ والنيار‬. Apparently, they are collocations that
are generally understood by target readers to indicate the hardships of life undergone by
the man in question. Other metaphorical options include: ...‫يحفر في الصخر‬. In the same
way, ‘uninflated days’ has several good translations like: ‫في أياـ الرخص؛ أياـ البساطة؛ في زمف‬
...‫ الفقر‬all of which translate the original by implication into its intended sense, for it cannot
be translated literally and directly into ‫في أياـ البلتضخـ‬. Third, ‘very careful budgeting’ is a
euphemistic phrase for ‘poverty’. It means to consider one’s purse and be economical, not
to say parsimonious at spending. Equally, in Arabic, we have direct, immodest translations
like ...‫فقر؛ عوز؛ تقتير؛ تقنيت‬, which is more explicitly and informally: ‫عايش مف قمة الموت؛ اسـ‬

243
 ‫عايش؛ عمؿ ميزانية‬. However, the translation suggested above (i.e. ‫ )شد الحزاـ‬is a popular
metaphorical expression that is as euphemistic as the original.

As to stylistic problems, and in addition to word choice, there are contrastive pairs that
have to be dealt with carefully by the translator to make the theme sharper: e.g.

 ‘Elegant if decaying terrace’ ‫حارة ضيقة أنيقة لكنيا ميرىرة‬

 ‘modern brutality’ ‫المدنية الحديثة المتوحشة‬
 ‘not the London of the theatres and stores, but a London of byways, barrows,
pubs, chop-houses’ ‫ بؿ لندف الشعبية والطرؽ الفرعية المجيولة وعربات‬،‫ليس لندف المسارح والمتاجر‬
‫ والمطاعـ الرخيصة‬،‫ والحانات‬،‫الباعة الجواليف‬
 ‘pleasant domestic prospects to console me for whatever sadness’ ‫آمالي المستقبمية‬
‫السعيدة في ديرتي عزاء ألحزاني‬

Another stylistic problem to deal with is the poetic, expressive and impressive type of
language used to translate the last statement about the past and best memories of the
writer-narrator to match the deep sentiments implied:

- ‘Only in later years did I sometimes feel, in self-dramatising moods, that maybe
the room had contained the last and best of my youth’ → ‫في السنوات األخيرة بدأت أشعر‬
‫في لحظات درامية بالحنيف يتدفؽ في نفسي إلى تمؾ الغرفة الصغيرة التي كانت شاىداً عمى أحمى أياـ‬
. ‫شبابي‬

The third type of problems is cultural problems, are dealt with special care as follows:

 ‘cheap boarding house’ ‫( فندؽ شعبي رخيص‬translated into a cultural equivalent in

Arabic)
 ‘red slab of modern brutality’ ‫( صروح القرميد األحمر رمز المدنية الحديثة المتوحشة‬translated
pragmatically to explain the cultural implication of the English original)
 ‘not the London of the theatres and stores, but a London of byways, barrows,
pubs, chop-houses’ ‫ بؿ لندف الشعبية والطرؽ الفرعية المجيولة وعربات‬،‫ليس لندف المسارح والمتاجر‬
‫ والمطاعـ الرخيصة‬،‫ والحانات‬،‫( الباعة الجواليف‬translated partly into sense, and partly into
cultural equivalent in Arabic (especially ‘barrows’ (‫ (عربات الباعة الجواليف‬and chop-
houses (‫)مطاعـ رخيصة‬.

6.2.4 Translation Strategies

(1) Transliteration (of London, Brunswick, Bloomsbury as follows in a row → ‫لندف؛‬

)‫برانزويؾ؛ بمومزبيري‬

244
 (2) Translation couplet: translation + transliteration (e.g. Brunswick Square → ‫ساحة‬
‫(برانزويؾ‬
(3) Classifier (e.g. Bloomsbury → ‫)حي ْبمومزبيري‬
(4) Paraphrase (‘red slab of modern brutality’ → ‫صروح القرميد األحمر رمز المدنية الحديثة‬
‫)المتوحشة‬
(5) Cultural equivalent (e.g. cheap boarding house → ‫ ;فندؽ شعبي رخيص‬barrows →
‫(عربات الباعة الجواليف‬
(6) Euphemization (very careful budgeting → ‫)شد الحزاـ‬
(7) Translation by implication (e.g. uninflated days → ‫)أياـ الرخص‬
(8) Approximate translation (e.g. decaying terrace → ‫)حارة ضيقة ميرىرة‬
(9) Literary translation (e.g. self-dramatising moods → ‫)لحظات درامية بالحنيف يتدفؽ في نفسي‬
(10) Collocation (e.g. make raids → ‫)يشف غارات‬
(11) Literal → metaphorical (e.g. very careful budgeting → ‫)شد الحزاـ‬
(12) Semi-informal expressive translation (e.g. decaying terrace → ‫)حارة ضيقة ميرىرة‬

6.3 TEXT 3: What is Abuse?

Abuse in families can take many forms. It may be physical, sexual, emotional, verbal, or a
combination of any or all of those. Neglect – when parents don’t care of the basic needs of
the children who depend on them – can be a form of abuse.

Family violence can affect anyone, regardless of religion, color, or social standing. It
happens in both wealthy and poor families and in single-parent or two-parent households.
Sometimes, parents abuse each other, which can be hard for a child to witness. Some
parents abuse their children by using a physical or verbal cruelty as a way of discipline.
Physical abuse is often the most obvious form of abuse. It may be any kind of hitting,
shaking, burning, pinching, biting, choking, throwing, whipping, paddling, beating, and
other actions that cause physical injury, leave marks, or produce significant physical pain.

Emotional abuse can be difficult to pin down because there are no physical signs to look
for. Sure, people yell at each other, express anger, and call each other names sometimes.
And expressing anger can sometimes be healthy. But emotional abuse generally occurs
when the yelling and anger go too far or when a parent constantly belittles, threatens, or
dismisses a child until the child’s self-esteem and feelings of self-worth are damaged. And
just like physical abuse can cause physical scars, emotional abuse can bring about
emotional damage. ...” (Rojo, 2009: 263).

‫ أو اثنيف أو‬،ً‫ فقد يكوف جسدياً أو جنسياً أو عاطفياً أو كبلميا‬.‫(يمكف أف يتخذ سوء المعاممة في األسرة أشكاالً مختمفة‬
‫ وىو حينما ال ييتـ اآلباء‬،‫ ومف أشكاؿ سوء المعاممة اإلىماؿ‬.‫ثبلثة مف ىذه األشكاؿ معاً أو مجموعيا في آف واحد‬
.‫بالحاجات األساسية لؤلطفاؿ الذيف يعيمونيـ‬

245
‫ إذ‬.‫ بغض النظر عف الديف أو الموف أو الطبقة االجتماعية‬،‫يمكف لمعنؼ األسري أف يؤثر عمى الجميع مف دوف استثناء‬
‫ يسيء األبواف معاممة‬،ً‫ أحيانا‬.‫ واألسر الطبيعية واألسر وحيدة األب أو األـ‬،‫يحدث في األسر الغنية واألسر الفقيرة‬
ً‫ ويقوـ بعض اآلباء بإساءة معاممة أبنائيـ بالقسوة عمييـ جسديا‬.‫بعضيما بعضاً أماـ األطفاؿ فيتأثروف سمباً بذالؾ‬
‫ ويتمثؿ في أي نوع مف أنواع‬.‫ لكف أوضح أشكاؿ سوء المعاممة ىو الجسدي منيا‬.‫وكبلمياً كأسموب مف أساليب تأديبيـ‬
‫ والضرب‬،‫ والضرب بعصا عمى القفا‬،‫ والجمد‬،‫ والطرح أرض ًا‬،‫ والخنؽ‬،‫ والعض‬،‫ والقرص‬،‫ والحرؽ‬،‫ وىز البدف‬،‫الضرب‬
‫ أو تتسبب في ألـ جسدي‬،‫ أو تُعمِّـ عمى الجسد‬،‫ وغيرىا مف األفعاؿ العنيفة التي تسبب أذى جسدي ًا‬،‫المبرح المتكرر‬
.‫موجع‬
ِّ
‫ ال شؾ أف كؿ الناس يصرخوف‬.‫أما سوء المعاممة العاطفي فمف الصعب تشخيصو ألنو ال يخمؼ عبلمات عمى الجسد‬
‫ لكف‬.ً‫ ويكوف الغضب أحياناً صحيا‬.‫ وأحياناً يتنابزوف باأللقاب‬،ً‫ ويغضبوف مف بعضيـ بعضا‬،ً‫في وجو بعضيـ بعضا‬
‫ ويقوـ أحد الوالديف‬،‫يقع سوء المعاممة لمعواطؼ والمشاعر بشكؿ عاـ عندما يزيد الصراخ والغضب عف حده المعتاد‬
‫ وكما يخمؼ‬.‫ أو طرده بشكؿ متواصؿ مما يؤدي إلى جرح كرامة الولد واحترامو لنفسو وكبريائو‬،‫باحتقار الولد أو تيديده‬
).‫ قد يتسبب سوء المعاممة العاطفي باإلضرار بالعواطؼ‬،‫سوء المعاممة الجسدي عبلمات عمى الجسد‬

6.3.1 Purpose of the Translation

The SL text is educational, aiming at educating people at large about abuse and family
violence in general terms. The purpose of the translation into Arabic is similar to that of
the source text. It is an attempt to educate the target readers about the very common
subject of abuse in simple, non-technical, polite and clear terms, neutrally, objectively and
without taking sides.

6.3.2 Type of TL Readership

All target readers need know about this disturbing topic of child abuse which is a source of
nuisance to many Arab families. So, everyone shows interest in such subject and the
translator has to take this into account to know how to address all readers appropriately
in regard to language, style of word choice, euphemistic expressions and non-technical
terminology in particular.

6.3.3 Translation Problems

The main concern of the translator here is with terminology problems of translation and
style of and politeness, clarity and simplicity. First terminology problems, starting with the
core word of the source text ‘abuse’. It can be understood in this context to mean ‫سوء‬
‫معاممة؛ ظمـ؛ تعذيب؛ اضطياد‬. The first (in the sense of maltreatment) is recommended here
due to its inclusion of the other three. In other words, it is a superordinate term
subsuming the other terms as its hyponyms. That said, ‫ ظمـ‬is quite popular in use and
expressive, though it can be sometimes very strong to express a marginal type of
mistreatment like, say, mild rebuke of one’s child as a means of discipline. It must be
admitted that ‫ سوء المعاممة‬is much milder than the rest, yet, it is more fitting than them.

246
The terms of different forms of abuse (i.e. hitting, shaking, burning, pinching, biting,
choking, throwing, whipping, paddling, beating) are translated directly into ready-made
Arabic one-to-one equivalent each (they are in a row: ،‫ والقرص‬،‫ والحرؽ‬،‫ وىز البدف‬،‫الضرب‬
)‫ والضرب المبرح (المتكرر‬،)‫ والضرب عمى القفا (بعصا‬،‫ والجمد‬،ً‫ والطرح أرضا‬،‫ والخنؽ‬،‫)والعض‬. However, their
translation does not pass unproblematic in regard to the three synonymous terms hitting,
paddling and beating which, by way of distinguishing between them, are translated
probably artificially into )‫ ضرب مبرح (متكرر‬،)‫ ضرب عمى القفا (بعصا‬،‫ضرب‬. As to choking, it does
not mean exactly strangling, or suffocating to death, but, rather, an attempt to suppress
one’s breath with the intention to punish, not to kill. However, in Arabic, we have only one
term available )‫ (خنؽ‬without any distinction between the intention to punish, or kill,
leaving this to context.

Another problem of terminology is collocation. The translator might miss the proper
combination of words. For example:

- Family violence ‫( العنؼ األسري‬not ‫)عنؼ األسرة‬

- single-parent households ‫األـ‬/‫( أسر وحيدة األب‬not ‫ أسر يتيمة‬for the English term
implies a cultural reference to a man, or a woman who had a child through an
illicit relationship with the other sex, and who lives together with his/her child
only).
- two-parent households ‫( األسر الطبيعية‬not ‫ األسر بوالديف‬for what is known to the
target readers as ‘family’ means naturally with mother and father).
- physical cruelty ‫( القسوة جسدي ًا‬not ‫البدنية‬/‫)القسوة الجسدية‬
- verbal cruelty‫ الكبلـ القاسي‬/ ‫( القسوة بالكبلـ‬not ‫الفعمية‬/‫(القسوة الكبلمية‬
- way of discipline ‫تأديبي‬/‫( أسموب تأديب‬not ‫)أسموب انضباط‬
- leave marks on the body ‫( يعمـ عمى الجسد‬rather than ‫)يترؾ عبلمات عمى الجسد‬
- physical signs ‫( عبلمات عمى الجسد‬rather than ‫)عبلمات جسدية‬
- people yell at each other ً‫( يصرخ الناس في وجو بعضيـ بعضا‬not ‫(يصرخ الناس عمى بعضيـ‬
‫البعض‬
- express anger‫( يغضبوف‬rather than ‫)يعبروف عف غضبيـ‬
- call each other names ‫( يتنابزوف باأللقاب‬which is very formal but popular among
target readers (not ‫(ينادوف بعضيـ بألقاب سيئة‬
- physical abuse ‫( سوء معاممة جسدي‬not ‫ظمـ جسدي‬/‫(تعذيب‬
- cause physical scars ‫( يخمؼ عبلمات عمى الجسد‬rather than ‫(يسبب بقعاً عمى الجسد‬
- emotional damage ‫( إضرار بالعواطؼ‬rather than ‫أذى عاطفي‬/‫)ضرر‬

The third major problem of translation concerns translating style as politely, clearly and
simply as possible. The translator can resort to using familiar, popular and non-technical
terms like those used in the translation above. For example, ‫ عبلمات‬is preferred to
‫ندبات‬/‫كدمات‬. Most of the terms of the forms of abuse have direct equivalents in Arabic. One
247
exception is the use of the classical Arabic term ‫ تنابز باأللقاب‬for the simple reason that it is
very well-known to target readers being a part of a familiar Korannic verse (i.e. ‫وال تنابزوا‬
‫باأللقاب‬: Chapter of Al-Hujurat (The Chambers)). As to the style of politeness, it refers to
terms that might be sensitive, or insulting to target readers, in which case the translator
has to euphemize them, if and when. One example occurs in this text: single-parent
households, which refers to a western culture practice of adulterers who had children and
became single parents through a prohibited sexual relationship without being married
legally. This practice is forbidden in Islam and irrelevant to Arabic culture, so it is
recommended to translate the term concerned not explicitly into ‫الزناة؛ أسر آباء‬/‫أسر الزنى‬
‫الخطيئة‬, but rather into a euphemistic general sense as ‫األـ‬/‫ األسر الوحيدة األب‬with the aim to
show respect for the target readers’ feelings, though at the expense of hiding a despicable
fact about the English culture.

6.3.4 Translation Strategies

(1) One-to-one equivalent (e.g. the translation of forms of abuse)

(2) Overtranslation (e.g. paddling →)‫ ; ضرب عمى القفا (بعصا‬beating → )‫)ضرب مبرح (متكرر‬
(3) Non-technical/popular terminology (e.g. signs/scars → ‫ عبلمات‬instead of /‫كدمات‬
‫)ندبات‬
(4) Classical translation (call each other names → ‫)يتنابزوف باأللقاب‬
(5) Transposition: phrase (collocation) → verb (e.g. express anger →) ‫(يغضب‬
(6) Transposition: adjectival phrase → nominal phrase (e.g. emotional damage →
‫)إضرار بالعواطؼ‬
(7) Euphemization (e.g. abuse → ‫( سوء معاممة‬rather than ‫تعذيب‬/‫وحشية‬/‫)ظمـ‬
(8) Cultural euphemization (e.g. single-parent households → ‫األـ‬/‫( أسر وحيدة األب‬rather
than ‫)أسر زنى‬
(9) Neutralization: translation of culture into neutral sense (single-parent households
→ ‫األـ‬/‫)أسر وحيدة األب‬
(10) Free translation (e.g. produce significant physical pain → ‫تتسبب في ألـ جسدي موجع‬
(not ‫))ينتج عنيا ألـ جسدي ميـ‬
(11) Sense (e.g. two-parent households (e.g. ‫( األباء الطبيعيوف‬rather than ‫)األسر بأبويف‬
(12) Expansion (e.g. any kind → ‫(أي نوع مف أنواع‬
(13) Reduction (feelings of self-worth → ‫)كبرياء‬

6.4 TEXT 4: A Humorous Text: Writing a Textbook

“Writing a textbook can be the most insufferable donkey-work, your colleagues may praise
you, your family may be proud of you, but it’s donkey-work all the same, and you are the
donkey. Dear God! Would a navvy put up with this? Would a dustman – cry you mercy,
sanitary operative – sustain these grubby labours? It would break a coalminer’s durable

248
heart, the Trade Unions would pass indignant resolutions on it. What’s more, it spoils your
appearance, messes up your house and ruins your character. Write for two months and
you’re still a reasonably wholesome, tidy, sober man. Keep it up for another eighteen and
you are King Lear with bags under your eyes, the floor of your room is littered with the
crumpled remains of dead chapters, your discourse is unfit for babies, and you’re down
buying cheap sherry or drinking diluted Martinis to keep yourself docile.”
(Nash, 1980: 150)

‫ لكف األمر‬،‫ فقد يمدحؾ زمبلؤؾ وتتباىى بؾ عائمتؾ‬،‫(ربما يكوف تأليؼ كتاب جامعي عمبلً ال يطيقو الحمار الصبور‬
- ‫ يا إليي!!! ىؿ يمكف لعامؿ مبتدئ أف يتحمؿ ىذا؟ أو لزباؿ‬.‫ وأ نت الحمار‬،‫ فيو عمؿ ال يطيقو حمار‬،‫سياف‬
‫ مما‬،‫ عامؿ نظافة – أف يطيؽ ىذه األعماؿ الوضيعة التي تقصـ ظير عامؿ مناجـ الفحـ حماؿ األسية‬،‫سامحوني‬
‫ سوؼ يفسد‬،‫ واألدىى واألمر مف ذلؾ‬.‫يجعؿ االتحادات العمالية الحامية لحقوؽ العماؿ تتخذ ق اررات غاضبة لحظرىا‬
‫ جرب التأليؼ لمدة شيريف‬.‫ ويقضي عمى شخصيتؾ‬،‫ ويقمب بيتؾ فوقاني تحتاني‬،‫تأليؼ كتاب مظيرؾ فبل تيتـ بو‬
ً‫ واصؿ التأليؼ لتماـ العشريف شي اًر وسوؼ تصبح عجو اًز مترىبل‬.‫وسوؼ تبقى متماسكاً وميندماً ومرتباً ورزيناً إلى حد ما‬
‫ وأرض غرفتؾ موسخة ببقايا متراكمة مف‬،‫كالممؾ لير في مسرحيات شكسبير بأكياس منتفخة تحت عينيؾ تصير‬
‫ وتجد نفسؾ ميروالً إلى أقرب دكاف لتشتري‬،‫ ويصبح حديثؾ غير الئؽ حتى مع األطفاؿ الرضع‬،‫مسودات فصوؿ تالفة‬
).‫شراباً رخيص ًا لتبقى فى حالة طبيعية‬

6.4.1 Purpose of the Translation

The text is explicitly humorous and implicitly constructional about the hardships of writing
a textbook. The purpose of the translation is, then, to please and teach, in an indirect but
effective way. The type of style used in the source text is self-depreciation, i.e., the writer
cracks jokes about himself and makes people laugh at him. This type of the style of humor
has proved to be brilliantly successful not only for being funny and modest with reference
to the speaker/writer, but also due to the fact that it is quite effective in sending messages
intended to be received by the reader, however, indirectly. In other words, it can be
described as a means-to-an-end style, hopefully used to achieve good ends. In the light of
this, the translator is to be attentive to the double-purpose of his/her translation into
Arabic in the sense that two messages of direct pleasing and indirect teaching are
involved.

6.4.2 Type of TL Readership

The different types of readers are interested in such entertaining and instructional text
with an interesting self-criticizing style and subject matter on the sufferings of book
writing. In consequence, the translator is supposed to assume a very humorous character,
using all types of funny styles, cultural or other, to entertain his/her readers, and, at the
same time, taking into account sending the indirect message of telling them briefly, if
effectively, about the hard work required to write a good textbook. All that is exemplified
for somehow in the translation above (see the next point for practical details).

249
6.4.3 Translation Problems

The essential problem of translation of this text into Arabic is how to achieve the style of
humour that can impress the Arab readers. Some stylistic, linguistic and cultural means
have been employed throughout, and here are the details. We can pick up the terms and
expressions that can be funny (and they are the majority) and how they are translated into
Arabic:

 ‘insufferable donkey work’ ‫ال يطيقو الحمار الصبور‬. The translation is direct into
Arabic for the connotations of ‘donkey’ and ‘donkey work’ are the same in both
cultures concerned. Other options of euphemization into, say, ‫عمؿ شاؽ؛ عمؿ تنوء بو‬
‫ الجباؿ؛ عمؿ يشؽ عمى أولى العزـ؛ يحتاج إلى صبر أيوب‬are feasible but the humorous
context will be ruined, which is not intended in either text or translation.
 ‘but it’s donkey-work all the same’ ‫فيو عمؿ ال يطيقو حمار‬. In the same way, and for
the same reason, the original is rendered into Arabic literally, but the semi-formal
collocation ‫شغؿ حمير‬/‫ عمؿ‬is avoided to prevent potential misunderstanding of it as
a personal insult to the speaker/writer.
 ‘and you are the donkey’ ‫وأنت الحمار‬. Here, again, the bad term is retained, but,
obviously, taken in its humorous, not serious, sense.
 ‘Would a dustman – cry you mercy, sanitary operative –’ ‘ - ‫‘زباؿ – عفواً ال تواخذونا‬
‫( عامؿ نظافة‬another good option is ‫(موظؼ بمدية‬. The irony is created by the socially
insulting word ‫ زباؿ‬to be understood in comparison to the textbook’s writer, as
well as by the interruptive corrective sarcastic phrase of apology ‫ عفواً ال تواخذونا‬by
way of insinuating, however wittingly, the bad connotations of the former.
 ‘Grubby labours’ ‫ أعماؿ وضيعة‬as a self-depreciative expression referring hideously
to the writer’s hard work.
 ‘It would break a coalminer’s durable heart’ ‫تقصـ ظير عامؿ مناجـ الفحـ حماؿ األسية‬.
the last collocation ‫ حماؿ األسية‬is popular in informal Arabic implying a person who
works very hard silently and patiently.
 ‘the Trade Unions would pass indignant resolutions on it’ ‫مما يجعؿ االتحادات العمالية‬
‫الحامية لحقوؽ العماؿ تتخذ ق اررات غاضبة لحظرىا‬. The mockery here is the ever-protesting
British Trade Unions against the government’s policies, and that the hard work of
writing a book cannot be accepted to be shouldered by coalminers due to its
unbearable nature.
 What’s more, it spoils your appearance, messes up your house and ruins your
character ‫ ويقمب بيتؾ فوقاني‬،‫ سوؼ يفسد تأليؼ كتاب مظيرؾ فبل تيتـ بو‬،‫واألدىى واألمر مف ذلؾ‬
ً‫ ويقضي عمى شخصيتؾ قضاء مبرما‬،‫تحتاني‬. Here, the translator uses a sharp
overexaggerated popular collocation ‫ أدىى وأمر‬to translate the normal ‘what’s
more’ which can function as an intensifying connector in this context. In addition,
the semi-formal phrase ‫ فوقاني تحتاني‬adds sharper sense to the point here. In the

250
 same way, the emphatic collocation ً‫ قضاء مبرما‬is added by implication to ‘add
insult to injury’ , as it were, to the black image of a textbook’s writer.
 ‘Keep it (writing) up for another eighteen and you are King Lear with bags under
your eyes’ ‫واصؿ التأليؼ لتماـ العشريف شي اًر وسوؼ تصبح عجو اًز مترىبلً كالممؾ لير في مسرحيات‬
‫شكسبير بأكياس منتفخة تحت عينيؾ تصير‬. The expressions ‫لتماـ العشريف شي ار‬, ً‫تصبح عجو اًز مترىبل‬
‫كالممؾ لير بأكياس منتفخة تحت عينيؾ‬, and the rhyme and rhythm between ‫ لير‬and ‫يصير‬
contribute to create a sharper ironical sense and impression about the poor
writer.
 ‘your discourse is unfit for babies’ ‫ويصبح حديثؾ غير الئؽ حتى مع األطفاؿ الرضع‬. The
sharpness of sarcasm is too evident to explain. It also implies that the writer of a
textbook will be a social outcast and of an eccentric character.
 ‘and you’re down buying cheap sherry or drinking diluted Martinis to keep
yourself docile’: ‫ وتجد نفسؾ ميروالً إلى أقرب دكاف لتشتري شراباً رخيصاً لتبقى فى حالة طبيعية‬.
The translation has cultural implications of avoiding mentioning a sensitive drink
of the wine Martinis, by replacing it with a general, neutral word ‫ شراب‬which can
be any kind of cheap drink.

Now we may try another version of translation of the source text that avoids insults, and
bad dialect language, what Ghazala (2011: ch. 5) describes as ‘Direct Translation’ that
unearths the implied stylistic meanings intended to be said by the original. A part of the
text only, which has insulting terms, has been attempted by him then:

“Writing a textbook can be the most insufferable donkey-work, your colleagues may
praise you, your family may be proud of you, but it’s donkey-work all the same, and you
are the donkey. Dear God! Would a navvy put up with this? Would a dustman – cry you
mercy, sanitary operative – sustain these grubby labours?”

1. (Indirect Translation)
)1(
‫ لكف ال يغير ىذا‬،‫ وقد تشعر أسرتؾ بالفخر بؾ‬،‫ فقد يمدحؾ زمبلؤؾ‬.]‫" قد يحتاج تأليؼ كتاب جامعي إلى [شغؿ الحمير‬
‫ عامؿ‬،ً‫عفوا‬-]‫ يا إليي! ىؿ يستطيع عامؿ غر تحمؿ ىذا؟ ىؿ يستطيع [الزباؿ‬.]‫ وأنت [الحمار‬،‫مف حقيقة ىذا الشغؿ‬
"‫ أف يصبر عمى ىذه األعماؿ الوضيعة؟‬- ‫النظافة‬

In this version, style has been rated second. Instead, priority has been given to content of
the source text as closely as possible. It is a source-text oriented. The target readers are
left alone with the stylistic tricks and inadequacies of the original. This translation sounds
acceptable, and it is, but it has left key questions unanswered about serious stylistic issues
concerning the general tone of the style of irony and the use of inept, insulting dialect
words and expressions (e.g. ‫ زباؿ‬/ ‫ وأنت الحمار‬/ ‫(شغؿ حمير‬.

Inept, insulting dialect words are here the most harmful and disastrous to translate into
Arabic as such, for there are fears that some target readers might take it seriously, rather
than ironically. So I suggest calling them dangerous translations - dangerous to the
251
translator’s career, the source text as much as the target readership. The whole tone of
the text would be twisted to swearing and personal insult, which the translator is held
responsible for in the first place. The writer has played on the metaphorical expression
‘donkey-work’ (which connotes ‘hard, unbearable work’) by taking it back to its literal
origin to create a humorous effect, and not to be taken seriously. The same context and
style does not apply to Arabic, whose readership has negative connotations about such
expressions (especially the first two, namely ‘donkey-work’ and ‘you are the donkey’ ( ‫شػغؿ‬
‫ وأنػت الحمػار‬/ ‫)حميػر‬. Still worse than these is the notorious dialectal collocation, ‫حمػار شػغؿ‬
(literally: ‘a donkey of work’) which harshly and pejoratively describes any hard-working
person. The third one, ‫زّبػاؿ‬, though less dangerous, is socially unacceptable and debasing.
Thus, faithful and acceptable as it may be, this version has a number of deficiencies that
have to be attended to by another style-based translation, as the one suggested in ‘2’
below.

2. (Direct Translation)
)2(
‫ ولكف ىذا ال يغير مف‬،‫ فقد يثني عميؾ زمبلؤؾ وتتباىى بؾ أسرتؾ‬.‫"قد يكوف تأليؼ كتاب عمبلً فوؽ طاقة البشر‬
‫ ىؿ‬.)‫ يا إليي! إنو عمؿ يحتاج منؾ صبر أيوب (عميو السبلـ‬.‫ فالتأليؼ فوؽ طاقة البشر وأنت الضحية‬،ً‫الحقيقة شيئا‬
– ‫يطيؽ ىذا عماؿ إصبلح الطرؽ والبناؤوف وأصحاب األعماؿ اليدوية الشاقة؟ أو يصبر الزبالوف – أستميحكـ عذ اًر‬
"‫موظفو البمدية عمى عمؿ وضيع كيذا يحرؽ األعصاب؟‬

Apart from their common features of style of a spokesman of vocal address (i.e. questions,
an exclamation and a parenthesis, all of which suggest an appeal to readers in person),
warmth and concretisation, the two versions of translation are cognitively and stylistically
different in essence. The second version is now comprehensible thanks to the translation
of the implications of the social, cultural and ideological stylistic choices of certain terms
and expressions into Arabic. Target readers are not affronted, nor diverted away from the
essentially humorous style of the source text. Moreover, they can achieve a high degree of
readability and comprehensibility. More importantly, they may now enjoy the style of
irony aimed at in the source text by the text’s speaker/writer. Now to the details.

The insulting dialect words ‘donkey-work’ and ‘donkey’ are avoided in favour of their
positive sense )‫ الضػحية‬/ ‫ صػبر أيػوب‬/‫فػوؽ طاقػة البشػر‬. As to ‫( زبػاؿ‬dustman) it is not replaced, only
changed into plural form )’‫ (‘زبالوف‬for it is euphemised immediately into ‫( موظػؼ بمديػة‬sanitary
operative) in both versions and texts. Further, it is preserved on purpose to achieve the
tone of irony intended.
This is not the whole story regarding about version. Several extensions have been
suggested throughout to disclose the mental/conceptual background of some underlying
concepts. For example, the dialectal word ‘navvy’ is conceptualised fully into ‫عمػاؿ إصػبلح‬
‫الطػرؽ والبنػاؤوف وأصػحاب األعمػاؿ اليدويػة الشػاقة‬, a concept that otherwise cannot be accessible or
comprehended by target readers, for the term’s reference to ‘a novice’ (‫)غػر‬, or ‘worker’
(‫ )عامػؿ‬would not disclose the implications of exceptionally hard labours of manual trade,
road-mending, house-building and refuse-collecting. Besides that, emphatic collocations
252
like )‫( فػػوؽ طاقػػة البشػػر؛ يحػػرؽ األعصػػاب‬for ‘insufferable donkey work’ and ‘grubby labours’
respectively) are supportive of the conceptualisations of key terms in the source text.

In fine, the stylistic and lexical features of undermining one self, paradoxes, drawing
unusual comparisons and sharp contrasts, and inserting phrases of emphasis,
overexaggeration and abnormalities have contributed to creating a message of humorous
sense. In turn, this makes the implied message of the hard work of a textbook’s writer
who, in effect, deserves to receive full marks of reverence and appreciation for his/her
tremendous achievement.

6.4.4 Translation Strategies

(1) Transliteration of names, etc. (King Lear → ‫)الممؾ لير‬

(2) Paraphrase (e.g. King Lear → ‫ ; عجوز مترىؿ كالممؾ لير في مسرحيات شكسبير‬Trade Unions
→ ‫)االتحادات العمالية الحامية لحقوؽ العماؿ‬
(3) Pragmatic translation (e.g. ‫)عامؿ منجـ الفحـ حماؿ األسية‬
(4) Emphatic addition (e.g. the addition of ً‫قضاء مبرما‬, and ‫ عجوز مترىؿ‬by implication)
(5) Emphatic amplification (e.g. What’s more → ‫)واألدىى واألمر‬
(6) Semi-formal exaggeration (e.g. messes up your house → ‫( فوقاني تحتاني‬c.f. the
formal ‫)رأساً عمى عقب‬
(7) Translation by implication (e.g. King Lear → ‫ ;عجوز مترىؿ كالممؾ لير‬diluted → ‫)رخيص‬
(8) Neutralization of culture (e.g. diluted Martinis → ‫( شراب رخيص‬rather than ‫(خمر‬
‫المارتيني الرخيص‬
(9) Contextual general sense (e.g. docile → ‫( في حالة طبيعية‬not merely ‫)طيع‬
ّ
(10) Rhythmical translation (e.g. ‫يصير‬... ‫)الممؾ لير‬
(11) Functional expansion (e.g. insufferable donkey work → ‫(عمؿ ال يطيقو الحمار الصبور‬
(12) Transposition: adj. → verb phrase (e.g. insufferable → ‫)ال يطيقو‬

6.5 TEXT 5: Informal Conversation

- “...Who immediately dries up No but what impressions did you get of the
university from the week-one activities
- Just absolute chaos I I just I think most people I met or at least people who
were out in digs were really wanting lectures to start and things to be a bit
more organized because it was just the point that we had to come in onto the
campus and stay all day and wander round the stalls and sort of read every notice
in sight just ‘cause there’s nothing else to do Yes …. And everything seemed sort
of superficial to me ….. you know everyone was wanting to talk to you but after
first week people in hall seemed different you know second years in hall the
first week would say hello and make a fuss of you and after the first week it
seemed to die down and it all seemed and superficial and nobody seemed to be
acting naturally and being themselves…..
253
 ‫‪-‬‬ ‫‪You’ve all got preconceived ideas of what you should be like at university and‬‬
‫‪you’re feverishly trying to fit into it and you got disappointed if you’re not this …..‬‬
‫‪changed person sort of thing confident and everything.....‬‬
‫‪-‬‬ ‫‪Actually I would have been a lot happier to sort of just be on my own I was quite‬‬
‫‪happy being on my own it was sort of mixing with people I used to hate‬‬
‫‪mealtimes when you had to go down and sit with people there they all were and‬‬
‫‪you didn’t know any of them .....‬‬
‫‪-‬‬ ‫‪I felt so unintelligent when I saw them all they all looked brains‬‬ ‫‪I still know‬‬
‫‪people from the first coffee evening though still see people and they still‬‬
‫‪remember that we met then say hello ... They’re all scientists‬‬ ‫‪you must be the‬‬
‫‪sociable type ...” (in Ghazala, 1999: 33-35).‬‬

‫‪ ...‬الذي يتبخر مباشرة ال لكف االنطباعات التي تأخذىا عف الجامعة مف فعاليات أوؿ أسبوع‬ ‫‪-‬‬

‫عمى األقؿ األشخاص‬ ‫أعتقد أف أكثر األشخاص الذيف قابمتيـ‬ ‫أنا‬ ‫أنا‬ ‫كؿ شيء فوضى بفوضى أنا‬ ‫‪-‬‬
‫كانوا يريدوف أف تبدأ المحاضرات وأف تكوف األمور‬ ‫الذيف كانوا في أوكارىـ في السكف بالحرـ الجامعي‬
‫منظمة أكثر والنقطة في الموضوع أنو كاف عمينا التواجد في الحرـ الجامعي ونبقى ىناؾ ونتجوؿ ونمؼ‬
‫وندور بيف البراكات واألكشاؾ ونق أر جميع اإلعبلنات المعمقة والتي نراىا ألنو ال يوجد شيء آخر نفعمو نعـ‬
‫لكف بعد‬ ‫كاف كؿ واحد يريد أف يتكمـ معؾ‬ ‫كما تعرؼ‬ ‫وكاف كؿ شيء سطحي وسخيؼ بالنسبة لي‬
‫الناس في القاعات ت صبح مختمفة كما تعمـ طبلب السنة الثانية في القاعة يسمموف عميؾ‬ ‫األسبوع األوؿ‬
‫وكؿ‬ ‫ويعمموف ىيصة حولؾ وبعد مرور األسبوع األوؿ كؿ شيء عمى ما يبدو يختفي وكأف شيئاً لـ يكف‬
‫شيء يبدو سطحي وما أحد يتصرؼ بشكؿ طبيعي والكؿ يمثموف ويتصنعوف في تصرفاتيـ وكبلميـ وليسوا‬
‫ىـ‪.....‬‬
‫يكوف ع ندؾ أفكار مسبقة حوؿ الجامعة ومجتمع الجامعة والتغيير الذي يحدث لؾ وتحاوؿ كؿ جيدؾ أف‬ ‫‪-‬‬
‫تطبقيا عمى نفسؾ وفجأة تشعر باإلحباط ويخيب أممؾ عندما تشعر أنؾ لـ تتغير وتصبح شخص آخر‬
‫وواثؽ مف نفسؾ وكؿ حاجة‪.....‬‬
‫في الحقيقة كنت سأكوف أسعد لو أنني يعني أعيش لحالي كنت أسعد لما كنت أعيش لحالي في الجامعة‬ ‫‪-‬‬
‫الزـ تختمط بالناس وأنا كنت أكره أوقات الوجبات ألنو عميؾ أف تروح لممطعـ وتجمس مع أشخاص أنت ما‬
‫تعرؼ أحد منيـ‪....‬‬
‫ما زلت أعرؼ أشخاص‬ ‫أحسست أنني غبي جداً لما رأيتيـ كميـ عامميف حاليـ أمخاخ كبيرة وفطاحؿ‬ ‫‪-‬‬
‫قابمتيـ في أوؿ أمسية ق يوة في الجامعة ومع أني ما زلت أقابؿ أشخاص وىـ يتذكروف أننا تقابمنا في ذلؾ‬
‫عميؾ أف تكوف اجتماعي ومساير مع‬ ‫المساء يسمموف عميؾ كميـ عامميف عمماء ونوابغ ما شاء اهلل!!!‬
‫الجميع‬

‫‪6.5.1 Purpose of the translation‬‬

‫‪The purpose of translating this casual, natural conversational extract into Arabic is, first, to‬‬
‫‪give an idea about one aspect of English university life for a freshman and, secondly and‬‬
‫‪more importantly, to show in practical terms how to deal with a conversational text in‬‬
‫‪translation with respect to style of formality/informality, type of language and cultural‬‬

‫‪254‬‬
insinuations, if any. So the translator’s task is not exactly a piece of cake, as it were. Quite
the reverse, it is multiple in terms of purpose.

6.5.2 Type of TL Readership

The target readers expected to have some interest in the translation of this conversational
excerpt can be the academic and the general public for different reasons. That is, the
academician may be interested to know about the new students’ actions and reactions in
his first days at British universities, and, more significantly, how to express the English text
in Arabic appropriately. As for the general readers, they might be curious to get familiar
with the topic to further their knowledge about the world, but they may not have any
interest in the mechanisms and problems of translating an English conversation into
Arabic. In this sense, the latter need read a fluent, readable Arabic translation as much
lexically, stylistically, grammatically as culturally, as demonstrated in the next point.

6.5.3 Translation Problems

The first demanding problem of translating this informal conversation text into Arabic is its
comprehensibility and informality of style. Sometimes, we feel we have fractions of
stretches of language that are semantically and grammatically disintegrated. Well, the
case is not exactly so for the speaker/narrator of the conversation unites the disintegrated
fractions of the whole text from beginning to end. Second, the location of the episodes,
people and things involved is the university campus. Third, the randomness of the
conversation is quite normal in any piece of conversation in any language, almost
anywhere. The speaker involved may move on from one theme to another, then to a third,
then back to the first or second, and so on. That results in a broken but harmonious
organic whole of a text. In practical terms, the translation of the text has followed up the
sequencing of the original text, leaving some ending statements in particular as
incomplete, ungrammatical or vague, as most conversations usually do. However, on
several occasions, free and communicative approaches are adopted by adding, amplifying,
illustrating or deleting some words and phrases to make the intended message clearer,
sharper and/or more effective and impressive, as argued below.

As to informality of style of the source text (which is reflected mainly by ungrammatical

utterances, repetitions of the subject, and incomplete utterances), it is problematic at
translating it into Arabic because written Arabic cannot be as informal as English
conversation. Instead, simplified formal Arabic (i.e. MSA) and semi-informal )‫(شبو فصيح‬
style - which is informal language that is very close to formal, standard Arabic - would be
the normal case. Therefore, several semi-informal words and expressions are used: e.g.
)... ‫(يعمموف ىيصة؛ عامميف حاليـ؛ تروح؛ أمخاخ؛ الزـ؛ كؿ حاجة‬, unnecessary repetition of the same
pronoun as in the original (e.g. ‫أنا‬... ‫ أنا‬... ‫)أنا‬, and ungrammatical end-vowelization ‫(تشكيؿ‬
)‫( نياية الكممات‬e.g. )‫ عميؾ أف تكوف اجتماعي ومساير (اجتماعاً ومساي اًر‬... )‫كميـ عامميف (عامموف‬, etc.).

This semi-formal, simplified style of Arabic allows the translator to exaggerate, add,
repeat, and even delete some words and expressions. For example, ‘superficial’ is
translated into ‫( سطحي وسخيؼ‬rather than ‫ سطحي‬only), whereas repetition and variation
255
have several occurrences like ‘just absolute chaos’ )‫(كؿ شيء فوضى بفوضى‬, ‘wander ‫(ونتجوؿ‬
)‫‘ ونمؼ وندور‬stalls’ )‫(براكات وأكشاؾ‬, ‘acting naturally )‫(والكؿ يمثموف ويتصنعوف في تصرفاتيـ وكبلميـ‬,
‘you got disappointed’ )‫(تصاب باإلحباط ويخيب أممؾ‬, ’if you’re not this changed person’ ( ‫لـ تتغير‬
‫)وتصبح شخصاً آخر‬, ‘the social type’‫)اجتماعي) ومساير‬, ‘brains’ (‫(أمخاخ كبيرة وفطاحؿ‬, and ‘scientists
)‫(عمماء ونوابغ‬.

On the other hand, informal English words that have negative and/or sarcastic
implications are translated directly into ready-made Arabic equivalents. These include
‘digs’ which refers pejoratively to the students’ rooms on the university campus. To retain
the same implication, the pejorative word )‫ (أوكار‬is manipulated. Similarly, ‘brains’ is
sarcastic of those students who think of themselves as geniuses; so it is preserved in
Arabic again through the sarcastic semi-formal term )‫(أمخاخ كبيرة‬. Also, the term ‘scientists’
is normally translated into its sense ‫عمماء‬, which has a quite positive sense in normal
context, whereas here, it is taken sarcastically describing poor second year university
students who call themselves scientists falsely. To catch this sarcastic sense of scientists,
the translation above suggests adding the religious cultural expression ‫ ما شاء اهلل‬followed
by a number of exclamation marks.

6.5.4 Translation Strategies

(1) Expansion (e.g. ‘just absolute chaos’ → ‫‘ ;كؿ شيء فوضى بفوضى‬campus’ → ‫الحرـ‬
‫)الجامعي‬
(2) Overtranslation (e.g. ‘acting naturally → ‫(والكؿ يمثموف ويتصنعوف في تصرفاتيـ وكبلميـ‬
(3) Translation couplet: Translation & naturalization (‘stalls’ → ‫)براكات وأكشاؾ‬
(4) Cultural correspondence (e.g. ‘brains’ → ‫فطاحؿ‬/‫)أمخاخ‬
(5) Cultural equivalence (e.g. ‘digs’ → ‫( أوكار‬not ‫)حفر‬
(6) Informal → semi-formal (e.g. ‘and everything’ ‫)وكؿ حاجة‬
(7) Informal → informal/colloquial (e.g. ‘fuss’ → ‫)ىيصة‬
(8) Religious cultural addition (‘They’re all scientists’ → ‫)كميـ عمماء ما شاء اهلل‬
(9) General sense (e.g. ‘they say hello’ → ‫)يسمموا عميؾ‬
(10) Linguistic cultural equivalence (e.g. ‘dries up’ → ‫)يتبخر‬
(11) Modulation: negative → positive (e.g. ‘unintelligent’ → ً‫(غبي جدا‬
(12) Pragmatic / contextual translation (e.g. ‘go down’ → ‫)تروح لممطعـ‬
(13) Transposition: adj. +n. → verb phrase (e.g. you’re not that changed person → ‫لـ‬
‫)تتغير وتصبح شخصاً آخر‬

256
6.6 TEXT 6: Stereotypes

“Stereotypes of national character are generally falsehoods raised upon some buried and
broken stratum of fact. The Scots, to take a typical case, are commonly traduced ... as
flinty guardians of ancient pence. In other words, they are reckoned to be mean. They are
further alleged to be dour, unsmiling and taciturn, particularly in the presence of the glib
Englishman. Actually, they are the most generous people on earth, compulsive spenders,
affable companions, generous to a fault. ... They are not mean and never have been. They
may insist gleefully on their parsimony, but the simple and beautiful truth is that they are
lairds and largesse. As far as stereotype is concerned, they have known penury, and with it
the desperate need for prudence. A Scot seeking his living in eighteenth century London,
for example, would as a rule be bound to consider his purse and would have little to lay out
on extravagances. Consequently, he would run the risk of incurring a totally unjustified
reputation for meanness; the stereotype can be traced to its origins in the entirely
honourable caution of proud men.” (See Nash, ibid.: 27)

‫ يتيـ األسكتمنديوف أنيـ‬،‫ عمى سبيؿ المثاؿ‬.‫( تعتبر األقواؿ الشعبية الدارجة أكاذيب أساسيا حقائؽ مشوىة قديمة بائدة‬
‫ كما يزعـ الناس أنيـ أصحاب الوجوه العبوسة المقموبة وكبلميـ‬.‫ويظَف أنيـ بخبلء‬
ُ ،‫عباد الدراىـ وحراسو األمينوف‬
ّ
‫ في الحقيقة األسكتمنديوف ىـ مف أكرـ الناس عمى وجو‬.‫بالقطارة خاصة في حضرة اإلنجميزي الطميؽ المساف الثرثار‬
‫ فقد يؤكدوف‬.‫ ليسوا بخبلء ولـ يكونوا قط بخبلء‬... .‫ وكرماء حتى الثمالة‬،‫ ولطفاء ظرفاء‬،‫ وينفقوف بغير حساب‬،‫األرض‬
‫ في‬.‫ لكف تبقى الحقيقة الساطعة الجميمة أنيـ أصحاب أطياف وكرميـ حاتمي‬،‫مف باب المزاح عمى ش حيـ وبخميـ‬
‫ فاألسكتمندي الذي كاف يسعى لتدبير أمور‬.‫ شيدت المقوالت الشعبية الدارجة تراجعاً كبي اًر رافقو احتكاـ لمعقؿ‬،‫الواقع‬
‫ وبذلؾ جمب عمى نفسو سمعة‬.‫ كاف عميو أف يقتصد في مصروفو وال يسرؼ أبدًا‬،‫بل‬
ً ‫ مث‬،‫معيشتو في القرف الثامف عشر‬
‫ يمكف تفسير القوؿ الشعبي حوؿ األسكتمندييف بالعودة إلى أصمو عمى أنو احت ارز م َشرؼ‬،‫ وىكذا‬.‫البخؿ التي ال مبرر ليا‬
).‫يرفع رؤوس الرجاؿ‬

6.6.1 Purpose of the Translation

The topic of the SL text is common among the general public in particular. It can be very
interesting to many people. The purpose of the translation is to illustrate the idea of
stereotypes in a particular context of popular sayings which have been taken as true facts
of unknown origin, but can be mainly untrue in today’s life. The message of the source
text is intended to be rendered into the target language alongside with the illustrative
example given in the former about the Scots to be applied to similar situations in the
latter. Therefore, it should be noted that the language and style of the original has to
undergo several modifications and changes at constructing the meaning in Arabic to be
handy to every reader, especially common readers, provided that the core of the message
is not altered. The English original is in fact academic in style, but in Arabic, it is highly
recommended to change into normal, easy-going and humorous style (see 6.2.3 below).

6.6.2 Type of TL Readership

The type of Arab readership to be attracted to, as much as interested in such topic of
stereotypes would be the general public, especially middle-class and low educated

257
readers. Such stereotypes are quite popular among them. They use them frequently,
believe in them unconsciously and are curious to know about them and their origins,
though most of them use them more humorously than seriously. Hence, the translator’s
responsibility is to construct the source message of the brass tacks of these stereotypes
into Arabic with an attempt to shed light on them in similar situations in Arabic language
and culture, using comprehensible, clear, and occasionally humorous and semi-formal
language and style (as illustrated in the translation above).

6.6.3 Translation Problems

The problems of translating the source text are numerous, some of which are demanding.
The first difficult problem is the translation of some tricky words and terms. The key word,
‘stereotypes’, for example, is usually understood in a negative context of repetitive, boring
words into ‫القوالب‬/‫المقولبات‬/‫النمطيات‬/‫المبتذالت‬. However, though generally acceptable, none of
these is satisfying and, instead, the phrase )‫ أقواؿ شعبية (دارجة‬is suggested here for its more
accurate, expressive, cultural and neutral in sense (as many of them are not necessarily
perceived negatively). The second word is ‘mean’, which can be understood in this context
as ‫خسيس‬/‫دنيئ‬/‫حقير‬/‫ وضيع‬as much as ‫بخيؿ‬/‫شحيح‬. Yet, the latter meaning is most likely as the
SLT writer does not mean to use insulting words. Moreover, the overall context of the
source text is about the ill-reputation of miserliness of the Scottish people.

‘Dour, unsmiling and taciturn’ can be literally and appropriately translated into ‫ وال‬،‫كالحوف‬
‫يبتسموف ومتجيموف‬, but a more effective, paraphrastic and expressive ‫أصحاب الوجوه العبوسة المقموبة‬
‫( وكبلميـ بالقطارة‬other cultural options include ‫القط يأكؿ عشاءه‬/‫;أصحاب الوجوه المقموبة ولسانيـ أكمو القط‬
‫ ال مف فميـ وال مف كميـ‬/ ‫)وجوه كالحة وشح في الكبلـ‬. Also, ‘glib’ can be translated into , ‫فصيح المساف؛‬
‫سمس البياف؛ زلؽ المساف؛ يتكمـ عفو الخاطر‬, but the phrase ‫ طميؽ المساف ثرثار‬is gone for to stand in
direct contrast with the previous epithets of the Scots. On the other hand, ‘Penury’ could
be rendered into ‫قمة‬/‫ندرة‬/‫فقر‬/‫شح‬, yet ‫ تراجع‬is picked up to match the previous context of the
text which shuns the alleged truths about stereotypes.

As to problematic phrases and expressions, they translated freely and communicatively as

illustrated individually in the following:

- ‘buried and broken stratum of fact’ (‫)حقائؽ مشوىة قديمة بائدة‬, rather than the vague
literal translation: ‫طور منكسر ومدفوف مف الحقيقة‬
- ‘commonly traduced ... as flinty guardians of ancient pence’ is translated
pragmatically and culturally into the effective and expressive ‫يتيـ األسكتمنديوف أنيـ‬
‫عباد الدراىـ وحراسو األمينوف‬
ّ instead of the literal and non-cultural version ‫يتيموف بشكؿ‬
.‫عاـ أنيـ الحراس العنيدوف‬
- ‘the most generous people on earth’ is an untrue overexaggeration translated
into nonexaggeration as ‫ىـ مف أكرـ الناس عمى وجو األرض‬, and not as ‫ىـ أكرـ الناس عمى‬
.‫وجو األرض‬
258
 - ‘compulsive spenders’ is normally vague if translated approximately and literally
into ‫منفقوف استحوازيوف‬, and wrongly into ‫مكرىوف‬
َ ‫منفقوف‬. In fact, it is neither, but it can
be closer to ‫ينفقوف بغير حسا؛ ينفقوف بسخاء‬
- ‘generous to a fault’ cannot be mistranslated into ‫ كرماء حتى الخطيئة‬which gives
quite the opposite sense intended. However, a translation like ‫كرماء حتى الثمالة‬
would give the exaggerated sense of ‘incredibly generous’.
- ‘They are lairds and largesse’ is translated culturally and by implication into
‫( أصحاب أطياف وكرميـ حاتمي‬in reference to the very famous man of generosity in
Arabic culture ‫( حاتـ الطائي‬Hatem Al-Taei).
- ‘consider his purse’ is not translated literally into ‫ يعتبر محفظة نقوده‬/ ‫ يدرس‬due to its
vagueness; so it is translated into its intended sense ‫يقتصد في مصروفو‬.
- ‘honourable caution of proud men’ can be easily and hastily translated into ‫حيطة‬
‫ مشرفة لرجاؿ أعزاء‬but its collocability is not quite clear in structure and sense.
Hence, an expressive, cultural collocation is suggested as: ‫احتراس م َشرؼ يرفع رؤوس‬
.‫الرجاؿ‬

Obviously, The SLT writer is a staunch defender of the Scots, using words of suspicion
like ‘falsehood’ ‘reckon’ and ‘allege’ to stand in contrast to his description of them as
the most generous on earth. This type of contrastive style of defence (i.e. starting
with alleged demerits and ending up with merits to make the latter sharper) has to be
reconsidered by the translator into the TL (hence the use of ‫ ُيظف؛ يزعـ‬،‫ أكاذيب‬above).

6.6.4 Translation Strategies

(1) Naturalization (e.g. The Scots → ‫)األسكتمنديوف‬

(2) Rhetorical redundancy (e.g. glib → ‫ ;الطميؽ المساف الثرثار‬their parsimony‫شحيـ وبخميـ‬,
etc.)
(3) Translation by implication: pragmatic translation (e.g. compulsive spenders →
‫)ينفقوف بغير حساب‬
(4) Cultural translation (e.g. largesse ‫)كرميـ حاتمي‬
(5) Overstatement → understatement (e.g. the most generous people on earth ‫مف أكرـ‬
...‫( الناس‬c.f. ‫)أكرـ الناس‬
(6) Linguistic cultural metaphorical exaggeration (e.g. generous to a fault ‫كرماء حتى‬
‫)الثمالة‬
(7) Pun → sense (e.g. consider his purse → ‫)يقتصد في مصروفو‬
(8) Transposition: nominal phrase → clause (e.g. proud men (adj.+n.) → clause: ‫يرفع‬
‫)رؤوس الرجاؿ‬

259
 ‫يؤكدوف مف باب المزاح عمى → ‪(9) Overtranslation (e.g. insist gleefully on their parsimony‬‬
‫)شحيـ وبخميـ‬
‫حقائؽ مشوىة قديمة → ’‪(10) Free translation of sense (‘buried and broken stratum of fact‬‬
‫)بائدة‬

‫)‪ (The Secret of Character‬سر الشخصية ‪6.7 TEXT 7:‬‬

‫سر الشخصية‬
‫قد يسترعي انتباىؾ إنساف دوف سائر الناس فبل تدري لماذا لفت نظرؾ وال ما ىي الميزة التي تميزه عف السواد‪.‬‬

‫وقد يجتمع أناس مف سف واحدة ومف طبقة واحدة وعمى مستوى واحد مف الثقافة فإذا بأحدىـ ىو المبرز فييـ والذي‬
‫تحس وجوده واذا بغيره كأنيـ أصفار عمى اليسار‪.‬‬

‫وقد تميؿ إلى إنساف مف رفاقؾ أو تكرىو أو تخشاه لسبب ال تدري كنيو وعامؿ خفي ال تستطيع تفسيره وكؿ ما ىنالؾ‬
‫أنؾ تشعر بأنو إنساف يختمؼ عف غيره ويستحؽ ما أثاره في نفسؾ مف حب أو بغض أو خوؼ‪.‬‬

‫ذلؾ ىو سر الشخصية الذي عبر عنو بعض عمماء النفس بأنو "جو شخصي يحيط بصاحبو" ووصفو آخر بأنو "قوة‬
‫ذاتية تجذب الناس نحو صاحبيا أو تدفعيـ عنو"‪.‬‬

‫وليس مف الضروري أف يكوف صاحب الشخصية رجبلً ذا نفوذ مرىوب الجانب أو موفور الغنى أو كبير المنصب فقد‬
‫يكوف عمى العكس رجبلً فقي اًر أو عامبلً مأجو اًر بؿ قد يكوف طفبلً صغي اًر ولكنو يمفت النظر ويشعرؾ بأنو يختمؼ بشيء‬
‫ما عف سواه مف الناس‪.‬‬

‫ولكي أقرب إليؾ معنى "الشخصية" فأنت إذا نظرت إلى أي امرأة أو رجؿ حاز قد اًر مف الشيرة ونصيباً مف النجاح‬
‫والتوفيؽ في أي عمؿ أو أية مينة في الماضي أو الحاضر فإنؾ ال بد واجد فيو ىذه القوة الخفية التي يطمؽ عمييا اسـ‬
‫"الشخصية"‪.‬‬

‫ىناؾ فرؽ كبير بيف االختبلؼ عف السواد الذي ىو العنصر األوؿ في تكويف الشخصية "والشذوذ" الذي يكوف طبيعي ًا أو‬
‫مفتعبلً والذي ال يثير في نفوس الناس سوى االستغراب أو السخرية بينما "الشخصية" تغري باحتراـ صاحبيا أو اإلعجاب‬
‫بو إف كاف صاحبيا أميؿ إلى الخير والنفع أو توحي بخشيتو ومقتو إف كاف أقرب إلى األذى والشر‪.‬‬

‫أس النجاح في الحياة فقد كتب الكثيروف وصايا ونصائح لمف يريد أف تكوف لو ىذه‬‫ولما كانت "الشخصية" كما قمنا ّ‬
‫الميزة والواقع أف أكثر ما كتب في ىذا الباب يدخؿ في باب الدجؿ والشعوذة فإف الشخصية توىب وال تكتسب‪.‬‬

‫‪260‬‬
‫وانما يصح القوؿ إف مبعثيا الظاىر ىو الثقة بالنفس مقرونة بالحماسة واف كنا ال ندري عمى وجو الدقة أييما السبب‬
.‫ فقد تكوف قوة الشخصية ىي األصؿ في الثقة بالنفس وقد يكوف العكس‬-‫الثقة بالنفس أـ الشخصية‬-‫وأييما النتيجة‬

‫وجدير باآلباء والمعمميف أف يقووا الشخصية في نفوس النشئ وال يقتموىا بالضغط والشدة وكمما أروا في الناشئ بارقة مف‬
.‫ىذه الميزة وجب عمييـ أف يتعيدوىا بتقوية روح االستقبلؿ واالعتماد عمى النفس عنده‬

‫عمى أف الشخصية شيء يختمؼ كؿ االختبلؼ عف الغرور الذي يعمد إليو بعضيـ ظناً منو أنو يبرز شخصيتو وىو إنما‬
.‫يدؿ عمى سخؼ وصغار‬

The Secret of Character

Perhaps, in a crowd of people, a man catches your attention without knowing the reason
or the specific characteristic that sets him apart from the majority.

People may gather together of the same age, social class and level of education. Suddenly,
one has a head above the rest that you feel his existence, while, in comparison, the rest are
nonentities.

You might be disposed to, indisposed to, or fear an acquaintance of yours for some
inexplicable reason. All you feel is that he is different from others and deserves what he
arouses in you of love, hate or fear.

That is the secret of character described by some psychologists as ‘a personal aura

surrounding the individual’. Others described it as ‘a power of self’ that may attract people
toward the individual, or repulse them away from him.

It is not necessary that the person with ‘character’ is an influential, feared, wealthy or
high-positioned man. On the contrary, he might be a poor man, a hired worker or even a
little child, yet he might draw your attention and make you feel that there is something
about him that distinguishes him from the common herd.

To bring the meaning of ‘character’ home, you may take a look at a man who has achieved
a measure of fame, success, or good luck in any job or profession, past or present, and you
find in him a mysterious power called ‘character’.

There is a big difference between to be different from the majority of people, which is one
constituent component of ‘character’, and to be ‘eccentric’, which is either natural or
artificial, and arouses in people nothing but wonder or derision. However, ‘character’
provokes respect for, or admiration of the individual, if he is more inclined to good and
usefulness, or arouses fear or hate of him, if he is prone to harm and wickedness.

As said earlier, since ‘character’ is the foundation of success in life, many have suggested
words of advice and recommendations for those who like to entertain it. In fact, most of
what has been written in this connection is some kind of charlatanism and sorcery.
‘Character’ is after all innate, not acquired. (Bath Univ.UK, MA Translation Texts, 1983).
261
Yet, it can be rightly said that the character's source is self-confidence with certain fervor.
Even if we do not exactly know which is the cause and which is the effect, self-confidence
may lead to ‘character’, or vice versa.

Parents and teachers are recommended to reinforce character in the growing children, and
not suppress it through pressurization and harshness. Once they spot a glimpse of this
characteristic in a growing child, they should strengthen it with a spirit of self-
independence and self-dependability in him.

Notwithstanding, character is completely different from conceit, which is assumed by some

people who misunderstand it to promote character. But it is no more than an indication of
silliness and petty nature.)

6.7.1 Purpose of the Translation

The purpose of translating this general text of philosophical background into English is to
render its message about the secret of character, how to entertain it and the different
points of views about it as clearly as possible. The translator is to focus on how to express
the message of the Arabic text in as proper, simplified and non-technical English as he/she
can. Usually, nothing can be dropped from the core of the message (i.e. how to entertain a
character), although literal translation of meaning is not always applied, to give way to
free, pragmatic and communicative translations of some terms and expressions.

6.7.2 Type of TL Readership

Perhaps only one type of target readership is aimed at by the translation of such an
abstract text, i.e., the non-specialized educated readers. Those might be the people who
can have some interest in the topic of the source text. The translator’s task becomes less
difficult for he/she can enjoy more freedom to use formal English style, grammar and
words, though technical terminology would be advisably avoided.

6.7.3 Translation Problems

Probably, the trickiest problem of translation of Arabic texts into English is the choice of
appropriate words among a cluster of synonyms that seem identical in Arabic, but not
exactly in English. Here are the most problematic terms alongside with their synonyms,
with a distinction drawn between them:

- ‫ → شخصية‬character/personality/ charisma/ individuality/nature (the first three

are interchangeable, whereas the last two (which are ‫ ِجبمّة‬/‫ فردية؛ طبيعة‬in a row) are
not fitting here).
- ‫ → السواد‬the majority of people/the general public/the multitude/ the common
people/ the commonality/the masses/the mob/ the hoi polloi (all of these are
good options with the exception of the last three, which are either politically

262
 specified (.e.g. the masses ‫ )الجماىير‬or pejorative (the last two are ‫الرعاع‬/‫(الغوغاء‬,
hence, they are dismissed as inept.)
- ‫ → المبرز‬has a head above the rest / distinguished / eminent / noted / prominent/
esteemed (all are not bad)
- ‫ → أصفار عمى اليسار‬nonentities/nothing/nobody/ciphers/non-persons (equally
good options)
- )‫ → صاحب (الشخصية‬possessor / holder / proprietor / owner / friend / pal /
comrade / associate (only the first two are good options in this context, whereas
the rest are not)
- ‫ → رفقاء‬people of the same age / comrades / friends / companions / rivals / peers/
fellows / mates (generally interchangeable)
- ‫مرىوب الجانب‬/‫ → رجؿ ذو نفوذ‬influential/feared/powerful/leading (good in general)
- ‫ →جو‬aura/atmosphere/air/weather/climate/heavens/aerosphere/environment/
ambience/spirit/ surroundings (the first two are acceptable, whereas the
remaining others are not quite appropriate here, especially weather, climate
which refer to temperature more than anything else. However, the problem is
caused by the Arabic term ‫ جو‬which can be used to imply all these options, and
the translator has to distinguish which sense is applicable in a specific context).
- ‫ → شيرة‬fame / reputation / renown / repute / celebrity / glory / honor / prestige /
illustriousness (the first four are good choices, but the others are recommended
in different contexts).
- ‫ →الشذوذ‬eccentricity / irregularity / queerness / weirdness / grotesqueness /
exception / bizarreness / oddity / strangeness / singularity / waywardness /
freakishness / outlandishness / singularity / oddness / abnormality / aberration /
anomaly / deviation (in this context, the term means ‫ غرابة‬rather than / ‫شذوذ جنسي‬
‫انحراؼ‬. So the last four are inappropriate here).
- ‫→تغري‬provoke/ arouse/incite/instigate/stir/attract/seduce/ /allure/charm/appeal
to /fascinate/win over/induce/entice /captivate/beguile/bewitch/catch (the
sense intended here is ‫إثارة‬/‫استثارة‬/‫ تحرض‬rather than ‫جاذبية‬. Therefore, the first five
terms only are rather applicable here).
- ‫ → أس‬foundation/base/basis/ground(s)/groundwork/core/essence/infrastructure
/ index/exponent (all are acceptable but the last two which are used in
mathematics only).
- ‫ → الدجؿ والشعوذة‬charlatanism/sorcery/necromancy/witchcraft/black magic/black
art/enchantment/fraud / swindling (the two terms can be translated into either
or both of the first two terms more appropriately).
- ‫ → حماسة‬fervor/ zeal/ enthusiasm / zest / ardor / vehemence / earnestness /
passion / motivation (any of these terms can fit in the current context).
- ‫ →يقوي‬reinforce / strengthen / encourage / promote / fortify / toughen / foster /
augment / magnify / amplify (all of these options are equally good here).

263
 - ‫ → ضغط‬pressurization/pressure/press/stress/compulsion/ force/coercion (the
original implies the sense of ‘exercising pressure on somebody’. Hence, perhaps
the first two are more recurrent and expressive of the meaning of the original
Arabic term than the rest in the list).
- ‫ → الشدة‬harshness/brutality/toughness/severity/sternness/roughness/hardness
(all are not bad but ‘brutality’ which involves criminal actions).
- ‫ → الغرور‬conceit/vanity/arrogance/swagger/narcissism/ egotism/self-love (all are
okay, but the first is the most accurate).
- ‫ →سخؼ‬silliness / absurdity / immaturity / stupidity / daftness / rashness /
irresponsibility/ foolhardiness/ thoughtlessness / recklessness / imprudence
(although ‘silliness’ is more popular, used in English mostly as in an adjectival
form, ‘silly’, the other options are not too far from the sense of the original).
- ‫→صغار‬
َ pettiness / lowness / lowliness / inferiority / triviality / littleness /
belittling / (any term would fit in here).

The second main problem of translation is posed by the complex and complicated
grammatical structure of the original, which is mostly unpunctuated, or mispunctuated.
So, the translator is advised to distinguish clauses and sentences from one another in the
original Arabic before translating it into English. Take for example, this statement:
‫وقد يجتمع أناس مف سف واحدة ومف طبقة واحدة وعمى مستوى واحد مف الثقافة فإذا بأحدىـ ىو المبرز فييـ الذي تحس‬
‫وجوده واذا بغيره كأنيـ أصفار عمى اليسار‬
It is confusing as how many sentences it can be in English. It seems to be one sentence,
but it is not. It can be either two or three, as follows

.‫وقد يجتمع أناس مف سف واحدة ومف طبقة واحدة وعمى مستوى واحد مف الثقافة‬
.‫فإذا بأحدىـ ىو المبرز فييـ الذي تحس وجوده‬
.‫واذا بغيره كأنيـ أصفار عمى اليسار‬

(People may gather together of the same age, social class and level of education.
Suddenly, one has a head above the rest from the rest that you feel his existence.
However, in comparison, the rest are nonentities).

It can also be two sentences, as suggested in the translation of the whole text above:

.‫وقد يجتمع أناس مف سف واحدة ومف طبقة واحدة وعمى مستوى واحد مف الثقافة‬
.‫ واذا بغيره كأنيـ أصفار عمى اليسار‬،‫فإذا بأحدىـ ىو المبرز فييـ الذي تحس وجوده‬

)People may gather together of the same age, social class and level of education.
Suddenly, one has a head above the rest from the rest that you feel his existence, while, in
comparison, the rest are nonentities.)

264
‫‪The same applies to the third, fourth and most of the statements of the Arabic original‬‬
‫‪(which are informally set in separate paragraphs), which are mainly two or more‬‬
‫‪sentences each. Hence, the Arabic sentence structure and punctuation marks are poorly‬‬
‫‪structured, and the translator has to make his/her way through that with some difficulty,‬‬
‫‪as proposed by the translation here. To makes these points sharply clearer and the‬‬
‫‪translation of the SLT more readable, here is the original rewritten in properly formal‬‬
‫‪sentences, punctuation marks and well-organized paragraphs:‬‬

‫إنساف دوف سائر الناس‪ ،‬فبل تدري لماذا لفت نظرؾ‪ ،‬وال ما ىي الميزة التي تميزه عف السواد‪ .‬وقد‬
‫ٌ‬ ‫انتباىؾ‬
‫َ‬ ‫قد يسترعي‬
‫يجتمع أناس مف سف واحدة‪ ،‬ومف طبقة واحدة‪ ،‬وعمى مستوى واحد مف الثقافة‪ .‬فإذا بأحدىـ ىو المبرز فييـ‪ ،‬والذي‬
‫تحس وجوده‪ ،‬واذا بغيره كأنيـ أصفار عمى اليسار‪ .‬وقد تميؿ إلى إنساف مف رفاقؾ‪ ،‬أو تكرىو‪ ،‬أو تخشاه لسبب ال تدري‬
‫كنيو‪ ،‬وعامؿ خفي ال تستطيع تفسيره‪ .‬وكؿ ما ىنالؾ أنؾ تشعر بأنو إنساف يختمؼ عف غيره‪ ،‬ويستحؽ ما أثاره في‬
‫نفسؾ مف حب‪ ،‬أو بغض‪ ،‬أو خوؼ‪.‬‬
‫ذلؾ ىو سر الشخصية الذي عبر عنو بعض عمماء النفس بأنو "جو شخصي يحيط بصاحبو"‪ ،‬ووصفو آخر بأنو "قوة‬
‫ذاتية تجذب الناس نحو صاحبيا أو تدفعيـ عنو"‪ .‬وليس مف الضروري أف يكوف صاحب الشخصية رجبلً ذا نفوذ‬
‫مرىوب الجانب‪ ،‬أو موفور الغنى‪ ،‬أو كبير المنصب‪ .‬فقد يكوف‪ ،‬عمى العكس‪ ،‬رجبلً فقي اًر‪ ،‬أو عامبلً مأجو اًر‪ ،‬بؿ قد‬
‫يكوف طفبلً صغي اًر‪ ،‬ولكنو يمفت النظر‪ ،‬ويشعرؾ بأنو يختمؼ بشيء ما عف سواه مف الناس‪.‬‬
‫ولكي أقرب إليؾ معنى "الشخصية"‪ ،‬فأنت إذا نظرت إلى أي امرأة أو رجؿ حاز قد اًر مف الشيرة ونصيباً مف النجاح‬
‫والتوفيؽ في أي عمؿ أو أية مينة في الماضي أو الحاضر‪ ،‬فإنؾ ال بد واجد فيو ىذه القوة الخفية التي يطمؽ عمييا اسـ‬
‫"الشخصية"‪.‬‬
‫ىناؾ فرؽ كبير بيف االختبلؼ عف السواد الذي ىو العنصر األوؿ في تكويف الشخصية "والشذوذ" الذي يكوف طبيعياً‪،‬‬
‫أو مفتعبلً‪ ،‬والذي ال يثير في نفوس الناس سوى االستغراب أو السخرية‪ .‬بينما "الشخصية" تغري باحتراـ صاحبيا أو‬
‫اإلعجاب بو إف كاف صاحبيا أميؿ إلى الخير والنفع أو توحي بخشيتو ومقتو‪ ،‬إف كاف أقرب إلى األذى والشر‪.‬‬
‫أس النجاح في الحياة‪ ،‬فقد كتب الكثيروف وصايا ونصائح لمف يريد أف تكوف لو ىذه‬
‫ولما كانت "الشخصية" كما قمنا ّ‬
‫الميزة‪ .‬والواقع أف أكثر ما كتب في ىذا الباب يدخؿ في باب الدجؿ والشعوذة‪ .‬فإف الشخصية توىب وال تكتسب‪ .‬وانما‬
‫يصح القوؿ إف مبعثيا الظاىر ىو الثقة بالنفس‪ ،‬مقرونة بالحماسة‪ .‬واف كنا ال ندري عمى وجو الدقة أييما السبب‪،‬‬
‫وأييما النتيجة ‪ -‬الثقة بالنفس‪ ،‬أـ الشخصية ‪ -‬فقد تكوف قوة الشخصية ىي األصؿ في الثقة بالنفس‪ ،‬وقد يكوف العكس‪.‬‬

‫وجدير باآلباء والمعمميف أف يقووا الشخصية في نفوس النشء‪ ،‬وال يقتموىا بالضغط والشدة‪ .‬وكمما أروا في الناشئ بارقة‬
‫مف ىذه الميزة‪ ،‬وجب عمييـ أف يتعيدوىا بتقوية روح االستقبلؿ‪ ،‬واالعتماد عمى النفس عنده‪ .‬عمى أف الشخصية شيء‬
‫يختمؼ كؿ االختبلؼ عف الغرور الذي يعمد إليو بعضيـ‪ ،‬ظن ًا منو أنو يبرز شخصيتو‪ .‬وىو إنما يدؿ عمى سخؼ‬
‫وصغار‪.‬‬

‫‪A third, unique problem of translation that is strongly connected with the second is the‬‬
‫فإذا‪ ،‬واذا‪ ،‬وكؿ ما ىنالؾ‪ ،‬بؿ قد يكوف‪ ،‬فإنؾ ‪translation of some connecting and other particles like‬‬
‫‪.‬ال بد‪ ،‬إف كاف‪ ،‬ولما كانت‪ ،‬وانما (يصح‪ ،)...‬واف كنا (ال ندري‪ ،)...‬عمى أف (الشخصية‪ ،)...‬وىو إنما (يدؿ‪)...‬‬
‫وانما (يصح‪(, )...‬إذا ‪ (preferably‬فإذا‪ ،‬واذا ‪They are used either informally, or vaguely (e.g.‬‬
‫‪ cannot start a sentence, so, it should be deleted here), and‬وانما ‪(formally,‬‬ ‫عمى أف‬
‫‪265‬‬
)...‫( (الشخصية‬not used as a sentence initiator, but inside the sentence as a subordinate
clause starter. Besides, it is vague). These connectors are critical for the translator to know
how to start English sentences and clauses.

A fourth and final major problem of translation of this Arabic text into English is the
frequent use of redundant pairs of variations unnecessarily, though sometimes for
emphasis. They are:

‫) لسبب ال تدري كنيو وعامؿ خفي ال تستطيع تفسيره‬1(

‫) رجبلً ذا نفوذ مرىوب الجانب‬2(
‫) النجاح والتوفيؽ‬3(
‫) في أي عمؿ أو أي مينة‬4(
‫) أميؿ إلى الخير والنفع‬5(
‫) أقرب إلى األذى والشر‬6(
‫) وصايا ونصائح‬7(
‫) دجؿ وشعوذة‬8(
‫) الضغط والشدة‬9(
‫) روح االستقبلؿ واالعتماد عمى النفس‬10(
‫) يختمؼ كؿ االختبلؼ‬11(
‫) سخؼ وصغار‬12(

Usually, the translator into English disposes of redundancy in most types of text for –
unlike Arabic Language – it is infrequent. Yet, in general texts, he/she has a choice either
to keep it (as done above for reasons of emphasis and informality of these text), or bring it
back to normal to achieve more proper English translation.

6.7.4 Translation Strategies

(1) Undertranslation (e.g. ‫ → أصفار عمى اليسار‬nonentities)

(2) Overtranslation (e.g. ‫ → السواد‬the majority of people)
(3) Contextual translation (e.g. ‫ صاحبو‬the individual)
(4) Collocation → collocation (‫ → قدر مف الشيرة‬measure of fame)
(5) Pragmatic / contextual translation (e.g. ‫ → يغري‬provoke (not attract))
(6) Transposition: n. → adj.+n. (‫ → صغار‬petty nature)
(7) Expansion (e.g. ‫ → النشء‬growing children)
(8) Reduction (e.g. ‫ → االعتماد عمى النفس‬self-dependability; ‫→ سبب ال تدري كنيو‬
inexplicable reason; ‫ → موفور الغنى‬wealthy)
(9) Figurative language → literal language (e.g. ‫ → أصفار عمى اليسار‬nonentities)

266
‫)‪ (The Hollow Men are Noisy‬الفارغون أكثر ضجيجاً ‪6.8 TEXT 8:‬‬

‫الفارغون أكثر ضجيجاً‬

‫إف كؿ فارغ مف البشر واألشياء لو جمبة وصوت صراخ‪ ،‬أما العامموف المثابروف فيـ في سكوف ووقار‪ ،‬ألنيـ مشغولوف‬
‫ببناء صروح المجد واقامة ىياكؿ النجاح‪.‬‬

‫إف سنبمة القمح الممتمئة خاشعة ساكنة ثقيمة‪ ،‬أما الفارغة فإنيا في ميب الريح لخفتيا وطيشيا‪ ،‬وفي الناس أناس فارغوف‬
‫مفمسوف أصفار رسبوا في مدرسة الحياة‪ ،‬وأخفقوا في حقوؿ المعرفة واإلبداع واإلنتاج فاشتغموا بتشويو أعماؿ الناجحيف‪،‬‬
‫فيـ كالطفؿ األرعف الذي أتى إلى لوحة رساـ ىائمة بالحسف‪ ،‬ناطقة بالجماؿ فشطب محاسنيا وأذىب روعتيا‪.‬‬

‫ىؤالء األغبياء الكسالى التافيوف مشاريعيـ كبلـ‪ ،‬وحججيـ صراخ‪ ،‬وأدلتيـ ىذياف ال تستطيع أف تطمؽ عمى أحدىـ لقباً‬
‫ممي اًز وال وصفاً جميبلً‪ ،‬فميس بأديب وال خطيب وال كاتب وال ميندس وال تاجر وال يذكر مع الموظفيف الرواد‪ ،‬وال مع‬
‫العمماء األفذاذ‪ ،‬وال مع الصالحيف األبرار‪ ،‬وال مع الكرماء األجواد‪ ،‬بؿ ىو صفر عمى يسار الرقـ‪ ،‬يعيش ببل ىدؼ‪،‬‬
‫ويمضي ببل تخطيط‪ ،‬ويسير ببل ىمة‪ ،‬ليس لو أعماؿ تنقد‪ ،‬فيو جالس عمى األرض والجالس عمى األرض ال يسقط‪ ،‬ال‬
‫يمدح بشيء‪ ،‬ألنو خاؿ مف الفضائؿ‪ ،‬وال يسب ألنو ليس لو حساد‪.‬‬
‫‪...‬‬
‫التافيوف وحدىـ ىـ المنشغموف بالناس كالذباب يبحث عف الجرح‪ ،‬أما الخيروف فأعماليـ الجميمة أشغمتيـ عف توافو‬
‫عسبلً فيو شفاء لمناس‪ ،‬إف الخيوؿ المضمرة عند السباؽ ال تنصت ألصوات‬
‫ً‬ ‫األمور كالنحؿ مشغوؿ برحيؽ الزىر يحولو‬
‫الجميور‪ ،‬ألنيا لو فعمت ذلؾ لفشمت في سباقيا وخسرت فوزىا‪.‬‬

‫اعمؿ واجتيد وأتقف وال تصغ لمثبط أو حاسد أو فارغ‪ .‬ىبطت بعوضة عمى نخمة فمما أرادت أف تطير قالت لمنخمة‪:‬‬
‫تماسكي أيتيا النخمة فأنا سوؼ أطير‪ ،‬فقالت النخمة لمبعوضة ‪ :‬واهلل ما شعرت بؾ يوـ وقعت فكيؼ أشعر بؾ إذا‬
‫طرت؟! (الشيخ عايض القرني‪) 1431/7/11 :‬‬

‫‪The Hollow Men are Noisy‬‬

‫‪Every hollow man and every hollow thing has a noise and a yelling sound. But hard‬‬
‫‪workers are in a state of tranquility and awe, busy building the edifices of glory and‬‬
‫‪success.‬‬

‫‪The full ear of grain kneels down humbly and heavily, but the empty ear is in the windward‬‬
‫‪being light and reckless. By analogy, there are amongst people hollow men who are‬‬
‫‪bankrupt, nothing, failed in the university of life and fields of knowledge, so they were‬‬
‫‪preoccupied with defaming the works of successful men. They are very much like a naughty‬‬
‫‪boy who defaced a fine painting.‬‬

‫‪Those idiots talk idly, yell rather than argue cogently, and provide delirious evidence that‬‬
‫‪none holds a smart title as a man of letters, an orator, a writer, an engineer, a‬‬
‫‪businessman, a high official, a scholar, a pious Muslim, or a generous man. He is an‬‬
‫‪absolute zero for he lives an aimless, chaotic, dispirited and listless life. He has no works to‬‬
‫‪267‬‬
criticize, sitting flat on the floor, and a man who sits on the floor does not fall down. He is
not admired because he has no excellences, and he is not attacked for he has no rivals.
…
The petty are the only men who are preoccupied with the lapses of successful men’, like the
flies that alight on open wounds. In the meantime, the good people will be driven away
from these trivialities, busy doing their great works, like the busy bees collecting the nectar
from flowers to convert it later into honey wherein is healing for the sick. Indeed, the
racehorses hearken not the shouting of the crowd for, if they do that, they will lose and
never win the race. One should work hard and give deaf ears to frustrating, envious hollow
men.

An Arabic anecdote of wisdom unfolds that once, a mosquito landed on a palm tree, and
when it was about to fly again, it said to the tree: “Hold on tight, you palm tree, for I am
about to fly”. The palm tree reacted: I swear to God that I took no notice of you when you
alighted, so how can I take notice of you when you fly? (Al-Qarni, 1431).

6.8.1 Purpose of the Translation

The Arabic original is a clear, sharp message criticizing those people who are idle,
lethargic, sluggish, lousy, lazy, heavy, dull and listless. Yet, they attack those people who
work hard and have achievements and great successes. By the same token, the translation
into English would have the purpose of rendering this message which, although mainly
Arabic culture, can be described as an insidious global practice that the English readers
might be aware of, and interested in knowing about it. Even those target readers who are
not familiar with that practice can be familiarized with it and, hence, add to their
information about a foreign culture. This gives hints to the translator to make this purpose
as clear and sharp as possible to the English readers, despite the intellectual and social
cultural differences between the two languages concerned.

6.8.2 Type of TL Readership

Due to the implications of the topic of the source text, the English readers who are
presumably addressed by the translation are mainly the educated, or, rather, the
academic readers in particular. However, those readers who are curious to read about
such topic are also included. The translator, then, can feel free at using formal English,
though technical terminology and too academic language cannot be strongly
recommended to give readers of different types the opportunity to read the translation,
for envy is a bad practice almost everywhere by many people, academic, or not.

6.8.3 Translation Problems

The main translation problems confronted by the translator of this text into English are
lexical, stylistic, grammatical and cultural. Yet, lexical problems take the lion’s share. The
title has two lexical problems: ‫ الفارغوف‬which is possible to translate as ‘hollow / empty /
empty-headed / scatter-brained / stupid / silly /vacuous / inane / brainless / harebrained /
featherbrained’. Most of these terms may apply here, but ‘hollow’ is preferred for it
combines both literal and metaphorical senses in both languages involved. The second

268
problem is the superlative phrase ً‫ أكثر ضجيجا‬which can be either ‘noisy’, ‘noisier’, ‘the
noisiest’, but the first is picked up for neither the comparative nor the superlative form is
involved, and there are only noisy hollow men, and they cannot be noisier than the hard
workers who have no noise at all.

The second demanding lexical problem is the amplificatory phrase ‫ وىياكؿ‬... ‫صروح المجد‬
‫النجاح‬. The translation suggested combines both collocations into one phrase as ‘the
edifices of glory and success’ (though translating it into two equivalent collocations as ‘the
edifices of glory and ‘structures of success’, is not too bad, but they are unnecessarily
artificial). As to the popular collocation ‫مدرسة الحياة‬, many translators might hasten to
translate it literally and directly into ‘the school of life’, but in English Language, it has the
linguistic equivalent as ‘the university of life’.

The problem of translating the figurative expression ‫ ناطقة بالجماؿ‬،‫ لوحة رساـ ىائمة بالحسف‬would
tempt some translators to translate directly into ‘a painter’s painting which is incredibly
pretty’ for all words have individual equivalents. Well, this translation is not only
tautological but also not good English. It is simply translated into ‘fine painting’ as
suggested above. Translators have to reconsider their English which should be English-
English, not broken Arabic-English, as it were, and this is the most important point in their
translation (see also Ghazala, 2015: ch. 5 for extensive discussion of linguistic culture).
Similarly, the phrase ‫ وأدلتيـ ىذياف‬،‫ ىؤالء األغبياء الكسالى التافيوف مشاريعيـ كبلـ وحججيـ صراخ‬is
possible to translate literally into ‘Those stupid, lousy and trivial hollow men have petty
projects of talking, their argument is yelling; and their evidence is delirium’. But this might
sound bizarre and vague in English; so, instead, the following translation is suggested
above: ‘Those idiots talk idly, yell rather than argue and provide delirious evidence”.
Likewise, the next statement ً‫ ال تستطيع أف تطمؽ عمى أحدىـ لقباً ممي اًز وال وصفاً جميبل‬cannot be
translated acceptably into a literal version like ‘that you cannot nickname anyone of them
by a distinguished title or smart epithet’ for it appears to be Arabic-English. Hence, a more
proper English translation is proposed earlier as: ‘that none holds a smart title’. The
meaning of this last statement is made clear in the sentence that follows: ‫فميس بأديب وال‬
،‫ وال مع الصالحيف األبرار‬،‫ وال مع العمماء األفذاذ‬،‫خطيب وال كاتب وال ميندس وال تاجر وال يذكر مع الموظفيف الرواد‬
‫ وال مع الكرماء األجواد‬which can be equally poor if translated literally as an independent
statement into ‘None of them is a man of letters, an orator, a writer, an engineer, a
businessman, a pioneering official, a peerless scholar, a pious Muslim, or an open-handed
generous man’. Yet, a better attempt is suggested in the translation above which joins it
with the previous clause as follows: ‘…that none holds a smart title as a man of letters, an
orator, a writer, an engineer, a businessman, a high official, a scholar, a pious Muslim, or a
generous man’ where elements of pomposity and overexaggeration are sacrificed for the
sake of normal proper style of English Language.

Following the same line of argument, the translator has to beware of the translation of the
next sentence ‫ ويسير ببل ىمة‬،‫ ويمضي ببل تخطيط‬،‫ يعيش ببل ىدؼ‬،‫ بؿ ىو صف ر عمى يسار الرقـ‬into: ‘He is
a zero on the left of the number, lives without an aim, goes without planning, and walks
with no resolution” as it looks dull, strange English indeed. Yet, a version like the following
269
can be acceptable: ‘He is absolute zero for he lives an aimless, chaotic, dispirited and
listless life’.

As to stylistic problems of translation, they are reflected by the differences between

English and Arabic styles of expressing meaning. The best evidence for these differences is
provided in the previous paragraph on lexical problems. The examples cited above are in
fact stylo-lexical problems (i.e. a combination of lexical and stylistic problems). Another
stylistic problem regards the SL writer’s occasional use of literary style, which employs the
following stylistic devices:

(a) Rhetorical parallelism (e.g. ‫ واقامة ىياكؿ النجاح‬... ‫(بناء صروح المجد‬
(b) Emphatic negative parallelism (e.g. ‫ وال يسب ألنو‬... ‫ ألنو خاؿ مف الفضائؿ؛‬،‫(ال يمدح بشيء‬
‫ليس لو حساد‬
(c) Polysendeton ) ‫( (العطؼ المتتابع‬e.g. ‫فميس بأديب وال خطيب وال كاتب وال ميندس وال تاجر وال يذكر‬
‫ وال مع العمماء‬،‫)مع الموظفيف الرواد‬
(d) Asyndeton ) ‫( (العطؼ المرسؿ‬Quite recurrent: e.g. ...‫(سنبمة القمح الممتمئة خاشعة ساكنة ثقيمة‬
‫أناس فارغوف مفمسوف أصفار‬
(e) Double negative emphasis: )‫وال‬... ‫( (ال‬neither … nor) constructions (e.g. ... ‫ال تستطيع‬
...‫وال‬...‫وال‬...‫وال‬... ‫)وال‬
(f) Contrasts in juxtaposition (e.g.‫ أما العامموف المثابروف‬...‫سنبمة القمح ;أما الخيروف فارغ مف البشر‬
‫أما الفارغة‬...‫) ;الممتمئة‬...‫أما الخيروف‬...‫التافيوف‬
(g) Figures of rhetoric (e.g. metaphor, simile, metonymy, pun, etc.) (e.g. ‫صروح المجد؛‬
‫ىياكؿ النجاح؛ السنبمة الممتمئة والسنبمة الفارغة؛ أصفار عمى اليسار؛ رسبوا في مدرسة الحياة؛ أمثمة النحؿ؛‬
‫ والبعوضة والنخمة‬،‫( وخيوؿ السباؽ‬see below)).

Due to linguistic and stylistic cultural differences between the two Languages concerned,
and because the text is of general – not literary - type, the English translation downgrades
most of these features for reasons just pointed out in the previous paragraph (except for
‘g’ which is discussed below).

Grammatical problems, on the other hand, are posed by the long and confusing sentence
structure, the misuse of punctuation that makes it difficult to distinguish sentences and
clauses from one another. This requires from the translator to bear the brunt, as it were,
and re-set the Arabic text properly with respect to punctuation, and sentence ending in
particular. The text consists of four sentences only, which is the same number for
paragraphs. That is, in shape, each paragraph ends in a full stop, and inside, commas are
used only. No other punctuation marks are used. Unfortunately, this is normal in Arabic,
but unacceptable in English and may hinder the fluency of readability, comprehension
and, hence, translation. (To avoid the strategy of rewriting the Arabic text as done in the
previous text, the translator/translator is requested to do it for itself as a practical
exercise, and, at coming across any snag, he/she can consult the English translation).

270
The final type of translation problems is the cultural problems, one type of which (e.g.
linguistic culture) is investigated in relation to lexical and stylistic problems above). The
social and other types of culture are posed by translating the figurative expressions which
are several:

(a) ‫ وىياكؿ النجاح‬... ‫( صروح المجد‬the edifices of glory and success)

(b) ‫ أما الفارغة فإنيا في ميب الريح لخفتيا وطيشيا‬،‫( إف سنبمة القمح الممتمئة خاشعة ساكنة ثقيمة‬The full
ear of grain kneels down humbly and heavily, but the empty ear is in the
windward being light and reckless)
(c) ‫( أصفار رسبوا في مدرسة الحياة‬nothing, failed in the university of life)
(d) ‫ ناطقة بالجماؿ فشطب محاسنيا واذىب‬،‫فيـ كالطفؿ األرعف الذي أتى إلى لوحة رساـ ىائمة بالحسف‬
‫( روعتيا‬very much like a naughty boy who defaced a fine painting)
(e) ‫( كالذباب يبحث عف الجرح‬like the flies that alight on open wounds)
(f) ‫عسبلً فيو شفاء لمناس‬
ً ‫( كالنحؿ مشغوؿ برحيؽ الزىر يحولو‬like the busy bees collecting the
nectar from flowers to convert it later into honey wherein is healing for the sick)
(g) ‫ ألنيا لو فعمت ذلؾ لفشمت في سباقيا‬،‫إف الخيوؿ المضمرة عند السباؽ ال تنصت ألصوات الجميور‬
‫( وخسرت فوزىا‬Indeed, the racehorses hearken not the shouting of the crowd for, if
they do that, they will lose and never win the race)
(h) ‫ طرت‬... ‫( ىبطت بعوضة عمى نخمة‬a mosquito planned on a palm tree, … when you fly)

All of these are cultural rhetorical images and adages that are intended to be understood
as similes (d, e, f), metaphors (a, c), metonyms (b, g) and puns (h). They are all in all
deeply-rooted in Arabic figurative culture and tradition. Yet, in the translations provided
for them into English, they are retained for two main reasons, first, they can be perceived
by the English readers easily and directly; second, they can be regarded as foreign cultural
adoptions that may contribute to the target readers’ background knowledge of Arabic and
other foreign cultures around the world. They are not different from translating some
English proverbs into Arabic, again, by way of adopting them into Arabic Language and
culture as ‘calques’. To cite one example, we adopted the English proverb “an
Englishman’s house is his castle )‫(بيت اإلنجميزي قمعتو‬, preceded by the cliché phrase ‫كما يقوؿ‬
‫( المثؿ اإلنجميزي‬as stated in the English proverb) (see Ghazala, 2015: ch. 5 for further details
and examples). Hence, translators are commended not to trouble themselves about
devising new English terms, finding out about English cultural equivalents, or neutralizing
the cultural elements of these expressions by translating them into general sense, for this
would destroy their great cultural values.

6.8.4 Translation Strategies

(1) Transposition: the superlative form → ordinary form ( ً‫ → أكثر ضجيجا‬noisy)

(2) Modulation: negative → positive (‫ → ال تصغ‬give deaf ears)

271
 (3) undertranslation (e.g. ‫ ناطقة بالجماؿ‬،‫كالطفؿ األرعف الذي أتى إلى لوحة رساـ ىائمة بالحسف‬
‫( → فشطب محاسنيا واذىب روعتيا‬very much like a naughty boy who defaced a fine
painting, etc.)
(4) Cultural adoption (e.g. all figurative expressions pointed out in the previous
paragraph of 6.8.3)
(5) Linguistic cultural clash (e.g. ،‫ ويمضي ببل تخطيط‬،‫ يعيش ببل ىدؼ‬،‫بؿ ىو صفر عمى يسار الرقـ‬
‫ ويسير ببل ىمة‬: translated not literally ‘He is a zero on the left of the number, lives
without an aim, goes without planning, and walks with no resolution”, but into
proper English as ‘He is absolute zero for he lives an aimless, chaotic, dispirited
and listless life’)
(6) Pragmatic addition: overtranslation (e.g. Zero SL text → An Arabic anecdote of
wisdom unfolds that once)
(7) Cultural equivalent collocation (e.g. ‫ → مدرسة الحياة‬university of life)
(8) Expansion (e.g. ‫ → الفارغوف‬the hollow men)
(9) Reduction (e.g. ‫ىياكؿ النجاح‬...‫ → صروح المجد و‬edifices of glory and success; ‫لوحة رساـ‬
‫ ناطقة بالجماؿ‬،‫ → ىائمة بالحسف‬fine painting)
(10) Literal language → metaphorical language (e.g. ‫ → وال تصغ لمثبط‬give deaf ears to
frustrating men)
(11) Literary style → ordinary style (e.g. ‫ ناطقة بالجماؿ‬،‫ → لوحة رساـ ىائمة بالحسف‬fine
painting)

6.9 TEXT 9: ‫( خطبة جمعة‬Friday Sermon) (adopted from Ghazala, 2014: 230)

‫استنفرت‬
َ ‫ و‬،‫أجيادىا‬
َ ‫الفتف‬
ُ ‫ ورفعت فيو‬،‫ُجاجو‬
ُ ‫ وامتزَج ُحموهُ وأ‬،‫اجو‬
ُ ‫تبلطمت أمو‬
َ ‫ في ىذا األواف الذي‬:‫"أييا المسمموف‬
‫ كما ىي مف‬،‫ومسمَّماتو‬
ُ ‫ وأصولو‬،‫ومح َكماتو‬
ُ ‫ ىي مف ضرورات الديف‬،‫وريقة‬ ِ ‫بمجاء‬
ُ َّ ٌ‫تبرُز قضية‬
،‫سنيةٌ عريقة‬ ُ ‫أجنادىا؛‬
َ
ٍ ‫وخير عنو‬
،‫اف لسبلمة األدياف‬ ُ ،‫اج لبموغ مرضاة الديَّاف‬
ٌ ‫ بؿ ىي معر‬،‫ ودعائـ الحضارة والعمراف‬،‫أساس األمف واالطمئناف‬
‫شجى في ُحموؽ‬ً ‫ وكانت‬،‫وسادت‬َ ‫وبمغت األو َج‬
َ ‫وقادت‬َ ‫استمس َكت بيا أمةٌ إال أفمَ َحت‬
َ ‫ ما‬- ‫ يا رعاكـ اهلل‬- ‫وتمكـ القضية‬
"...‫ وما تقتضيو مف السمع والطاعة‬،‫ إنيا شعيرةُ لزوـ الجماعة‬،‫ وق ًذى في عيوف ِلداتيا‬،‫ِعداتيا‬
)2011 .4 .29 :‫ الحرـ المكي‬:‫(خطبة الجمعة‬

(Fellow Muslims! Our issue for today is the Solidarity of Muslim Community. Nowadays,
we live at a time of surging waves that mixes good with evil. It brings about the
prerequisites of religion and its foundation of safety and security, and civilization. Indeed,
it is the best example set for the rightness of religion. No nation that holds fast to this
issue would go astray. Rather, it will rise, assume leadership and prevail).

6.9.1 Purpose of the Translation

The purpose of translating a Friday Sermon, which is an obligation for Muslims to attend,
is to render its message, or gist into English, using a plain type of language and direct,
clear and easy-going style. Translators should do their best to avoid using technical
terminology, rhetorical figures or very formal language to allow the translation to address
272
all types of target readers and introduce Islamic teachings and rulings in a way that
everybody can understand in as simple terms as possible.

6.9.2 Type of TL Readership

The original Arabic is understandably a Friday Sermon intended to address the public at
large, not only specialist students or scholars of Islamic jurisprudence, religious scholars,
or readers interested in Islam. Hence, it is expected to address an audience that has little
knowledge of rhetoric and can hardly understand it. However, the source text is
forwarded to the SL readers who are, in effect, left dumbfounded by such a grandiloquent
style of the original. As a result, the translator has to approach the translation of such text
only pragmatically, taking into account the level of education and understandability of the
readers / audience in the first place. He / she translates the cream, or the spirit of the text
into English, cutting down on all potential rhetorical jargon (as demonstrated by the
translation suggested above). The English reader, who is new to Islam, or, perhaps does
not know Islam, or has a mistaken idea about it, requires to be treated elegantly by the
translator in order to help him/her receive the message of the original properly, and in
lucid style and language.

6.9.3 Translation Problems

The translation problems of the Arabic text are mainly three types: Islamic and classical
terminology, jargonized style of rhetoric and complicated sentence structure. Islamic
Terms are not many in here. Only five of them are used:‫شعيرةُ ;يا رعاكـ اهلل ;الديَّاف ;خطبة الجمعة‬
‫السمع والطاعة ;لزوـ الجماعة‬. The first is translated into ‘Friday Sermon’ as, in Islam, ‘sermon’
has the sense of ‫ موعظة‬exactly as in Christianity in general, not in the sense of ‘speech’
)‫)خطاب‬. And this is the very reason why the latter is not used, though it can be
interchangeable with ‫ خطبة‬especially in classical Arabic, or, ironically , as in the well-known
catch phrase ‫( خطبة عصماء‬outspoken speech). Yet, nowadays, a distinction is drawn
between the two related terms in Arabic, and that is why we do not have the term ‫خطاب‬
‫( الجمعة‬Friday Speech!).

The second term ‫( الديَّاف‬The Supreme Judge, Ruler…) is one of God’s Attributes, or Names,
but has no equivalent in English. So, it is safely translated approximately into the general
term of origin, God. The third term is a traditional expression inserted haphazardly now
and then in the course of writing or conversation to mark one of the main features of
classical style in religious and literary discourses in particular. Secondly, it means to
address the readers/audience from time to time throughout discourse. Thirdly, it implies
the religious background of the people involved. Yet, usually, it is not translated into
English for, first, it does not affect meaning in any way; secondly, and more importantly, it
is not a part of modern English style of writing or speaking. Hence, it might sound queer
and, probably, sarcastic to English readers.

273
The fourth term ‫ شعيرةُ لزوـ الجماعة‬is translated approximately again into the ritual of the
solidarity of Muslim community, with ‘Muslim’ being added to qualify which ‘community’.
The fifth term is a traditional religious and political cliché translated freely into English as
‘due attention and obedience’ (to the community).

As to classical terminology, there are several terms that are not familiar to contemporary
readers, and the translator has to dwell on them for a long time and work very hard to
understand them, resorting to good Arabic-Arabic dictionaries in particular. Among these
terms are:

a) ‫ُجاج‬
ُ ‫ → أ‬impurity
b) ‫ → رفعت الفتف أجيادىا‬raising the stakes of tribulations (horses pun)
c) ‫ → أجناد‬heresies and agitation (soldiers pun)
ِ ‫بمجاء‬
d) ‫وريقة‬ ُ َّ ٌ‫ → قضية‬clear-cut and well-established fundamental causes
‫سنيةٌ عريقة‬
and prerequisites (of Islam)
e) ‫ → محكمات‬foundation and established facts
f) ‫ → معراج‬elevated aspiration
g) ‫شجى في حموؽ ِعداتيا‬
ً → thorn in the side of its enemies
h) ‫ → ق ًذى في عيوف لِداتيا‬dirt in their (enemies) eyes

Apparently, some of these classical words and expressions are required to be understood
figuratively as puns, or metonyms (c & d). This is a feature of literary style, which is, in
fact, misplaced here, as explained below.

The second type of translation problems of this text is the overuse of jargoned rhetorical
language by way of showing muscles of the SL writer’s literary dexterity in Arabic rhetoric.
As a general text, directed to the general public whose language skills are just normal,
such style of rhetoric is beyond their means. The same applies to the English readers who
require such texts to be comfortably readable and comprehensible. Therefore, translating
the source text as rhetorically and literally as it is into English would appear quite
inappropriate, bizarre and perhaps ironic:

(Fellow Muslims! Today we live at a time of surging waves that mix purity with impurity,
raising the stakes of tribulations, heresies and agitation that bring about clear-cut and
well-established fundamental causes and prerequisites of religion and its foundation and
established facts, as well as the basis for safety and security, and the cornerstone of
establishing civilization and construction. Indeed, it is an elevated aspiration to please God
and the best example set for the rightness of religion. This is the issue to which we have to
adhere, for no nation that holds fast to it would go astray. It will rise, assume leadership
and prevail to become as strong as a thorn in the side of its enemies and the dirt in their
eyes. It is the ritual of the solidarity of Muslim community and its entailment of due
attention and obedience).

274
The style of writing of today is generally formal, natural and simple. Secondly, the so-
called 'context of situation' of the text is a communicative one, featuring out a Friday
Sermon delivered weekly by Imams of Mosques for the Muslim public everywhere in the
Muslim world, as well as the rest of the world. This implies that the Text is supposed to
address the Muslim general public who would be expectedly of an average or low level of
education in Arabic Language. Therefore, the type of the style of language used to
communicate such an audience is recommended to match its educational level.

This rhetorical version of translation copies the original. In fact, it seems artificial and
Arabic-English, rather than English-English. It is an affectation style and a feat of
flamboyant rhetoric, crammed with figurative expressions, literary images, symbolism,
prosodic and several other features of classical style of writing, as illustrated below:

(a) Classical expressions: ،‫ُجاجو‬ َّ ٌ‫ قضية‬،‫ لِداتيا‬،‫ ق ًذى‬،‫ ِعداتيا‬، ‫شجى‬

ُ ‫ أ‬،ٌ‫سنية‬ ً
(b) Figurative language: (e.g. ‫ُجاجو‬ ُ ‫وامتزَج ُحموهُ وأ‬, ‫أجيادىا‬
َ ‫الفتف‬ َّ ٌ‫قضية‬, ‫بمجاء وريقة‬,
ُ ‫ورفعت فيو‬, ٌ‫سنية‬ ُ
ِ
‫شجى في ُحموؽ عداتيا‬ ِ
ً ‫وكانت‬, ‫)وق ًذى في عيوف لداتيا‬
(c) Prose rhymes (‫ُجاجو‬ ُ ‫ وامتزَج ُحموهُ وأ‬،‫اجو‬ ُ ‫تبلطمت أمو‬,
َ ‫أجنادىا‬
َ ‫استنفرت‬
َ ‫ و‬،‫أجيادىا‬
َ ‫الفتف‬
ُ ‫ورفعت فيو‬,
‫بمجاء وريقة‬ ،‫سنيةٌ عريقة‬ َّ
َّ ٌ‫قضية‬, ‫ومسمماتو‬
ُ ُ ‫ وأصولو‬،‫ومح َكماتو‬ ُ ‫مف ضرورات الديف‬, and almost the
rest of the whole text)
(d) Redundant synonyms (e.g. ‫بمجاء وريقة‬ ُ َّ ‫ومسمَّماتو‬
،‫ عريقة‬،ٌ‫سنية‬/ ُ ،‫ وأصولو‬،‫ومح َكماتو‬
ُ
(e) Elaborative contrasts (e.g. ‫ُجاجو‬
ُ ‫)حموهُ وأ‬
ُ
(f) Elaborative synonyms (e.g. ‫ ودعائـ الحضارة والعمراف‬،‫أساس األمف واالطمئناف‬, ‫وقادت‬ َ ‫أفمَ َحت‬
‫وسادت‬
َ ‫)وبمغت األو َج‬
َ
(g) Lexico-syntactic parallelisms (e.g. ‫ وق ًذى في عيوف لِداتيا‬،‫شجى في ُحموؽ ِعداتيا‬
ً (
(h) Elaborative hyponyms (e.g. ‫ الدياف‬... ‫)الدياف‬
(i) Elaborative collocations (e.g. ،‫ بمغت األوج‬،‫ قضية سنية‬،‫تبلطمت األمواج‬
(j) Alliterative Syndetic patterns (e.g. ‫سادت‬
َ ‫ و‬... ‫بمغت‬ َ ‫قادت و‬
َ ‫(أفمَ َحت و‬
(k) Literary elaborations (e.g. ‫وقادت‬
َ ‫استمس َكت بيا أمةٌ إال أفمَ َحت‬
َ ‫)ما‬
(l) Classical insertive clichés (e.g. ‫)يا رعاكـ اهلل‬
(m) Chiming (similarity of sound and difference of meaning (e.g. ‫أجنادىا‬...‫أجيادىا‬,
‫لداتيا‬...‫عداتيا‬، ‫وريقة‬...‫(عريقة‬
(n) Rhythm, rhyme and alliteration: the passage has many things in common with
literature, prose and poetry, especially in relation to rhyme, rhythm and
alliteration.

These are mainly features of literary style that can be described as misplaced for the
source text here is a religious text that is supposed to be straightforward, simple and easy
to understand by SL as much as TL readers. All these are reasons for suggesting the first
translation earlier, which is a translation of the message that is rendered to the TL readers
as simply and directly as possible. To demonstrate that yet more clearly, Here is a back
translation of the English version into Arabic. The SL writer would like to say simply the
following:
275
‫اج‬
ُ ‫تبلطمت فيو أمو‬
َ ‫ نعيش في ىذه األياـ في زماف‬.‫ موضوعنا ليذا اليوـ ىو لزوـ جماعة المسمميف‬:‫(أييا المسمموف‬
‫خير مثاؿ لسبلمة‬ َّ
ُ ‫ حقاً إنيا‬.‫ وحضارتو‬،‫ وأساس أمنو وأمانو‬،‫ ولزوـ الجماعة قضية ىي مف ُمسممات الديف‬.‫الخير والشر‬
).‫ بؿ إنيا ستنيض وتسود‬،ً‫ ولف تضؿ أمة تمسكت بيا أبدا‬.‫الديف‬

Having foregrounded the main topic (which was at the end), and having been disposed of
all of the misplaced pomposities, intricacies and delicacies of rhetoric, this pragmatic
translation is now fluent, sharp and to the point and easy to follow and comprehend.

Some questions about the use of this bombastic, highly rhetorical style of prose rhyme in
such type of text can be validly raised, concerning its naturalness, purpose, readership
and the cognitive background behind it. It is to state the obvious that the text is not
natural, but highly affected, artificial and non-fluent. By contrast, and since the purpose of
a Friday sermon is to deliver a short public preaching for Muslims about their religion and
life in the light of Islam, it is recommended to be short, clear and should not ‘beat about
the bush’, as it were. An affected style of syndetic symmetry, parallelism, synonymy, and
prosodic and rhetorical features highlighted above might have impressive aesthetic
effects, but at the expense of the simplicity of the message of the sermon.

The third type of translation problems is the complicated sentence structure of the Arabic
original. The whole text is one very long sentence only, or, at best, a very long sentence
and an ending very short sentence (e.g. ‫ ومػػا تقتضػػيو مػػف السػػمع والطاعػػة‬،‫)إنيػػا شػػعيرةُ لػػزوـ الجماعػػة‬
which is demanding for the translator to comprehend and translate into English easily.
Therefore, the translator has to exert much effort to rephrase the original into proper
sentences and clause before translating it. The translator’s task is made still harder by
improper punctuation and absence of vocalization )‫( (التشػكيؿ‬which is already provided by
the author of this work to overcome this problem). Thus, to overcome all problems
created by the complicated structure of the source text, the English translation proposed
above splits it into five short, simple sentences to make the target readers’ task of reading
and understanding possible.

6.9.4 Translation Strategies

(1) Transliteration (e.g. ‫ → إسبلـ‬Islam)

(2) Cultural religious correspondence (e.g. ‫→ موعظة‬sermon; ‫ → شعائر‬rituals)
(3) Approximate /generalized translation (e.g. ‫ → الدياف‬God)
(4) Naturalization (e.g. ‫ → اهلل‬God)
(5) Figurative/pragmatic translation (e.g. ‫ → رفعت الفتف أجيادىا‬raising the
stakes of tribulations (horses pun); ‫ → أجناد‬heresies and agitation
(soldiers pun))
(6) Rhetorical Language → ordinary language
(7) Classical Arabic Language → modern English Language (see classical
terminology above for examples)
(8) Literary style → ordinary style
276
 (9) Deletion (e.g. ‫( يا رعاكـ اهلل‬may God preserve you) → zero; ‫وما تقتضيو مف‬
‫( السمع والطاعة‬due attention and obedience) → zero)
(10) Rhyme and rhythmical language → ordinary language (see rhetorical
features earlier for examples)
(11) Classifier (e.g. ‫ → الجماعة‬Muslim Community)
(12) Reduction (e.g. ‫ → دعائـ الحضارة والعمراف‬foundations of civilization)
(13) Undertranslation/summary (e.g. ُ‫ وامتزَج ُحموه‬،‫اجو‬ ُ ‫تبلطمت أمو‬
َ ‫في ىذا األواف الذي‬
ِ ‫بمجاء‬
‫وريقة‬ ُ َّ ٌ‫تبرُز قضية‬
،‫سنيةٌ عريقة‬ ُ ‫أجنادىا؛‬
َ ‫استنفرت‬
َ ‫ و‬،‫أجيادىا‬
َ ‫الفتف‬
ُ ‫ ورفعت فيو‬،‫ُجاجو‬
ُ ‫→ وأ‬
Nowadays, we live at a time of surging waves that mixes good with evil;
ٍ ‫وخير عنو‬
‫اف لسبلمة األدياف‬ ُ ،‫اج لبموغ مرضاة الديَّاف‬
ٌ ‫ → بؿ ىي معر‬it is the best example
set for the rightness of religion)
(14) Redundancy → ordinary language (e.g. ‫سادت‬ َ ‫وبمغت األو َج و‬
َ → will rise)
(15) Modulation: positive → negative (e.g. ‫وقادت‬
َ ‫استمس َكت بيا أمةٌ إال أفمَ َحت‬
َ ‫ما‬
‫وسادت‬
َ ‫وبمغت األو َج‬
َ → No nation that holds fast to this issue would go
astray)

6.10 Summary

This chapter has handled the translation of an anthology of general texts of different
topics and purposes. They are related to one another in translational terms of being
treated as general texts. They are approached in a similar way in regard to their purposes
and types of TL readership. Their translation problems and the strategies employed to sort
them out have been so diversified, but quite constructive and useful as far as translation
theory and practice are concerned. The conclusions that can be drawn from the chapter
are numerous. First, the argument for dealing with general texts as a separate type is fully
justified with respect to purpose, readers, style and language. Second, generalization
about these texts is difficult in terms of translation problems and strategies, though
strategies like naturalization, transliteration, undertranslation, overtranslation,
paraphrase, deletion, addition, pragmatic translation are common among many texts
translated above. Third, TL readers are high on the agenda, as it were, for translators with
respect to simplicity, readability, understandability and clarity of style, language and
message. More conclusions could be drawn from this chapter by interested readers.

To round up the book, an essential final chapter, (chapter 7) is in demand to cover the
translation of SL specialist, technical texts into TL general, non-technical texts for specific
purposes. It investigates translating SL specialist texts into TL general texts with main
focus on purpose of the translation, the TL readership’s types, levels of education needs
and requirements, followed by a practical survey of the translation problems of the texts
concerned and the solutions suggested to them, then the translation strategies used to
help solve many of these problems.

277
EXERCISES

(1) Translate the following text into Arabic. (Seek help from Text 3 above: “What is
Abuse”). Then discuss the translation from the following viewpoints:

(a) Purpose of your translation

(b) Type of TL readership
(c) Five main translation problems
(d) Five translation strategies you used in your translation

Women’s Abuse
“It started by him constantly, giving me verbal insults, saying I was fat, ugly and boring.
The he would insult me in front of friends. I’d laugh it off. Gradually, my friends stopped
coming to our house. The first time he hit me was because I’d come home from an office
party a bit drunk. Afterwards, he was very apologetic; I blamed myself for having a few
drinks. After that, beatings become more frequent-a word, a look or a simple question
would cause him to fly into rage. It ranged from hard pinches, hands around my throat to
full punches in the stomach. ... When anybody commented on the bruising, I would say it
was from my six-year old daughter kicking me in her sleep. ...The mental abuse was more
torturous than physical abuse, because I thought I was going mad. Three days before
Christmas last year, he tried to get me admitted to a psychiatric hospital. When that didn’t
work, he pushed me down the stairs, fracturing my arm. ... He couldn’t see what he was
doing as abuse, he felt he could justify it and I thought so, too.” (In Rojo, 2009: 187).

(2) The next English general text about “The Library” is translated into Arabic. In the
same way done earlier in this chapter, discuss the translation in terms of:

(1) Purpose of translation;

(2) Type of TL readership;
(3) Translation Problems; and
(4) Translation strategies

The Library
“This great library can overwhelm the newcomer with sensations of awe and suppressed
excitement. It fills him with intimations of profound peace. Mingled feelings are natural.
The voices of humanity, raised in moral and spiritual counsel, fill the air with the rumour of
their debate, their triumphant doubts, their melancholy certainties, their final assurances
of comfort. All this is hushed and tranquil like a church. Timeless calm and unwithering
composure surround the devotee.

The library is a place of work, and hard work at that. It is possible to be idle. A fugitive is
protected from the importunate business of the world. Friends and colleagues who would
cheerfully invade the privacy of his home do not disturb him. Sleep is strictly respected in
the library, provided that the sleeper does not snore. No true scholar is idle. It appears that
he spends most of his time gazing at the back of a librarian’s neck. He is working to some
purpose.” (Nash, 1980: 189)

278
‫(قد تغمر ىذه المكتبة الكبيرة زائرىا الجديد بأحاسيس مف اإلجبلؿ والرىبة واإلثارة المكبوتة‪ .‬إذ تممؤه بمشاعر حميمة مف‬
‫السكينة في أعماقو‪ .‬وتعتبر ىذه المشاعر المختمطة طبيعية‪ .‬فأصوات اإلنسانية جمعاء‪ ،‬والتي ترتفع ممزوجة بقيـ‬
‫أخبلقية وروحية‪ ،‬تمؤل الجو بدمدمة جداالتيا وشكوكيا المحقة‪ ،‬ويقينيا المحزف‪ ،‬وضماناتيا التي ال رجعة فييا‪ .‬كؿ ىذا‬
‫أُسكت واختفى وخيـ صمت رىيب عمى المكتبة‪ .‬سكوف أبدي وىدوء ال ينقضي يكتنؼ المحبيف لممكتبة‪.‬‬

‫تعتبر المكتبة مكاف عمؿ‪ ،‬عمؿ شاؽ‪ .‬قد يصيبؾ ب الكسؿ والخموؿ‪ .‬فالذي يأوي إلييا في مأمف مف األعماؿ الممحة‬
‫والمزعجة في ىذا العالـ‪ .‬فاألصدقاء والزمبلء الذيف ينقضوف عمى خصوصيتو فرحيف وما ىـ بمزعجيف‪ .‬أما النوـ‬
‫فمكانتو محفوظة في المكتبة بشرط أال يشخر النائـ‪ .‬ال يوجد طالب عمـ كسوؿ‪ .‬يبدو أنو يقضي معظـ وقتو في المكتبة‬
‫وىو يحدؽ في قفا أميف المكتبة‪ .‬إنو يعمؿ مف أجؿ تحقيؽ غرض ما‪).‬‬

‫‪(3) The following text is English culture-specific. It has been translated into Arabic‬‬
‫‪with cultural implications in the translator’s background approach. Spot the‬‬
‫‪cultural terms and expressions in the SL text and how they are dealt with in the‬‬
‫’‪translation. How good is the translator’s cultural approach from the Arab readers‬‬
‫?‪different cultural standpoint‬‬

‫‪The British Post‬‬

‫‪“There is one hour of day which is always pleasantly touched with mingling of expectancy‬‬
‫‪and apprehension. This is the time when the morning post is about to arrive, bringing with‬‬
‫‪it God knows what intimations of love, friendship, commercial advantage or downright‬‬
‫‪legal menace. Though we may no longer actually station ourselves near a letter-box, as‬‬
‫‪when in boyhood, agog with the excitement of our hobbies, we awaited the latest‬‬
‫‪consignment from Eldorado, or as when in youth, our pulses hammering, we lurked to‬‬
‫‪intercept thrilling, scented avowals from the most recent she, or even as when in mature‬‬
‫‪years we dared to hope that success and fame might yet come clattering into the house on‬‬
‫‪the back of a postcard, still the moment is a glorious and anxious one, and he must be a‬‬
‫‪cold-spirited recluse who can calmly watch a postman pass by the window, can‬‬
‫‪indifferently contemplate a letterless doormat, and can accept with equanimity the bleak‬‬
‫)‪fact that there is no post for him today.”(See ibid.: 102‬‬
‫(ىناؾ ساعة في كؿ يوـ عند اإلنجميز يختمط فييا دائماً الترقب مع الخوؼ‪ .‬إنيا ساعة ترقب وصوؿ البريد في كؿ‬
‫صباح‪ ،‬يحمؿ معو ما ال يعممو إال اهلل مف مشاعر الحب الحميمة‪ ،‬أو الصداقة‪ ،‬أو أخبار تجارية سارة‪ ،‬أو إخطار‬
‫قضائي فيو تيديد ووعيد! صحيح أننا لـ نعد نعسكر عند صندوؽ الرسائؿ كما كنا نفعؿ ونحف صغار‪ ،‬ممؤنا الشوؽ‬
‫واإلثارة بممارسة ىواياتنا‪ ،‬كنا ننتظر الشحف مف جزر الواؽ الواؽ‪ ،‬أو كما في سف الشباب‪ ،‬كانت قموبنا تدؽ بالنبض‬
‫دقاً‪ ،‬نترصد اعتراض سبيؿ اعترافات مثيرة يفوح منيا عبؽ الحب مف آخر صديقة‪ ،‬أو كما حتى عندما كبرنا ونضجنا‪،‬‬
‫تحمينا بالجرأة وتمنينا أف يطرؽ النجاح والشيرة أبواب بيتنا عمى قفا بطاقة بريدية‪ ،‬مع ذلؾ كمو ما زالت تمؾ المحظة‬
‫لحظة عظيمة ومشوقة‪ .‬لذا ال بد أف يكوف جسداً مف دوف روح ومعزوالً عف العالـ ذلؾ الشخص الذي يستطيع أف يراقب‬
‫ساعي البريد وىو يمر مف أماـ النافذة وال يحرؾ ساكناً‪ ،‬ويتخيؿ دواسة الباب خالياة مف الرسائؿ‪ ،‬ويتقبؿ ببرودة أعصاب‬
‫الحقيقة المحزنة أنو ال يوجد لو بريد ىذا اليوـ‪).‬‬

‫‪(4) The next text is an Arabic general text, followed by its translation into English. In‬‬
‫‪your opinion, what are the weak points and the strong points of the translation in‬‬
‫‪279‬‬
 terms of the translation’s purpose, type of TL readership, translation problems
(the most difficult) and translation strategies? Have you other options for some
words and phrases, and why?
‫النبوغ بعد الستين‬
‫"يقوؿ بعض العمماء إف النظريات العممية التي ت وصموا إلييا بعد البحث الطويؿ والخبرة الدقيقة قد أثبتت أف اإلنساف يبدأ‬
‫ وأوؿ ما يضعؼ مف تمؾ الحواس‬.‫جسده باالنييار بعد سف األربعيف وأف حواس اإلنساف تضعؼ تبعاً النحبلؿ الجسـ‬
‫ فإف أوؿ‬،‫ فإف أقؿ ضعؼ يعتري الجسـ أوؿ ما يؤثر عمى العقؿ حتى أف اإلنساف إذا ما شعر بتوعؾ في جسده‬، ‫العقؿ‬
‫ ويخمص‬.‫ إذ تأخذ في التخاذؿ والمجوء إلى أسيؿ طرؽ التفكير أو قؿ إلى الركود الفكري العاـ‬.‫ما يتداعى لو القوة العقمية‬
‫ فالواقؼ عمى‬.‫ ويضربوف لذلؾ مختمؼ األمثاؿ‬.‫العمماء مف ىذا إلى أف اإلنساف يتمتع بقوة العقؿ في تماـ قوة الجسـ‬
‫تاريخ العظماء والقادة والمفكريف يجد أف ىؤالء لـ يوفقوا في حياتيـ ولـ يؤرخوا صفحات مجدىـ إال إباف شباب الجسـ‬
.‫وشباب العقؿ‬

‫ وىذا العالـ مديف‬.‫ولكف الذي يتجرد مف براعة ىذه النظرية ووجاىتيا يدرؾ أف في ىذه اآلراء مبالغة ال جداؿ فييا‬
.‫بالفضؿ لمف ىـ بعد الستيف أكثر مف سواىـ‬

‫ كبل فالذكاء والنبوغ قد يكوناف في الطفؿ‬.‫لست أ ريد أف أقوؿ في كممتي ىذه أف الشباب يتجردوف مف النبوغ والذكاء‬
‫ لكنني أقوؿ إف فكرة رجؿ الستيف‬.‫والشاب والكيؿ والشيخ عمى قدر ويقوياف في كؿ منيـ بحسب القدرة والبيئة والتجربة‬
‫ فإف اإلنساف عند بموغو‬... .‫دونو بحكـ ما اكتسب مف خبرة وفطنة وتجارب‬
َ ‫تكوف في الغالب أنضج وأصح مف فكرة َمف‬
".‫الستيف ينتقؿ إلى درجة النضوج الفكري التاـ‬

Ingeniousness after Sixty

(Some scientists say that the scientific theories they have arrived at after long research and
wide experience have shown that the human body starts deteriorating after the age of
forty, and that man’s senses become weaker with the decay of his body. The first of these
senses to get weaker is the intellect. Any weakness of the body affects the intellect before
anything else. Even when the body is slightly indisposed, the first to falter is intellect. It
starts to droops and resorts to the easiest way of thinking, or to general mental
sluggishness in the least. Scientists conclude that man enjoys perfectly fit intellect when his
body is perfectly fit. To confirm that, they give numerous examples. The biography of great
people, leaders and thinkers points out that those figures have had their best
achievements when they were physically and intellectually young.

Yet, though these theories are brilliant abstractions, they are overexaggerated, no doubt
about that. Our world is more indebted to the great men over sixty than those below.

I don’t mean to say that the youths are not genius or intelligent enough, for children, the
young, the middle-aged and the old can be as genius and intelligent, though with
variations. Ingeniousness and intelligence may become sharper depending on personal
ability, milieu and experience. Still, a sixty-year old man’s idea can be more mature and
proper than a man below this age due to his wide experience, sharp insight and long
practice. … At the age of sixty, man is supposed to have complete intellectual maturity.)

280
 CHAPTER 7

TRANSLATING SPECIALIST TEXTS INTO GENERAL TEXTS:

PURPOSE TRANSLATION
7.0 Introduction

This book argues in the introduction for the translatability of general texts in terms of
purpose in the sense of responding to the TL readers’ needs and requirements. Now, in
the light of ‘skopos theory’ (see Introduction earlier), this approach is applied to the
translation of specialized texts (e.g. technical, medical, legal, literary, political, etc.) into
general translations in the TL in accordance with specifically defined purposes required by
the target readers. Among these purposes are providing a summary for the SL text,
educating the TL readership, de-technicalizing the SL text, de-jargonizing the SL text,
commenting on an issue, reacting to a speaker’s attitude, alarming, pleasing, informing,
provoking or influencing the TL readers, etc.

This chapter is an attempt to venture a step forward in the application of ‘purpose theory’
to translating specialized SL texts into general TL texts. It might be a major contribution of
this book to translation theory and practice in the light of the updated theory of purpose
in the first place. It tackles the translation of various types SL specialized texts into general
texts in the TL to achieve different purposes, with the aim of meeting the target readers’
needs. The ultimate objective of this chapter is to trace further explorations about
translation theory and practice in regard to purpose, problems and strategies of
translating these texts, with special emphasis on PURPOSE AS DICTATED BY THE TL
READERSHIP throughout.

Next is an anthology of specialist texts, translated into TL with special focus on realizing
some of the purposes pointed out above that address the TL readers’ demands in a
straight forward way.

7.1 TEXT 1: Summarization:

Experiences Common to University Leaders

•Clark Kerr (University of California, Berkeley)

•William C. Friday (University of North Carolina System)
•Theodore Hesburgh (University of Notre Dame)
•John Brooks Slaughter (University of Maryland)
•William Gordon Bowen (Princeton University)
•Hanna Holborn Gray (University of Chicago)

From these case studies, Padilla identified several specific patterns that he found to occur
commonly in these leaders early lives, as well as several other patterns that he found
common in adulthood. Read over these qualities and experiences and then:

281
•Place a check mark ( ) in the box() following any one of these qualities and experiences
that applies to you.
•Place a check mark () in the circle() following any one of these qualities and
experiences that you believe significantly contributed to your success as an academic
leader.

Experiences in Early Life

1. Importance of historical contexts and environmental influences. Kerr, Friday, and

Hesburgh witnessed problems occurring during the Great Depression —the
unemployment, the labor tensions and its graphic violence, the human despair
from a lack of opportunity, the desperate circumstance of individuals fighting for
a chance at a better life. These experiences affected materially how they viewed
their world and colored many of the decisions they would make. In the case of
Hanna Gray, one finds the impact of immigration and of “tradition and
translation,” of living two sets of lives, the one from the “old country” and the one
from America. John Slaughter’s childhood in Topeka, Kansas, the home of Brown
v. the [Topeka, Kansas] Board of Education, was rich with stories about the
historic plight of African Americans and the struggle for civil rights and social
justice.
2. Exceptional intelligence and gifts in the realm of communication and public
speaking. Hanna Gray was fifteen when she entered college; Friday, Kerr, and
Bowen were class presidents; Hesburgh and Slaughter both distinguished
themselves early on in various ways academically. Bowen was the youngest full
professor in Princeton history. Three of them were chosen by their teachers and
professors to speak at their commencements.
3. Adversity or conflict as children and adolescents at home. The six cases developed
or exhibited the patterns of response and unusual perseverance that research on
resiliency has uncovered. Many strengths and proclivities existed from early in
their lives, from Kerr’s unusual intellect and negotiating skills to Bill Friday’s
interpersonal impact on others around him and Bill Bowen’s propensity for hard
work and leadership skills from an early age. That kind of consistency and
enduring persistence seems characteristic of some individuals who overcome the
obstacles or challenges between them and extraordinary achievement. 
4. Extraordinary attention in the home to education and to reading. This is true in
virtually all cases, with the possible exception of Bowen, who notes that neither of
his parents pushed him in any form to study, although several of his mentors in
high school did so. This emphasis on education is more notable when compared to
contemporary families in similar conditions and economic situations.
5. Hard work at an early age. Most of the leaders highlighted here had to work as
youngsters and they worked hard. They had the physical capacity to do so and in
the process learned about the value of time management. All of them have
remained extraordinarily active long after normal retirement age. 
6. Travel and exposure to different cultures before adulthood. Travel is an element in
the ability to “translate” behaviors across diverse cultures or in understanding
and empathizing with people and events from other backgrounds. The act of
reading enabled some to “lead other lives,” but most, either because of the war,

282
 their religion, or discrimination, traveled significantly outside their immediate
geography and were exposed to different cultures at a relatively early age. Most
of the individuals highlighted here were able to observe, and to compare and
contrast, different “versions” of the world and to understand their distinctiveness
through interactions with social or religious groups.
7. Opportunities to develop the art and skill of communication. Bill Friday still recalls
some of the speeches his father Lath had him practice over and over. Kerr’s
conversion to Quakerism similarly put him in front of audiences in his youth.
Hesburgh’s grandfather instilled in him a curiosity for and later the love of foreign
travel and languages; Hesburgh’s rigorous preparation by the Jesuits reinforced
these tendencies. 
8. Significant mentors. Each leader can point quite specifically and without prodding
to individuals at various stages of their careers who were special to their
development — an elementary school teacher, an assistant dean, a professor. For
some, this mirrors research findings indicating that resilient children have a
radiance or an ensemble of traits that attracts adult mentors to them. A related
theme is an ability to develop, maintain, and significantly expand connections or
networks over their lives: each of the individuals studied have been excellent at
networking from an early age, maintaining contact with significant adults who
kept them in mind as their careers progressed.
9. Unusual achievements compared to their peers. Most of the individuals studied
here had achieved things that their peers had not at an early age. For example,
several were chosen to speak at their commencements, were class presidents, or
had reached educational or professional stages much faster than their peers. 
10. Early exposure to the top. Five of the six individuals studied here had
opportunities to observe at close hand the operation of their organizations from a
high vantage point early in their careers. This enabled them to learn about the
overall structure of the organization and exposed them to trustees and other
senior officers, who in turn were able to evaluate their skills and promise. Through
these exposures to the top of organizations, and also due to non-trivial elements
of luck and chance, opportunities arose and these individuals were able to
recognize these opportunities and to do something with them. 

Experiences in Adulthood

1. Connectedness to their organizations. This is perhaps the most striking feature in

the ability to achieve extraordinary results as illustrated by the six cases studied
here. All except Slaughter grew professionally and managerially at the same
institution and if they left, like Gray, they returned relatively quickly. They were
very familiar with the culture of their organizations and were well known to
others in their communities. They understood one of the paradoxes of leadership:
the leader is an indispensable part of an organization, but only a part, and a small
part at that. Much depends on them, but it is never about them. At the same
time, however, all were exposed in significant and meaningful ways to other
institutions and other ways of doing work and things. For example, Hesburgh,
though he began his career at Notre Dame and remained there, traveled widely
and served on several presidential commissions and national committees; Hanna

283
 Gray was at Northwestern, Yale, and Harvard, and served as chair of the
prestigious Association of American Universities (AAU). Friday also chaired the
AAU and the American Council on Education and served three very different
institutions and later thirteen additional even more diverse ones. Kerr went from
Swarthmore to Berkeley, and from one coast to the other, bringing with him
strong traditions about liberal education on a more human scale, a background
that helped him shape several of the campuses of the University of California. 
2. Strong interpersonal relations. The interpersonal skills of Bill Friday and Father
Hesburgh are renowned, but all six cases, as might be expected given their
achievements in very public arenas, are gifted in the realm of interpersonal
relations. Several of them, including Gray and Kerr in particular, have an excellent
sense of humor, Kerr’s often leaning more toward commentary. Bowen is one of
the most “connected” people in the United States, with friends and contacts
literally all over the world, and Slaughter is disarmingly friendly and caring in his
interactions.
3. Ability to work long hours very effectively. All had the physical stamina to work
fairly long hours and they were all excellent managers of their time.
4. Optimism and perseverance. Invariably, these six individuals tended to focus on
the positive aspects of an issue. For example, Slaughter, on the attack on
affirmative action programs, says:“The good thing is that we’re now talking about
these issues. ”Bill Friday continues to have an impact on the conduct of
intercollegiate athletics through his Knight Commission work two decades after
retirement, and Bill Bowen continues to speak out on excellence in education and
for social justice and opportunities for minorities nationally. 
5. An “aerial” or global understanding of the relationships among different parts of
the enterprise and the larger environment. They understood the “gestalt” was
more than the sum of the parts and how the different pieces fit together internally
and how the entire enterprise relates to external entities. 
6. Management styles suited to the needs and demands of their respective
institutions and their organizational cultures. There was no “right” management
style: Hesburgh’s charismatic, take-charge style worked well at Notre Dame but
would not have functioned at the University of California. At the same time,
however, they all exhibited certain leadership traits in common.
7. Cadence of life and systematic renewal. The ability to remain at the top of their
games required the periodic physical and psychic renewal. Routine exercise,
prayer, fishing, gardening, and reading all served the purpose for most of the
leaders. 
8. Uselessness of the concept of the “übermanager” or the “superleader.” When
effective leaders accomplish extraordinary things, they do so with innate talents
and basic skills often perfected from childhood; with a deep connection to, and
considerable knowledge of, their organization and its culture; with superb
associates; with outstanding communication skills; and with a great deal of hard
work and perseverance. All of them sought consensus and agreement, excepting
perhaps Hesburgh, who as a “founding” (or at least a “reinventing”) president
with a great deal of charisma and power, occasionally moved forward without
much consultation, particularly during the early stages of his presidency, while the
Notre Dame faculty and the governing processes were being strengthened. 

284
 9. Strong and trusted associates. Most of the presidents attracted strong associates
and worked with highly effective teams. Their working relations seemed to be
characterized by a high degree of trust, cordiality, and mutual admiration. They
were also not afraid to establish and empower faculty commissions to
recommend courses of action to deal with important organizational
challenges.
10. Absence of behaviors that often derail careers. Just as important as the traits and
patterns that the six case studies exhibit are those behaviors that are absent. In
general, based on personal interviews as triangulated with written materials and
interviews with associates, most of the individuals studied showed a high
“emotional intelligence,” to use the phrase popularized by Dan Goleman, referring
to “people skills” and qualities like the ability to read social situations,
understanding one’s own experiences, empathy toward others, and regulation of
emotions in effective and useful ways.”There was a general absence of certain
behaviors commonly associated with executive derailment. Note: For this section,
check boxes and circles pertaining to qualities that you have successfully avoided.

 Self-enriching behaviors such as extravagant spending on office decor,

personal trips, or other
personal remuneration or benefits
 Arrogance
 Mercurial personality and moodiness
 Aloofness, insensitivity, or disengagement from others
 Perfectionism
 Eagerness to please or win “popularity contests”
 Over-ambition
 Passive aggressiveness
 Distrust and focus on negative aspects of situations
 Difficulty molding a staff

‫تجارب شائعةلقادة جامعات أمريكية مرموقة‬

))2005(‫ ستة رؤساء جامعات‬:‫ نماذج في القيادة‬:‫(بقمـ آرثر باديمبل‬
:‫ وىـ‬،‫قاـ الباحث بدراسة ستة رؤساء جامعات ناجحيف ومتميزيف‬
)‫ بيركمي‬/ ‫كبلرؾ كير (جامعة كاروالينا‬ 
)‫ويمياـ فرايدي (جامعة شمالي كاروالينا‬ 
)‫تيودور ىيزَب َره (جامعة نوترداـ‬ 
)‫جوف بروكس سموتر (جامعة ميريبلند‬ 
)‫ويمياـ جوردف براوف (جامعة برنستوف‬ 
)‫حنا ىولبوف جراي (جامعة شيكاغو‬ 

‫تجارب ىؤالء في مقتبل العمر‬

:‫ أىمية السياؽ التاريخي والتأثيرات البيئية‬.1

285
‫تتضػمف االىتمػاـ بالمشػاكؿ التاليػة‪ :‬الكسػػاد االقتصػادي‪ ،‬والبطالػة‪ ،‬وتػوترات العمػػؿ والعنػؼ المتصػاعد بيانيػاً‪ ،‬واليػػأس‬
‫مػػف عػػدـ تػػوفر فػػرص العمػػؿ‪ ،‬والظػػروؼ اليائسػػة لؤلشػػخاص الػػذيف يصػػارعوف مػػف أجػػؿ الحصػػوؿ عمػػى فػػرص حيػػاة‬
‫أفضػػؿ‪ ،‬وتػػأثيرات اليج ػرة‪ ،‬والص ػراع مػػف أجػػؿ الحقػػوؽ المدنيػػة والعدالػػة االجتماعيػػة‪ .‬وىػػذه كميػػا عوامػػؿ مػػؤثرة عمػػى‬
‫األفراد مادياً‪ ،‬وعمى رؤيتيـ لمعالـ وصنع ق ارراتيـ‪ ،‬وغيرىا‪.‬‬

‫‪ .2‬الذكاء الخارؽ والمواىب في مجاؿ التواصؿ والقاء الخطابات في المناسبات العامة‪:‬‬

‫منيـ مف دخػؿ الجامعػة فػي الخامسػة عشػرة مػف العمػر نتيجػة تفوقػو وعبقريتػو‪ ،‬ومػنيـ مػف ميػز نفسػو أكاديميػاً بطػرؽ‬
‫شتى‪ ،‬ومنيـ مف كاف أصغر أستاذ في جامعتو‪.‬‬

‫‪.3‬الصراع بيف الطفولة والمراىقة في البيت‪:‬‬

‫تمتع ىؤالء بصفات غير عادية منذ الصػغر‪.‬إذ تفتقػت عنػد بعضػيـ ممكػة البحػث منػذ نعومػة أظفػارىـ‪ ،‬وظيػرت عنػد‬
‫بعضػػيـ اآلخػػر ميػػارات التفػػاوض والتفػػاىـ‪ ،‬وتحمػػى آخػػروف بخصػػاؿ الصػػبر والجمػػد والمكابػػدة وحػػب العمػػؿ الشػػاؽ‬
‫وميارات القيادة وىـ ما يزالوف صغا اًر‪.‬‬

‫‪ .4‬االىتماـ غير العادي في المنزؿ بالتعميـ والمطالعة والثقافة‪.‬‬

‫‪ .5‬السفر واالنفتاح عمى ثقافات مختمفة قبؿ سف البموغ‪.‬‬
‫‪ .6‬إيجاد فرص لتطوير فف التواصؿ ومياراتو‪.‬‬
‫‪ .7‬تحقيؽ إنجازات غير عادية مقارنة باألقراف‪.‬‬
‫‪ .8‬االطبلع المبكر عف كثب عمى القادة والمديريف مف عمية القوـ‪.‬‬

‫تجارب ىؤالء في سن البموغ‪:‬‬

‫‪ .1‬ارتبػػاطيـ المسػػتمر بمؤسسػػاتيـ وجامعػػاتيـ وااللتصػػاؽ بيػػا‪ ،‬والتواصػػؿ معيػػا‪ ،‬واالنخ ػراط فػػي أنشػػطتيا وتسػػمـ‬
‫بعض المياـ والمسؤوليات فييا‪.‬‬
‫‪ .2‬توطيد عبلقات شخصية مع اآلخريف‪.‬‬
‫‪ .3‬القدرة الفائقة عمى العمؿ لمدة طويمة وبشكؿ فعاؿ ومنتج‪.‬‬
‫‪ .4‬التفاؤؿ والمواظبة والصبر‪.‬‬
‫‪ .5‬الفيػػـ العػػولمي لمعبلقػػات القائمػػة بػػيف األقسػػاـ واألج ػزاء المختمفػػة لممؤسسػػة والبيئػػة األشػػمؿ ليػػا‪ ،‬وشػػمولية ىػػذه‬
‫األجزاء التي تشكؿ في النياية كبلً عضوياً متكامبلً‪.‬‬
‫‪ .6‬أساليب إدارة مبلئمة الحتياجات مؤسساتيـ وثقافاتيـ التنظيمية‪.‬‬

‫‪286‬‬
‫ مػػف خػػبلؿ‬- ً‫ بػػدنياً ونفسػػيا‬- ‫ والمنػػتظـ عمػػى الصػػعيد الشخصػػي لمقػػادة‬،‫ إيقػػاع سػػير الحيػػاة والتجديػػد المػػنظـ‬.7
.‫ والمطالعة‬،‫ والعناية بحديقة المنزؿ‬،‫ وممارسة ىواية صيد السمؾ‬،‫ والصبلة‬،‫ التماريف اليومية‬:‫األنشطة التالية‬
."‫ ثبوت عدـ جدوى مفيوـ "القائد الخارؽ‬.8
.‫ اختيار أشخاص موثوقيف وأعضاء فريؽ عمؿ قوي وموثوؽ‬.9
.‫ غياب الخصاؿ والتصرفات المشينة التي تسيء إلى الحياة المينية وسمعة صاحبيا‬.10

7.1.1 Purpose of the Translation

The source text gives highly professional details about a very formal academic topic of
prominent experiences of university leaders. Its purpose for the SL readers is to provide a
full and accurate description of the best experiences of university presidents in relation to
ideal institutional management. However, the translator’s purpose of translating this text
to the target readers is to provide a brief summary for the text that is one page long to
meet a special requirement they ask the translator to do for them. That is, the translator’s
purpose is the same as that of the TL readers who dictate it on him/her for specific
reasons. In our case, the translator may have been required by a TL reader, institution, or
management to provide a summary for the source text to use it for special purposes by
the person or body concerned. The summary is obviously not a translation, for it is just a
brief account of the main points, or just a part of the SL text, not the whole of it, and a
translation is a translation of the whole text. Yet, a summary is after all a translation of
parts of an SL text into a TL, picked up carefully and intelligently by the translator. Indeed,
summing up a text in translation is a demanding task. The translator is required to read
the original several times before translating parts of it, in the same way he/she does at
translating the whole of it – being a short text - always bearing in mind the needs of the
target readers for a compactly translated and written summary that gives the gist of the
source text.

7.1.2 Type of TL Readership

The source text is of a very formal academic type, addressing highly educated readers, the
academic elite of the university leaders (i.e. presidents, rectors or chancellors). In Arabic, it
is also directed to this class of readers who are involved or interested in the topic of the
original. This makes the translator’s task easier and the constraints on him/her lighter for
he/she can feel free at using very formal, academic and lofty style of language. Further,
the translator has an extra task of writing his/her summary-translation elaborately in a
well-organized and logical style and layout in such a way that makes the text of the
translation readable and with logical sequencing.

7.1.3 Translation Problems

On top of the translation problems of this text are those of translating key terms like
‘university leaders’ which is translated exceptionally literally here into )‫(قادة الجامعات‬.
Usually, a university leader is the head of the university whose title is rector, president,
chancellor or principal in English, and ‫رئيس جامعة‬/‫مدير‬. However, none has been used in
either text as ‘leader’ )‫ (قائد‬has critical dimensions and implications of ‘freedom of the
287
leader, institution and policies’, ‘independence of decision making and taking’, power of
decision making’, ‘self-reliance’ and the like. On the other hand, the other terms imply a
reference to a high post whose occupier does not necessarily have the implications of
‘leader’, as he/she is appointed by the government in the Arab States and is required to
implement the government’s policies in universities. That is why the special term ‫قادة‬/‫ قائد‬is
insisted on in Arabic.

Another key term is ‘experiences’, which can be translated interchangeably here into
either ‫ تجارب‬or ‫خبرات‬. The translator may go for either, or, if in doubt, for both to achieve
more emphasis and comprehensiveness of sense. The translation above goes for the
former which can subsume the two in this particular context. Usually, we use ‫ تجربة‬to
translate ‘experiment’ and ‫ خبرة‬for ‘experience. In the plural, both can be used to mean the
same, but the latter is usually used in the singular form to refer to a period of time of
practicing something (especially in the collocation ‫( خبرة طويمة‬wide experience), which does
not have a plural form to refer to the experience of one person. On the other hand, the
former can be used in both forms, singular and plural, at referring to scientific/lab
experiment(s) )‫تجارب‬/‫(تجربة‬.

The second problematic term is ‘depression’ which can be understood as a psychological

term meaning ‫ اكتئاب‬that might fit in a context of tensions and despair. Yet, a careful
consideration of context would lead to understanding it differently as a term of economy
that fits with economic terms, like unemployment, labor, lack of opportunity and fight.
Hence, it is an economic term with the sense of ‫كساد اقتصادي‬/‫انكماش‬.

The statement “These experiences affected materially how they viewed their world and
colored many of the decisions they would make” is translated summarily and
pragmatically into ‫ وغيرىا‬،‫ وعمى رؤيتيـ لمعالـ وصنع ق ارراتيـ‬،ً‫وىذه كميا عوامؿ مؤثرة عمى األفراد ماديا‬. Key
words like ‘experiences’ )‫(تجارب‬ and ‘colored’ )‫(لونت‬
َّ are not translated literally, but
‘decision making’ )‫ (صنع الق اررات‬is translated accurately to differentiate between it and
‘decision taking’ )‫ (اتخاذ الق اررات‬for there is a considerable difference between them.

‘Exceptional intelligence’ is translated pragmatically into the well-known positive

collocation ‫ذكاء خارؽ‬, rather than ‫ ذكاء استثنائي‬which is not quite popular in Arabic. As to
‘gifts’, it has nothing to do with its sense as ‫ ىدايا‬in this context of intelligence, so it is
naturally translated into ‫مواىب‬. In the same way, ‘public speaking’ is not translated literally
into ‫الخطاب العاـ‬/‫ الحديث‬which does not fit in here, but into an expanded translation in
context as ‫(إلقاء الخطابات في المناسبات العامة‬, for the university leaders concerned are gifted in
communication as well as in ‘delivering speeches on public occasions’.

The word ‘exposure’ is not translated into its ordinary, but vague, equivalent of )‫(تعريض‬,
but, rather, into its generic and clear sense as )‫طبلع‬
ّ ‫ا‬/‫طبلع‬
ْ ‫(إ‬. In another sentence, it is
288
translated into ‫ انفتاح‬which is a very positive term in Arabic language and culture. In
comparison the first literal translation may have, among other things, negative
implications of experiencing foreign cultures.

Some phrases and expressions have been translated into Arabic formal collocations. For
example, ‘early life’ is translated into )‫(مقتبؿ العمر‬. By analogy, the expression ‘from early in
their lives’ is translated into a popular, but very formal, metaphorical collocation ‫منذ نعومة‬
‫أظفارىـ‬. A third formal collocation is ‘at close hand’ which is translated equally formally into
a close equivalent collocation into Arabic as )‫( (عف كثب‬c.f. ‫)عف قرب‬. A further interesting
pragmatic translation is that of the two phrases ‘the top’ and ‘trustees and senior officers’
ِ (i.e. the elite).
collectively into the classical collocation as )‫(عمّّية القوـ‬

As to ‘adulthood’, it can be translated into either of the following four terms:

‫النبوغ‬/‫النضج‬/‫الرشد‬/‫البموغ‬. However, the first is picked up here for it comes third in order of the
phases of human age, following childhood and adolescence which are mentioned in the
text prior to ‘adulthood’.

The adverb ‘effectively’ is not translated directly into its equivalent )‫فاعؿ‬/‫ (بشكؿ فعاؿ‬only,
but redundantly and emphatically into ‫بشكؿ فعاؿ ومنتج‬. The same approach is adopted in the
redundant but assertive translation of ‘optimism and perseverance’ into ‫التفاؤؿ والمواظبة‬
‫والصبر‬. Again, the term ‘strong and trusted associates’ is translated into the longer, but
more emphatic, version: )‫(اختيار أشخاص موثوقيف وأعضاء فريؽ عمؿ قوي وموثوؽ‬. By contrast, the
synonymous phrase ‘adversity or conflict’ is translated comfortably into one word only as
)‫)الصراع‬. Also, the term ‘aerial or global understanding is undertranslated into a shorter
form as ‫ فيـ عولمي‬as ‘aerial )‫ (جوي‬does not make sense here. Similarly, the redundant term
‘needs and demands’ is translated into one word that may cover the meaning intended by
the original as ‫احتياجات‬.

The whole of paragraph (7) (“cadence of life … most of the leaders”) is rephrased in
translation pragmatically and summarily into one sentence, which does not leave out any
significant part of the meaning of the original: )‫ والمطالعة‬... ‫إيقاع سير الحياة‬. It has been a
daunting, but quite useful task indeed.

Finally, the term ‘behaviors’ has been overtranslated into ‫ خصاؿ وسموكيات‬to subsume the
term ‘traits’ that follows. By the way ‫ خصاؿ‬is not necessarily of positive implications; it can
be used either positively, or negatively, depending on the context and qualifying adjective.
We say, for example, ‫ خصاؿ حميدة‬and ‫خصاؿ نفاؽ‬, etc.

It must be stressed that the most intricate stage of translating a text into a brief summary
is how to pin it down to a short text in the target language, without missing vital points,
how to restructure and rephrase sentences and paragraphs into shorter ones in the TL,
289
what to delete and what to leave in the translated summary, the style of language and,
not the least, how to lay it out in an appropriate shape, or format. It is hoped that these
points are met satisfactorily above.

7.1.4 Translation Strategies

(1) Transliteration (of proper names, names, titles, towns, etc. See the top section of
the translation for examples)
(2) Ordinary language → classical Arabic (e.g. early life → ‫منذ نعومة ;في مقتبؿ العمر‬
‫أظفارىـ‬, etc.)
(3) Overtranslation (e.g. ‘strong and trusted associates’ is translated into the longer,
but more emphatic, version → ‫( اختيار أشخاص موثوقيف وأعضاء فريؽ عمؿ قوي وموثوؽ‬see
above for further examples)
(4) Undertranslation (‘adversity or conflict’ → ‫ ;صراع‬needs and demands → ‫احتياجات‬
(see also above))
(5) Expansion (e.g. effectively → ‫‘ ;بشكؿ فعاؿ‬public speaking’ → ‫(إلقاء الخطابات في‬
‫المناسبات العامة‬
(6) Pragmatic translation (e.g. ‘public speaking’ → ‫(إلقاء الخطابات في المناسبات العامة‬
(7) Reduction (e.g. at close hand →‫ ;عف كثب‬cadence of life … most of the leaders →
‫ والمطالعة‬... ‫)إيقاع سير الحياة‬
(8) Ordinary language → figurative language (e.g. ‘from early in their lives’ → ‫منذ‬
‫)نعومة أظفارىـ‬
(9) Classifier (e.g. experiences → ‫)تجارب ىؤالء‬
(10) Deletion (e.g. some parts of the SLT are deleted completely or partly)
(11) Addition by implication (e.g. education and reading → ‫)التعميـ والمطالعة والثقافة‬

7.2 TEXT 2: Education: What is Alcohol?

Alcohol is created when grains, fruits, or vegetables are fermented. Fermentation is a

process that uses yeast or bacteria to change the sugars in food into alcohol. Fermentation
is used to produce many necessary items –everything from cheese to medications. Alcohol
has different forms and can be used as a cleaner, an antiseptic, or a sedative. …

How does it affect the Body?

...
In very small amounts, alcohol can help a person feel more relaxed or less anxious. More
alcohol causes greater changes in the brain, resulting in intoxication. People who have
overused alcohol may stagger, lose their coordination and slur their speech. They will
probably be confused and disoriented. ...

When large amounts of alcohol are consumed in a short period of time, alcohol poisoning
can result. Alcohol poisoning is exactly what it sounds like - the body has become poisoned
by large amounts of alcohol.” (Rojo, 2009: 267)

290
 ‫ما ىو الكحول؟‬

‫ والتخمير ىو عبارة عف عممية تستعمؿ‬.‫ يتـ تحضير الكحوؿ مف خبلؿ تخمير القمح والفواكو والخضار‬: ‫طريقة التحضير‬
‫ كما يستخدـ التخمير إلنتاج مواد ضرورية‬.‫فييا الخميرة والبكتيريا لتحويؿ السكريات الموجودة في األطعمة إلى كحوؿ‬
،‫ أما الكحوؿ الناتج عف عممية التخمير تمؾ فمو خصائص مختمفة‬.‫كثيرة مف كؿ شيء تتراوح بيف الجبف والمواد الطبية‬
.‫ويستعمؿ كمنظؼ أو معقـ أو مطير أو ميدئ لؤلعصاب‬

‫تأثير الكحول عمى جسم اإلنسان‬

...
‫ أما تناوؿ كميات أكبر مف‬.‫إف تناوؿ الشخص لكميات بسيطة مف الكحوؿ كافية لجعمو يشعر باالرتخاء وقمة التوتر‬
‫ إذ يؤدي تناوؿ جرعات كبيرة مف‬.‫الكحوؿ فتسبب تغييرات خطيرة في وظائؼ الدماغ مما يؤدي إلى حالة مف الس ْكر‬
‫ويضيِّع‬
ُ ‫ سوؼ تضطرب أحوالو ويمخبط بالكبلـ‬.‫ ويختؿ توازنو ويوسخ في الكبلـ‬،‫الكحوؿ إلى أف الشخص يترنح ويتمايؿ‬
.‫ويصبح مشوش ًا‬

‫ والتسمـ الكحولي يعني حرفياً تسمـ‬.‫أما عند تناوؿ كميات ضخمة مف الكحوؿ في مدة قصيرة فيؤدي إلى حالة تسمـ‬
.]‫ [وفي ىذا دليؿ واضح عمى الحكمة مف تحريمو عند المسمميف‬.‫الجسـ بفعؿ تناوؿ ىذه الجرعات الضخمة مف الكحوؿ‬

7.2.1 Purpose of the Translation

The purpose of writing the source text is to explain in simple terms what Alcohol is, its
uses and effects on the human body and brain. However, the purpose of translating it into
Arabic is mainly to educate the TL readership about ‘Alcohol’ quite neutrally: what it is,
how it is made, its uses and more importantly and emphatically, its serious effects on the
human body, which are assigned two paragraphs in a relatively short text. Educating the
people at large about alcohol entails simplicity of style and language, avoidance of
technical terminology and simplified grammatical structures. Further, semi-formal and
occasional informal words and expressions are permissible to make the task of
comprehension easier and quicker on the part of all types of TL readers. An implied and
equally significant purpose of the translation of this text is to warn Arab readers against
the perils of drinking Alcohol, which confirms the Islamic ruling of prohibiting drinking it.
The translator is expected to attend to the two purposes and their implications.

7.2.2 Type of TL Readership

All types of Arab readers are targeted at by the translation of this text on a serious and
popular topic of ‘Alcohol’. People of all ages would be curious to know, or be reminded of
how alcohol is prepared, the ingredients used to make it intoxicating, its useful and
harmful uses, and most critically, the serious repercussions of drinking it in large
quantities on the body and mind of drinkers and how fatal that can be. Hence, the style of
language used is usually semi-formal and casually informal in most cases, using clichés,
catchphrases and simple, familiar and popular words and phrases, alongside with simple
291
sentence and clause structures. Technical terminology is out question, and non-technical
terms are usually used to avoid any kind of complication of lexical, stylistic or grammatical
structures.

7.2.3 Translation Problems

The major problem of translating this text into Arabic is to how make the SL style, lexis and
grammar simple and popular in the TL. Starting with style, semi-formal and informal
features of style are picked up on purpose in preference to other formal options available
in Arabic Language. Here are examples:

- The replacement of very formal and less popular passive structure with popular
verbal structure, followed by a prepositional phrase (e.g. Alcohol is created when
grains, fruits, or vegetables are fermented → ‫يتـ تحضير الكحوؿ مف خبلؿ تخمير القمح‬
‫)والفواكو والخضار‬
- Normal grammatical formal structure is translated into redundant, simple and
less formal structure (e.g. Fermentation is a process → ...‫التخمير ىو عبارة عف عممية‬
(c.f. ...‫)التخمير عممية‬
- Formal zero-personalization → semi-formal and more emphatic personalization
(e.g. In very small amounts, alcohol can help a person feel more relaxed or less
anxious → ‫)إف تناوؿ الشخص لكميات بسيطة مف الكحوؿ كافية لجعمو يشعر باالرتخاء وقمة التوتر‬
- Probability style → certainty style (e.g. alcohol can help a person feel → ‫كافية لجعمو‬
...‫ ;يشعر‬may stagger → ‫ ;يترنح ويتمايؿ‬poisoning can result → ‫(فيؤدي ذلؾ إلى حالة تسمـ‬
- Formal → informal (e.g. slur their speech → ‫ ;يوسخ في الكبلـ‬be confused and
disoriented → ‫ويضيِّع‬
ُ ‫( ويمخبط بالكبلـ‬c.f. ‫))ويتمعثـ ويخمط األشياء في الكبلـ‬.
- Simplicity of layout (e.g. the addition of the term “‫ ”طريقة التحضير‬for better
readability and fluency of serialization of main points; ‘how does it affect the
body?’ → ‫تأثير الكحوؿ عمى جسـ اإلنساف‬, to go parallel with the first point of “ ‫طريقة‬
‫)”التحضير‬.
- Simplification of structure and reference (e.g. Alcohol has different forms → ‫أما‬
‫ ;الكحوؿ الناتج عف عممية التخمير تمؾ فمو خصائص مختمفة‬Alcohol poisoning is exactly what it
sounds like →‫) (والتسمـ الكحولي يعني حرفياً تسمـ الجسـ بفعؿ‬

Regarding words and expressions, they are made as simple as possible. The key word,
‘Alcohol’ is a back transliteration from English into Arabic, for the origin of the English
word is the Arabic classical word “‫ ”الغوؿ‬which is now out of use and cannot be revived.
Therefore, the English word was adopted by means of transference (i.e. transliteration)
strategy of translation (see also Ghazala, 2012 for further details and examples).
‘Fermentation’ is a technical word translated into a non-technical word of “‫ ”تخمير‬as the
only word available in Arabic. ‘Bacteria’ is transliterated into ‫ بكتيريا‬which is more popular
than the Arabized term ‫ جراثيـ‬which might be confused with the fatal term ‘viruses’ which
292
are ‫جراثيـ ُمعدية‬. “different forms’ is translated pragmatically into a normal clearer version as
‫خصائص مختمفة‬, not into the unusual and vague ‫صيغ مختمفة‬. ‘Relaxed is overtranslated into
‫ حالة ارتخاء‬which implies negative implications of unnatural state of inactivity and
powerlessness that may reflect the real condition of alcohol drinker more than the
positive ‫استرخاء‬. Pairs of synonyms have been used to mark insistence on
comprehensiveness of meaning, hesitation on the part of the translator as which is more
fitting than the other and resort to semi-formal Arabic that can reflect a characteristic
style of such text. Examples include the translation of ‘stagger’ into ‫‘ ;يترنح ويتمايؿ‬antiseptic’
into ‫‘ ;أو معقـ أو مطير‬disoriented’ into ً‫يضيع ويصبح مشوشا‬. The word ‘greater’ in the term
‘greater changes’ is translated not normally into ‫أكبر‬, but, pragmatically, into the negative
‫ خطيرة‬which is intended here. In the same way, ‘lose their coordination’ is not translated
into the vague ‫ يفقد التناسؽ‬but rather the negative but clearcut term ‫ يختؿ توازنو‬that reflects
the state of the drunk person in reality, as concluded from the context by implication.

7.2.4 Translation Strategies

(1) Transliteration (e.g. bacteria → ‫)بكتيريا‬

(2) Back transliteration (e.g. Alcohol ↔(from Arabic) ‫)الكحوؿ → الغوؿ‬
(3) Overtranslation (e.g. fermentation is a process → ‫ ;والتخمير ىو عبارة عف عممية‬Alcohol
→ ‫)أما الكحوؿ الناتج عف عممية التخمير تمؾ فمو‬
(4) Pragmatic translation (e.g. lose their coordination → ‫ ;يختؿ توازنو‬forms → ‫)خصائص‬
(5) Closing commentary (e.g. .]‫)[وفي ىذا دليؿ واضح عمى الحكمة مف تحريمو عند المسمميف‬
(6) Probability → certainty (e.g. can help a person feel → ...‫;كافية لجعؿ الشخص يشعر‬
poisoning can result → ‫(فيؤدي ذلؾ إلى حالة تسمـ‬
(7) Transposition: verb phrase → adj. n. Phrase (e.g. can help → ‫)كافية لجعؿ‬
(8) Transposition: n. → NP (e.g. poisoning → ‫)حالة تسمـ‬
(9) Modulation: passive → active (prepositional phrase) (e.g. are fermented ‫(مف خبلؿ‬
‫تخمير‬
(10) Modulation: question → statement (e.g. how does it affect the body? → ‫تأثير‬
‫)الكحوؿ عمى جسـ اإلنساف‬
(11) Addition by implication (e.g. zero → ‫)طريقة التحضير‬
(12) Zero connector → connector (e.g. ‫ واو العطؼ‬،‫ أما‬،‫ إذ‬،‫)كما‬
(13) Expansion: the use of redundant synonyms (e.g. stagger → ‫ ;يترنح ويتمايؿ‬antiseptic
→ ‫)معقـ أو مطير‬

293
7.3. TEXT 3: A Driving Lesson: Normalizing a Technical Text

“First, check that the gear lever is neutral. Then insert the key in the lock, and turn till the
engine fires. Be sure that you have a clear view in your rear mirror. Depress the clutch and
engage first gear. Release the handbrake. Before moving off, check your mirror again, and
glance over your right shoulder to make sure that no other vehicle is approaching from
your rear. Signal your intention to move out into the traffic. Then slowly let in the clutch
while accelerating gently.” (Nash, 1980: 9).
‫قيادة السيارة ألول مرة‬
:‫ ثـ اتبع الخطوات التالية بدقة‬،‫اجمس عمى كرسي السائؽ واربط حزاـ األماف‬
.‫ تأكد مف أف الغيار عمى الفاضي‬.1
.‫ ضع المفتاح في قفؿ السيارة ود ِّور المفتاح حتى يشتغؿ المحرؾ‬.2
.‫ انظر إلى الخمؼ مف المرآة التي عمى يسارؾ قبؿ أف تنطمؽ‬.3
.‫ اضغط عمى دواسة الغيار إلى األسفؿ وضع عمى الغيار األوؿ‬.4
.]‫ فؾ فرامؿ اليد [إف وجدت‬.5
.‫ انظر مرة أخرى في المرآة الخمفية‬،‫ قبؿ االنطبلؽ‬.6
.‫ انظر مف فوؽ كتفؾ األيسر لتتأكد مف عدـ وجود سيارة أخرى تقترب مف خمفؾ‬.7
.‫ أعط إشارة الخروج بالغماز األيسر إلى الطريؽ‬.8
.‫ ارفع قدمؾ ببطء عف دواسة الغيار وقـ بزيادة السرعة بالتدريج‬،‫ أخي اًر‬.9

7.3.1 Purpose of the Translation

The source text belongs to technical register. Its purpose is to give an example as how to
design a piece of writing that is one paragraph long in the form of what Nash calls, ‘Step’,
that is, a step by step by means of using ordinal numbers (i.e. first, second…). However,
the purpose of translating this text into Arabic is to show readers, especially those who
would like to learn how to drive a car, the steps of driving for the first time quietly and
punctually. That is, the source text is translated into a driving lesson in the TL for new
drivers. This makes it urgent for the translator to reconsider the layout of the original,
replace technical terms with simple ones, address the readers directly and make grammar
as uncomplicated as possible (see below).

7.3.2 Type of TL Readership

The English text is written for specialist university students who study English language,
style and / or literature. Yet, the translation addresses the target readers at large, ranging
from the highest to the lowest level of education. Therefore, the language and style of the
translation has to be non-technical, simple and clear to be understood by even the readers
of the lowest level of education and literacy. Technical terms should be avoided by all
means to give way to simple terminology that is readable and comprehensible to
everybody. And to give readability a nudge, the layout is supposed to be in the simplest
and clearest form, as demonstrated in the translation above which is laid out in simple
serialization of the steps of driving a car separately in cardinal numbers (1, 2, 3, …), the
simplest of styles of enumeration.
294
7.3.3 Translation Problems

The trickiest problems of translating this technical text into Arabic is how to avoid using
difficult and complicated technical terms in favor of simple and popular non-technical
ones. The terms pointed at here are:

- Gear → ‫( غيار‬other options include: ‫الحركة؛ ناقؿ الحركة‬. However ‫ (جياز) تعشيؽ التروس‬is
technical, unfamiliar to Arab readers and very long.
- Neutral → the semi-formal and popular ‫الفارغ‬/ ‫( الفاضي‬preferred to the formal
word ‫)حيادي‬
- Handbrake → the popular and informal ‫( فرامؿ اليد‬rather than the technical and
formal ‫)مكبح يدوي‬
- Clutch → the well-known ‫الحركة‬/‫( دواسة الغيار‬not ‫)ذراع تعشيؽ التروس‬
- Signal → the informal and popular ‫غماز‬
ّ (rather than the formal ‫)إشارة التحذير‬
- Engage first gear → the simple and popular ‫( ضع عمى الغيار األوؿ‬c.f. the technical
ِّ
‫)عشؽ جياز تعشيؽ التروس األوؿ‬
- While accelerating gently → the semi-formal and simple ‫قـ بزيادة السرعة بالتدريج‬

(N.B. I did not include colloquial terms for car parts (like ...‫كبلتش‬/‫ دبرياج‬for ‘clutch’) due to
their locality, multiplicity in the Arab countries and slang tone)

The second crucial problem of translating the source text is how to convert the SL
technical text into a general text for learning driving to the public target readers of all ages
and levels of education. The technique used is the serial numbering of the practical steps
of driving a car as simply and conveniently as possible in the Arabic text. These steps
correspond to those of the SL text in a way much clearer than the original which uses a
variety of styles of enumeration including ordinal numbers (first, second), adverbs of time
(then) and imperative forms (e.g. depress, glance, signal, etc.). This kind of layout of
instructions may require some useful additions here and there to produce a well-
connected and compact text in the TL. Hence the additions of the title ‫قيادة السيارة ألوؿ مرة‬
(Driving a Car for Beginners), and the introductory statement which includes a step prior
to starting the lesson of driving::‫ ثـ اتبع الخطوات التالية بدقة‬،‫اجمس عمى كرسي السائؽ واربط حزاـ األماكف‬.
On the other hand, the bracketed )‫ (إف وجد‬is added due to the fact that, today, many cars
have no ‘handbrakes, but rather a ‘left footbrake’, as it were.

295
7.3.4 Translation Strategies

(1) Foreignization (e.g. brake → ‫( فرامؿ‬rather than the Arabized ‫)مكابح‬

(2) Simplification (e.g. several simple semi-formal and informal words and
expressions are used throughout)
(3) Technical terms→ non-technical & popular terms (e.g. gear → ‫( غيار‬not ‫جياز تعشيؽ‬
‫ ;)التروس‬clutch → ‫( دواسة الغيار‬not ‫)(ذراع تعشيؽ التروس‬
(4) Formal & technical terms → informal terms (e.g. neutral → the semi-formal and
popular ‫الفارغ‬/ ‫( الفاضي‬preferred to the formal word ‫((حيادي‬
(5) Formal layout → simple layout (e.g. one-paragraph form → serial-number form)
(6) Contextual additions (e.g. the additions of the title ‫ قيادة السيارة ألوؿ مرة‬and ‫اجمس عمى‬
:‫ ثـ اتبع الخطوات التالية بدقة‬،‫)كرسي السائؽ واربط حزاـ األماكف‬
(7) Transposition: adj. → prep. Phrase (e.g. neutral ‫(عمى الفاضي‬
(8) Modulation: British system → international system (e.g. on your right → ‫عمى‬
‫)يسارؾ‬
(9) Overtranslation (e.g. accelerating gently → ‫)قـ بزيادة السرعة بالتدريج‬
(10) Paraphrase (e.g. signal your intention → ‫)أعط إشارة الخروج بالغماز األيسر‬
(11) Translation by implication (e.g. signal → ‫)أعط إشارة بالغماز األيسر‬
(12) Generalization → specification (e.g. vehicle (any car) → ‫)سيارة‬

7.4 TEXT 4: Non-Technicalization of Medical Text: Treatment of acute renal failure in

children by dialysis

Between 1966 and 1969 haemodialysis or peritoneal dialysis was performed on 14 children
aged from 7 weeks to 14 years. The indications were: acute renal failure (7 children),
hepatic coma (2), drug poisoning (2), haemolytic-uraemic syndrome (1), hypertensive
encephalopathy in chronic pyelonephritis (1) and hyperpyretic influenza (1). In eight cases,
treatment produced regression of the symptoms. In the child with hyperpyretic influenza,
severe cerebral damage could not be prevented. Five children died. Dialysis is indicated
whenever there are the first signs of uraemia or of fluid retention not responding to
diuretics. Dialysis is only part of a programme of a treatment.” (Newmark, 1988: 254).

‫عالج الفشل الكموي الحاد عند األطفال بإزالة فضالت الدم‬

‫ تـ إجراء عممية إزالة فضبلت الدـ بالكمية االصطناعية ألربعة عشر طفبلً تتراوح أعمارىـ‬1969 ‫ و‬1966 ‫(بيف عامي‬
‫ وتسمـ‬،)2( ‫ وتوقؼ الكبد عف العمؿ‬،)‫ أطفاؿ‬7( ‫ فشؿ كموي حاد‬:‫ وكانت الدالئؿ كالتالي‬.‫ سنة‬14 ‫ أسابيع و‬7 ‫بيف‬
‫ ومرض في الدماغ شديد التوتر مع التياب مزمف في الكمية وحوض الكمية‬،)1( ‫ وأعراض تسمـ الدـ والبوؿ‬،)2( ‫دوائي‬
‫ أما الطفؿ الذي يعاني مف‬.‫ أدت المعالجة إلى تراجع األعراض‬،‫ في ثماني حاالت‬.‫ وأنفمون از مع حمى شديدة‬،) 1(
‫ يدؿ عمى عممية إزالة‬.‫ مات خمسة أطفاؿ‬.‫ فمـ يكف باإلمكاف منع حدوث ضرر دماغي حاد لو‬،‫أنفمون از مع حمى شديدة‬

296
‫ ىذا وتعتبر إزالة‬.‫ أو احتباس بوؿ ال يستجيب إلدرار البوؿ‬،‫فضبلت الدـ ظيور العبلمات األولى مف تسمـ الدـ والبوؿ‬
).‫فضبلت الدـ جزءاً مف برنامج عبلج كامؿ‬

7.4.1 Purpose of the Translation

The purpose of the SL text is to confirm the conclusions of an academic study by a German
University done on a number of children regarding certain types of serious diseases that
children may have developed. These conclusions of the study and the results of the
questionnaire done on 14 children in Germany are stated professionally for specialist
readers only. Now the purpose of translating the source text into Arabic is different. The
translation might be required to render the medical information about the results and
conclusions of a reliable academic study to the Arab readers of all types in as clear terms
as possible. And since the vast majority of target readers are non-specialists in medicine,
the main target of the translator is to dispose of any technical terminology that his/her
readers may not understand, and to replace it with non-technical, normal and popular
terminology. The translator has no option but to go for non-technical language if he/she
cares about the TL readership, and wants his/her translation to be read and benefited
from. The only other option for him/her for whatever reason is to leave both types of
terms, the technical and the non-technical, side by side in the translation (however with
some awkwardness) as follows:

)‫(عالج الفشل الكموي الحاد عند األطفال باإلنفاذ (إزالة فضالت الدم‬

ِ ‫ تـ إجراء إنفاذ صناعي أو‬1969 ‫ و‬1966 ‫بيف عامي‬

‫صفاقي (أي إزالة فضبلت الدـ بالكمية االصطناعية) ألربعة‬
)2( ‫ أطفاؿ)؛ وسبات كبدي‬7( ‫ فشؿ كموي حاد‬:‫ وكانت الدالئؿ‬.‫ سنة‬14 ‫ أسابيع و‬7 ‫بل تتراوح أعمارىـ بيف‬
ً ‫عشر طف‬
،)1( )‫ ومتبلزمة تبولف دموي انحبللي (أي أعراض تسمـ دموي بولي‬،)2( ‫ وتسمـ دوائي‬،)‫(أي توقؼ الكبد عف العمؿ‬
‫واعتبلؿ دماغي عالي التوتر(أي مرض في الدماغ شديد التوتر) مع التياب مزمف في الكمية والحويضة (أي حوض‬
‫ أدت المعالجة إلى تراجع‬،‫ في ثماني حاالت‬.)‫ وأنفمون از حمية مفرطة (أي أنفمون از مع حمى شديدة‬،) 1( )‫الكمية‬
‫ مات‬.‫ فمـ يكف باإلمكاف منع حدوث ضرر دماغي حاد لو‬،‫ أما الطفؿ الذي يعاني مف أنفمون از حمية مفرطة‬.‫األعراض‬
‫ يدؿ عمى اإلنفاذ ظيور العبلمات األولى مف التبولف الدموي (التسمـ الدموي البولي) أو احتباس بوؿ ال‬.‫خمسة أطفاؿ‬
).‫ ىذا ويعتبر اإلنفاذ جزءاً مف برنامج عبلج كامؿ‬.‫يستجيب إلدرار البوؿ‬

7.4.2 Type of TL Readership

The target readers supposed to be addressed by the translation of this medical text would
be the general public as well as other types of readers of all levels of education. Once the
translator translates to all types of readership, he/she is expected to address them using
simple, clear and non-technical language and style as those of high levels of education
would not be harmed by simplification and non-technicality which, if not used, would do
harm to less educated readers. That is why the translation suggested above turns down
any technical feature of language to achieve a maximum degree of readability,
comprehensibility and usefulness on the part of TL readers at large. To give the reader the
opportunity to draw a straightforward comparison on the ground between technical and

297
non-technical versions of translation of the source text in question, the following
translation is put forward:

‫عالج الفشل الكموي الحاد عند األطفال باإلنفاذ‬

ِ ‫ تـ إجراء إنفاذ صناعي أو‬1969 ‫ و‬1966 ‫بيف عامي‬

14 ‫ أسابيع و‬7 ‫صفاقي ألربعة عشر طفبلً تتراوح أعمارىـ بيف‬
‫ ومتبلزمة تبولف دموي‬،)2( ‫ وتسمـ دوائي‬،)2( ‫ وسبات كبدي‬،)‫ أطفاؿ‬7( ‫ فشؿ كموي حاد‬:‫ وكانت الدالئؿ كالتالي‬.‫سنة‬
‫ وأنفمون از حمية مفرطة في ثماني‬،)1( ‫ واعتبلؿ دماغي عالي التوتر مع التياب مزمف في الكمية والحويضة‬،)1( ‫انحبللي‬
‫ فمـ يكف باإلمكاف منع‬،‫ أما الطفؿ الذي يعاني مف أنفمون از حمية مفرطة‬.‫ أدت المعالجة إلى تراجع األعراض‬،‫حاال ت‬
‫ يدؿ عمى اإلنفاذ ظيور العبلمات األولى مف التبولف الدموي أو‬.‫ مات خمسة أطفاؿ‬.‫حدوث ضرر دماغي حاد لو‬
.‫ ىذا ويعتبر اإلنفاذ جزءاً مف برنامج عبلج كامؿ‬.‫احتباس بوؿ ال يستجيب إلدرار البوؿ‬

A quick comparison between this and the general translation proposed above would make
the point about the sharp difference between technical and non-technical language crystal
clear. The midway version of translation that may satisfy the specialist readers’ curiosity
would be the one in the middle above that gives the technical along with the non-
technical terms. Still, the first of these versions can meet the needs and requirements of
the target readers of all walks of life.

7.4.3 Translation Problems

Obviously, the most demanding problem of translation of this English technical medical
text into Arabic is technical terminology. Normally, such text is written for, and forwarded
to specialist readers, medical staff, or medical students, so when translated into Arabic, it
is usually translated to an equivalent type of readership. However, due to the purpose of
translating, it is changed into a general text addressing the readers at large. In which case,
many points should be reconsidered. On top of these points is the translation of the SL
technical terms into non-technical, popular and simple terms in the TL. It is a daunting task
indeed for the translator to do that regarding all terms for they do not all have non-
technical popular equivalent terms in Arabic Language. In such case, the technical term is
paraphrased or explained in simple terms as illustrated in the following table:

298
 SL technical term
(1) Treatment of acute
renal failure
(2) dialysis
(3) haemodialysis or
peritoneal dialysis
(4) hepatic coma
(5) drug poisoning
(6) haemolytic-
uraemic syndrome
(7) hypertensive
encephalopa-thy
(8) chronic
pyelonephritis
(9) hyperpyretic
influenza
(10) severe cerebral
damage
(11) signs of uraemia
(12) fluid retention
(13) diuretics
TL technical term TL non-technical term
‫ عبلج الفشؿ الكموي‬.1 ‫ عبلج الفشؿ الكموي‬.1
‫الحاد‬ ‫الحاد‬
‫ إنفاذ‬.2 ‫ إزالة فضبلت الدـ‬.2
‫ إنفاذ صناعي أو‬.3 ‫ عممية إزالة فضبلت‬.3
ِ
‫صفاقي‬ ‫الدـ بالكمية‬
‫االصطناعية‬
‫ سبات كبدي‬.4 ‫ توقؼ الكبد عف العمؿ‬.4
‫ تسمـ دوائي‬.5 ‫ تسمـ دوائي‬.5
‫ متبلزمة تبولف دموي‬.6 ‫ أعراض تسمـ الدـ‬.6
‫انحبللي‬ ‫والبوؿ‬
‫ اعتبلؿ دماغي عالي‬.7 ‫ مرض في الدماغ‬.7
‫التوتر‬ ‫شديد التوتر‬
‫ التياب مزمف في‬.8 ‫ التياب مزمف في‬.8
‫الكمية والحويضة‬ ‫الكمية وحوض الكمية‬
‫ أنفمون از حمية مفرطة‬.9 ‫ أنفمون از مع حمى شديدة‬.9
‫ ضرر دماغي حاد‬.10 ‫ ضرر دماغي حاد‬.10
‫ تبولف دموي‬.11 ‫ تسمـ الدـ والبوؿ‬.11
‫ احتباس بوؿ‬.12 ‫ احتباس البوؿ‬.12
‫ إدرار البوؿ‬.13 ‫ إدرار البوؿ‬.13

Except for 1, 5, 10, 12, and 13 which are identical in technical and non-technical contexts,
the technical terms are very difficult to translate as much as understand by target readers
of different types. Even specialists in medicine would find them demanding, and require a
good dictionary to comprehend them. Hence, to allow the general public to avail from the
valuable medical information of the SL text, non-technical terms are strongly
recommended to use by translators. Many of these non-technical terms are ordinary
equivalent phrases and expressions drawing heavily of the translation strategy of
paraphrase. They are suggested with the background intention of communicating with the
target readers using the language they use and understand, regardless of whether they
are long or short. That does not matter; what matters is to get the message to the target
readers of all ages and levels of education in a simple, lucid and clear style and language.

7.4.4 Translation Strategies

(1) Transliteration (e.g. names of people, illnesses, etc.: influenza → ‫)أنفمون از‬
(2) Arabization (all medical terms in the technical version . See above)
(3) Paraphrase (e.g. see 3 above)
(4) Overtranslation (e.g. The indications were → ً‫)وكانت الدالئل كالتال‬
299
 (5) Simplification by implication (e.g. ‫( تسمم الدم والبول → تبولن الدم‬see 11 above))
(6) Expansion (e.g. diuretics → ‫إدرار البول‬. See also 2 and 8 above))
(7) Deletion (e.g. signs )‫ → (عالمات‬not translated. See 11 earlier)
(8) Transposition: sing. →plural (e.g. syndrome → ‫أعراض‬
(9) Technical → popular (syndrome )‫أعراض → (متالزمة‬. See also many examples
above)
(10) Literal translation (e.g. acute renal failure →‫( الفشؿ الكموي الحاد‬see also 5, 10, 12,
and 13 above)
(11) Descriptive equivalent (e.g. diuretics → ‫إدرار البول‬. See also 12 above)
(12) Functional equivalent (e.g. dialysis → ‫)إزالة فضبلت الدـ‬

7.5 TEXT 5: De-jargonizing Economic Jargon: International Economics

(Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org)

Economics is a social science whose purpose is to understand the workings of the real-
world economy. An economy is something that no one person can observe in its entirety.
We are all a part of the economy; we all buy and sell things daily, but we cannot observe
all parts and aspects of an economy at any one time.
...
International economics is a field of study that assesses the implications of international
trade, international investment, and international borrowing and lending. There are two
broad subfields within the discipline: international trade and international finance.

International economics is growing in importance as a field of study because of the rapid

integration of international economic markets. Increasingly, businesses, consumers, and
governments realize that their lives are affected not only by what goes on in their own
town, state, or country but also by what is happening around the world.

The growth of international trade and investment has been stimulated partly by the steady
decline of trade barriers since the Great Depression of the 1930s. In the post–World War II
era, the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, or GATT, prompted regular negotiations
among a growing body of members to reciprocally reduce tariffs (import taxes) on
imported goods. During each of these regular negotiations … countries promised to reduce
their tariffs on imports in exchange for concessions … by other GATT members.

When the Uruguay Round, the most recently completed round, was finalized in 1994, the
member countries succeeded in extending the agreement to include liberalization promises
in a much larger sphere of influence. Now countries not only would lower tariffs on goods
trade but also would begin to liberalize the agriculture and services markets. They would
eliminate the many quota systems—like the multifiber agreement in clothing—that had
sprouted up in previous decades. And they would agree to adhere to certain minimum
standards to protect intellectual property rights such as patents, trademarks, and
copyrights.

The World Trade Organization (WTO) was created to manage this system of new
agreements, to provide a forum for regular discussion of trade matters, and to implement
a well-defined process for settling trade disputes that might arise among countries.

300
 ‫عمم االقتصاد الدولي‬
‫عمـ االقتصاد ىو أحد العموـ االجتم اعية التي تيدؼ إلى فيـ آليات عمؿ االقتصاد في عالمنا الحقيقي الذي نعيشو‪ .‬أما‬
‫االقتصاد فيو شيء ال يمكف ألحد منا أف يدركو باإلجماؿ‪ .‬فنحف كمنا جزء مف االقتصاد‪ .‬فكمنا نبيع ونشتري يومياً‪ ،‬لكننا‬
‫ال نستطيع أف نبلحظ كؿ أجزاء االقتصاد وجوانبو في آف واحد‪.‬‬

‫أما مفيوـ عمـ االقتصاد الدولي فيو تقييـ آلليات التجارة الدولية‪ ،‬واالستثمار الدولي‪ ،‬واإلقراض واالقتراض الدولييف‪.‬‬
‫ويوجد لعمـ االقتصاد فرعاف ىما‪ :‬التجارة الدولية‪ ،‬والموارد المالية الدولية‪.‬‬

‫وتزداد أىمية عمـ االقتصاد نظ اًر لمتكامؿ أو االندماج المتسارع لؤلسواؽ االقتصادية الدولية‪ .‬وبدأ رجاؿ األعماؿ‬
‫والمستيمكوف والحكومات يشعروف يوماً بعد يوـ أف حياتيـ ما عادت تتأثر بما يحدث في مدنيـ أو والياتيـ أو بمدانيـ‬
‫فقط‪ ،‬بؿ تتأثر أيضاً بكؿ ما يحدث في العالـ بأسره‪.‬‬

‫ازداد نمو التجارة واالستثمار الدولييف بشكؿ جزئي مف جراء التراجع المتواصؿ لمحواجز التجارية منذ الكساد االقتصادي‬
‫العالمي األعظـ في الثبلثينيات مف القرف الماضي‪ .‬ففي أعقاب الحرب العالمية الثانية‪ ،‬حثت االتفاقية العامة لمتعرفة‬
‫الجمركية والتجارة التابعة لؤلمـ المتحدة ومقرىا األورغواي (الجات) عمى مفاوضات دورية بيف األعضاء لتخفيض‬
‫التعرفة الجمركية (أي رسوـ االستيراد) عمى السمع المستوردة‪ .‬أثناء ىذه المفاوضات‪ ،‬وعدت الدوؿ األعضاء بتخفيض‬
‫رسوميا عمى اإليرادات مقابؿ الحصوؿ عمى امتيازات ‪ ...‬مف األعضاء اآلخريف في الجات‪.‬‬

‫وعندما انتيت آخر جولة مفاوضات في األورغواي‪ ،‬نجحت الدوؿ األعضاء في توسيع نطاؽ االتفاقية لتشمؿ وعوداً‬
‫بتحرير السمع مف الرسوـ في نطاؽ مف النفوذ أوسع‪ .‬واليوـ ال ترغب الدوؿ في تخفيض الرسوـ عمى تجارة السمع فقط‪،‬‬
‫بؿ بدأت أيضاً بتحرير أسواؽ الزراعة والخدمات‪ .‬كما تسعى اآلف إلى التخمص مف أنظمة الحصص المخصصة لكؿ‬
‫دولة عضو – كاتفاقية حصص النسيج واأللبسة التي يسمح بتصديرىا لمدوؿ النامية إلى الدوؿ المتقدمة – التي تطورت‬
‫ونمت في العقود الماضية‪ .‬وتوافؽ ىذه الدوؿ أيضاً عمى االلتزاـ بحد أدنى مف المعايير لحماية حقوؽ الممكية الفكرية‬
‫التي تشير إلى إبداعات فكرية تكوف حك اًر عمى أصحابيا بموجب القانوف‪ .‬منيا براءات االختراع‪ ،‬والعبلمات (أو‬
‫الماركات) التجارية‪ ،‬وحقوؽ التأليؼ والنشر‪.‬‬

‫وقد تـ مؤخ ًار إنشاء منظمة التجارة العالمية خصيص ًا لئلشراؼ عمى إدارة ىذا النظاـ مف االتفاقيات الجديدة‪ ،‬واقامة‬
‫منتديات خاصة لمناقشة قضايا التجارة العالمية بشكؿ دوري‪ ،‬وتطبيؽ آلية واضحة لتسوية الخبلفات التجارية التي قد‬
‫تنشأ بيف الدوؿ‪.‬‬

‫‪301‬‬
7.5.1 Purpose of the Translation

The purpose of the SL text is to introduce a preliminary conception about the

contemporary theme of International Economics due to its special importance these days
in straightforward terms. The text is a part of a chapter in a Reader introducing to the
basics of economics and finance including: international economics, economy, finance
issues; international finance, national income; balance of payment, trade deficits, jobs,
foreign exchanges, interest rates, floating exchange rates, unemployment, growth of
international trade, infant industry, foreign monopoly, monopoly and monopsony power
and trade, public goods, product accounts, trade and environment, economic integration:
free trade areas, political economy and international trade, etc. The book is written for
intermediate students who have noneconomics majors and “may take only a few
economics courses in their program. Its texts present descriptive information about the
world and only the bare basics about how economic models are used to describe that
world” (Introduction).

Yet, the purpose of translating this economic text into a general text to the Arab readers
of different educational levels is to make it fitting to them to absorb and follow
comfortably by means of disposing of the economic jargon alien to most of them who are
non-specialists in economics. Non-jargonization (i.e. ridding of jargon words and terms)
can be done in several ways: (1) paraphrase; (2) simpler synonym and (3) well-established
technical terms, as demonstrated below.

7.5.2 Type of TL Readership

The readers are supposed to be educated and have some interest in economics. However,
the translator is recommended to address readers of high, middle class and low levels of
education for many of them would further their common knowledge about the world,
which means to eliminate any shade of jargon and technical terms. Although both of these
two types of terms can at times meet under the cover word ‘technical terminology’,
jargon words can be non-technical but pedantic, showy and vague conceptions. In any
case, the target readers require texts to be free of jargon, made simple, straightforward,
unambiguous and conveniently readable.

7.5.3 Translation Problems

The problems of translating this text into Arabic is not so much the jargoned economic
terminology or the grammatical structure as the way to de-jargoninze economic terms and
expressions that might appear familiar and easy to understand by the Arab readers at
large, but they are not. Many do not know the difference between ‘economics’ and
‘economy’, nor the exact meaning of either term. What is international trade? GAAT?
WTO? Trade barriers? International finance? Concessions? The majority of general, non-
specialist readers have only a vague idea about these terms. So, since the translator is not
translating to specialist readers, but to non-specialist people at large, he/she is
encouraged to attend to the economic jargon and suggest practical solutions to translating
it conveniently into Arabic, using mainly the translation strategy of overtranslation, which
can be described as perhaps the best strategy of simplification and disambiguation of
jargon terms. It could be as long as necessary and as short as required; and the translator
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has to take a decision about that and which terms are labeled as ‘jargon’. Following, first,
is a juxtaposition between the SL and TL terms in rather normal situation to demonstrate
the possibility of having existing equivalents of adoption from the SL into the TL without
detailed translation:

English Economic Jargon Arabic Translation

1. Economics ‫عمـ االقتصاد‬ .1
2. economy
‫اقتصاد‬ .2
3. the real-world economy ‫االقتصاد العالمي عمى أرض الواقع‬ .3
4. International economics ‫عمـ االقتصاد الدولي‬ .4
5. the implications of international
trade, ‫آليات التجارة الدولية‬ .5
6. international investment ‫االستثمار الدولي‬ .6
7. international borrowing and .‫اإلقراض واالقتراض الدولييف‬ .7
lending
8. international trade ‫التجارة الدولية‬ .8
9. international finance. ‫الموارد المالية الدولية‬ .9
10. integration of international
‫ التكامؿ أو االندماج المتسارع لؤلسواؽ‬.10
economic markets
.‫االقتصادية الدولية‬
11. The growth of international trade ‫ النشاط التجاري واالستثمار الدولييف‬.11
and investment
‫ التراجع المتواصؿ لمحواجز التجارية‬.12
12. the steady decline of trade
barriers ‫ الكساد االقتصادي العالمي األعظـ‬.13
13. the Great Depression
14. the General Agreement on Tariffs ‫ االتفاقية العامة لمتعرفة الجمركية والتجارة‬.14
and Trade, or GATT
‫التابعة لؤلمـ المتحدة ومقرىا في األورغواي‬
)‫(الجات‬
15. regular negotiations ‫ مفاوضات دورية‬.15

16. growing body of members ‫ األعضاء الذيف يتزايد عددىـ‬.16

17. reciprocally ً‫تبادليا‬/‫ بشكؿ متبادؿ‬.17
18. reduce tariffs ‫ تخفيض التعرفة الجمركية‬.18

19. (import taxes) ‫ رسوـ االستيراد‬.19

20. imported goods. .‫ سمع مستوردة‬.20
21. imports
‫ واردات‬/ ‫ إيرادات‬.21
22. exchange for concessions
‫ مقابؿ الحصوؿ عمى امتيازات‬.22
23. GATT members. ‫ الدوؿ األعضاء في منظمة الجات‬.23
‫ مفاوضات في األورغواي‬.24
24. Uruguay Round
25. liberalization promises ‫ وعود بتحرير السمع مف الرسوـ‬.25
26. larger sphere of influence ‫ في نطاؽ مف النفوذ أوسع‬.26
27. liberalize the agriculture and
303
 services markets. ‫ بدأت بتحرير أسواؽ الزراعة والخدمات‬.27
‫ التخمص مف أنظمة الحصص المخصصة‬.28
28. eliminate the many quota systems
29. the multifiber agreement in ‫لكؿ دولة عضو‬
clothing ‫ اتفاقية حصص النسيج واأللبسة المسموح‬.29
‫بتصديرىا مف الدوؿ النامية إلى الدوؿ‬
30. minimum standards ‫المتقدمة‬
31. protect intellectual property rights ‫ الحد األدنى مف المعايير‬.30
32. patents
‫ حماية حقوؽ الممكية الفكرية‬.31
33. trademarks ‫ براءات االختراع‬.32
34. copyrights
‫ العبلمات التجارية‬.33
35. The World Trade Organization ‫ حقوؽ التأليؼ والنشر‬.34
(WTO) ‫ منظمة التجارة العالمية‬.35
36. a forum for regular discussion of
‫ إقامة منتديات خاصة لمناقشة قضايا‬.36
trade matters
‫التجارة العالمية بشكؿ دوري‬
‫ تطبيؽ آلية واضحة‬.37
37. well-defined process
‫ تسوية الخبلفات التجارية التي قد تنشأ بيف‬.38
38. settling trade disputes
‫الدوؿ‬

Many of these terms have now become familiar to a good number of people. However, a
second thought about them would prove the reverse. Many Arab readers, including highly
educated ones, do not know the difference between ‘economics’ )‫ (عمـ االقتصاد‬and
‘economy’ )‫ ;(اقتصاد‬nor do they know exactly what other terms in the list means, especially
،‫ الجات‬،‫ التعرفة الجمركية‬،‫ تحرير التجارة‬،‫ الكساد االقتصادي العظيـ‬،‫ أسواؽ االقتصاد الدولية‬،‫التجارة الدولية‬
... ،‫ منظمة التجارة الدولية‬،‫ اتفاقية حصص النسيج واأللبسة‬،‫ أنظمة الحصص‬،‫ مفاوضات األوروغواي‬. The
dictionary and other references translate these terms and expressions literally, but
vaguely, presupposing that readers understand them easily. Yet, the translator cannot
assume the same presupposition for only specialists in economics (or economy?) can be
expected to find these terms easy to comprehend. In effect, the translator has to bear this
in mind at translating such jargon economic terms for general, non-specialized Arab
readers, and rid his/her translation of jargon by (i) overtranslating any term he/she might
expect to be vague to readers, (ii) undertranslating any detail he/she might find clear
enough, (iii) deleting any extra detail he/she finds unnecessary or (iv) rephrasing any
statement he/she finds not quite clear to TL readers, as suggested partly in the translation,
and, almost fully, in the next version (which picks up the key jargon-terms and expressions
(underlined) to be a sample example for applying the purpose of de-jargonization in
translating into a general translation):

304
 ‫عمم االقتصاد الدولي‬
‫عمـ االقتصاد ىو أحد العموـ االجتماعية ويعنى بدراسة إنتاج السمع والخدمات وتوزيعيا واستيبلكيا وما يتبعيا مف‬
‫وسائؿ اإلنتاج‪ ،‬ونظريات العرض والطمب‪ ،‬والبطالة‪ ،‬والعمالة‪ ،‬وسياسات الدوؿ المالية‪ ،‬والضريبية‪ ،‬وحرية التجارة‪،‬‬
‫والرواتب‪ ،‬واألجور وغيرىا‪ .‬أما االقتصاد فيختمؼ عف عمـ االقتصاد الذي يعني إدارة الموارد‪ ،‬واألمواؿ‪ ،‬والدخؿ‪،‬‬
‫واإلنفاؽ‪ ،‬واالستيبلؾ‪ ،‬واإلنتاج والتوزيع وعمميات البيع والشراء في بمد ما بغرض التوفير وتفادي اليدر‪ .‬وىو شيء ال‬
‫يمكف ألحد منا أف يدركو باإلجماؿ‪ .‬ولكف ما ال يدرؾ كمو ال يترؾ جمو‪ .‬فنحف كمنا جزء مف االقتصاد‪ .‬فكمنا نبيع‬
‫ونشتري يومياً‪ ،‬لكننا ال نستطيع أف نبلحظ كؿ تفاصيؿ االقتصاد في آف واحد‪.‬‬

‫أما مفيوـ عمـ االقتصاد الدولي فيركز عمى تقييـ آليات التجارة الدولية بتفاصيميا الدقيقة‪ ،‬واالستثمار الدولي‪ ،‬واإلقراض‬
‫واالقتراض الدولييف‪ .‬ويوجد لعمـ االقتصاد فرعاف ىما‪ ) 1( :‬التجارة الدولية‪ :‬وىي تبادؿ السمع والخدمات بيف الدوؿ‪ .‬وىي‬
‫أساس نشوء مفيوـ االقتصاد الدولي حيث تتأثر األسعار بالعرض والطمب (أي إذا كثر العرض انخفضت األسعار‪ ،‬واذا‬
‫كثر الطمب ارتفعت األسعار‪ ،‬والعكس صحيح)‪ .‬وتتيح التجارة الدولية الفرصة لممستيمؾ أف تتوفر لو السمع التي ال توجد‬
‫في بمده‪ ) 2( .‬الموارد المالية الدولية‪ :‬وىي التعامبلت المالية بيف دولتيف أو أكثر‪ ،‬وتشتمؿ عمى نسب تبادؿ العمبلت‪،‬‬
‫وأنظمة النقد الدولية‪ ،‬واالستثمارات األجنبية‪ ،‬واإلدارة الدولية لمنقد‪.‬‬

‫وتزداد أىمية عمـ االقتصاد نظ اًر لمتكامؿ أو االندماج المتسارع لؤلسواؽ االقتصادية الدولية‪ .‬ويعنى ىذا التكامؿ التنسيؽ‬
‫االقتصادي والنقدي بيف أسواؽ عالمية في مناطؽ التجارة الحرة بيدؼ خفض التكاليؼ لممنتج والمستيمؾ وزيادة التجارة‬
‫بيف الدوؿ المعنية‪ .‬ويتضمف وجود م ناطؽ تجارة حرة واتحادات جمركية‪ ،‬وأسواؽ عامة‪ ،‬واتحادات اقتصادية ونقدية‬
‫متكاممة‪ .‬وبدأ رجاؿ األعماؿ والمستيمكوف والحكومات يشعروف يوماً بعد يوـ أف حياتيـ ما عادت تتأثر بما يحدث في‬
‫مدنيـ أو بمدانيـ فقط‪ ،‬بؿ تتأثر أيضاً بما يحدث في العالـ بأسره‪.‬‬

‫ازداد نمو التجا رة واالستثمار الدولييف بشكؿ جزئي مف جراء التراجع المتواصؿ لمحواجز التجارية منذ الكساد االقتصادي‬
‫العالمي األعظـ في الثبلثينيات مف القرف الماضي‪ .‬وتعرؼ الحواجز التجارية بأنيا أي قوانيف أو سياسات تحد مف حرية‬
‫التجارة الدولية‪ ،‬كالرسوـ الجمركية‪ ،‬وحصص االستيراد ‪ ،‬ولوائح الجمارؾ‪ ،‬وغيرىا مف القيود التي تحد مف حرية التجارة‬
‫الدولية‪ .‬أما الكساد االقتصادي األعظـ فقد بدأ في الواليات المتحدة بعد اليبوط الشديد في أسعار البورصة فيما بات‬
‫يعرؼ بالثبلثاء األسود في ‪ 29‬أكتوبر ‪ ، 1929‬ثـ انتشر في أرجاء العالـ‪ .‬كاف لمكساد األعظـ أبمغ األثر في الدوؿ‬
‫بأسرىا الغنية منيا والفقيرة عمى حد سواء‪ ،‬حيث ىبط دخؿ الفرد‪ ،‬وعائدات الضرائب‪ ،‬واألرباح‪ ،‬واألسعار‪ ،‬وانحسرت‬
‫التجارة الدولية بنسبة ‪ %50‬وارتفعت نسبة البطالة في بمداف كثيرة إلى ‪ .%33-25‬ففي أعقاب الحرب العالمية الثانية‬
‫حثت االتفاقية العامة لمتعرفة الجمركية والتجارة التابعة لؤلمـ المتحدة ومقرىا األورغواي (ومختصرىا ‘الجات’ المأخود‬
‫مف المختصر اإلنجميزي )‪ )(GAAT‬عمى مفاوضات دورية بيف األعضاء لتخفيض التعرفة الجمركية (وىي رسوـ) عمى‬
‫السمع المستوردة‪ .‬أثناء ىذه المفاوضات‪ ،‬وعدت الدوؿ األعضاء بتخفيض رسوميا عمى اإليرادات مقابؿ الحصوؿ عمى‬
‫امتيازات ‪ ...‬مف األعضاء اآلخريف في الجات‪ .‬وتتمثؿ ىذه االمتيازات بتخفيض رسوـ االستيراد‪ ،‬وزيادة نسبة حصص‬
‫اإليرادات‪ ،‬وتخفيؼ القيود عمى الصادرات‪ ،‬وتوفير الدعـ المحمي‪.‬‬

‫وعندما انتيت آخر دورة مفاوضات في األورغواي (المقر الرئيسي لمجات)‪ ،‬نجحت الدوؿ األعضاء في توسيع نطاؽ‬
‫االتفاقية لتشمؿ وعودًا بتحرير السمع مف الرسوـ في نطاؽ مف النفوذ أوسع‪ .‬والمقصود بتحرير التجارة إزالة القيود أو‬
‫‪305‬‬
‫ وحصص‬،‫ والرخص‬،‫ منيا الرسوـ الجمركية والضرائب اإلضافية‬،‫العوائؽ أو تخفيفيا عمى التبادؿ الحر لمسمع بيف الدوؿ‬
‫ بؿ بدأت أيضاً بتحرير‬،‫ واليوـ ال ترغب الدوؿ في تخفيض الرسوـ عمى تجارة السمع فقط‬.‫ وغيرىا‬،‫االستيراد والتصدير‬
‫ كما تسعى اآلف إلى التخمص مف أنظمة الحصص المخصصة لكؿ دولة عضو – كاتفاقية‬.‫أسواؽ الزراعة والخدمات‬
.‫حصص النسيج واأللبسة يسمح بتصديرىا لمدوؿ النامية إلى الدوؿ المتقدمة – التي تطورت ونمت في العقود الماضية‬
‫وتوافؽ ىذه الدوؿ أيض ًا عمى االلتزاـ بحد أدنى مف المعايير لحماية حقوؽ الممكية الفكرية كبراءات االختراع – وىي‬
‫مجموعة حقوؽ حصرية تمنحيا جية رسمية مخولة بذلؾ لممخترعيف لمدة زمنية محددة مقابؿ كشؼ النقاب عف االختراع‬
.‫ وحقوؽ التأليؼ والنشر‬،‫ والعبلمات (أو الماركات) التجارية‬- ‫لمجميور‬

‫وقد تـ مؤخ اًر إنشاء منظمة التجارة العالمية خصيصاً لئلشراؼ عمى إدارة ىذا النظاـ مف االتفاقيات الجديدة واقامة‬
‫ وتطبيؽ آلية واضحة لتسوية الخبلفات التجارية التي قد‬،‫منتديات خاصة لمناقشة قضايا التجارة العالمية بشكؿ دوري‬
‫ منظمة دولية‬،(WTO) ‫أُو’ مف األصؿ اإلنجميزي‬-‫تي‬-‫ ومنظمة التجارة العالمية (مختصرىا ‘دبميو‬.‫تنشأ بيف الدوؿ‬
‫ ميمتيا تنظيـ التجارة بيف الدوؿ األعضاء التي‬،‫ ومقرىا جنيؼ – سويسرا‬،‫ لتحؿ محؿ منظمة الجات‬1995 ‫تأسست عاـ‬
.)‫تعتمد التجارة الحرة‬

The underlined terms and expressions are illustrative examples of how the translator can
dispose of the economic jargon of the source text. Obviously, the most important jargon
terms are picked up here in the translation only, and it is left to the translator’s discretion
to pick up a greater or less number of terms to de-jargonize relative to the readers’ needs
in the first place. The underlined terms are, of course, instances of OVERTRANSLATION
which take the greater share in the translation. Occasional examples of deletions occur
(e.g. the DELETION of “whose purpose is to understand the workings of the real-world
economy” for it is included in the definition of ‘economics’). UNDERTRANSLATION is less
occasional than deletion (e.g. in exchanges for concessions ‫ ;مقابؿ امتيازات‬all parts and
aspects of an economy ‫)كؿ تفاصيؿ االقتصاد‬. Finally, REPHRASING is employed with the new
details and sentences suggested to get rid of the jargon in Arabic, as is the case with all of
the terms dejargonized above.

7.5.4 Translation Strategies

(1) overtranslation (e.g. the underlined statements and expressions above)

(2) deletion (e.g. “whose purpose is to understand the workings of the real-world
economy” → zero).
(3) Undertranslation (e.g. in exchanges for concessions → ‫ ;مقابؿ امتيازات‬all parts and
aspects of an economy→ ‫)كؿ تفاصيؿ االقتصاد‬
(4) Classifier (e.g. GAAT → … ‫ ;مقرىا األورغواي‬WTO → … ‫)في جنيؼ‬
(5) Paraphrase (e.g. The Uruguay → )‫)األورغواي (المقر الرئيسي لمجات‬
(6) Addition (e.g. see examples for overtranslation)
(7) Translation couplet: Transliteration + naturalization (e.g. trademarks ‫)ماركات‬

306
 (8) Expansion (e.g. copyright →‫ ;حقوؽ التأليؼ والنشر‬patents → ‫ ;براءات اختراع‬the Uruguay
Round → ‫)دورة مفاوضات في األورغواي‬
(9) Contextual translation (e.g. implications → (‫( )تفاصيؿ وآليات‬c.f. ‫)مضاميف‬
(10) Euphemization (e.g. ‫)رسوـ → ضريبة‬
(11) Naturalization (e.g. tariff→ ‫ ;تعرفة‬Switzerland → ‫)سويس ار‬
(12) Arabization (e.g. tariffs → ‫( رسوـ‬rather than ‫))تعرفة‬
(13) Adoption of economic terms (see all economic terms above which are western
culture imported into Arabic Language and culture via the strategy of direct
translation, or adoption‫)التبني‬
(14) Through translation: calques (e.g. UN and other international acronyms: e.g.
GAAT )‫ ;االتفاقية العامة لمتعرفة الجمركية والتجارة التابعة لؤلمـ المتحدة ومقرىا األورغواي (الجات‬WTO
)’‫أُو‬-‫تي‬-‫)منظمة التجارة العالمية (‘دبميو‬

7.6 TEXT 6: Reactionary Commentary: Anti-Islam Texts

"The proper counter-move to this would be for Benedict XVI to call a gathering in Rome to
which the spiritual leaders of all the major kafir groups - all the Christian confessions,
together with the Jews, the Hindus, the Sikhs, the Taoists, the Buddhists (Thais, and
Chakma from Bangladesh, expressly invited), and every other group that has ever suffered
and is still suffering the miseries of Muslim aggression and oppression - are invited to
discuss the question: What Do We Do About Islam? Atheists and agnostics would be
cordially invited to attend as well."
(http://www.Saudi-US-Relations.org (19 July 2008))

‫ فيو يدعو في‬.‫(صاحب ىذا التعميؽ يصرح عمناً بأنو كافر كف اًر بواحاً دونما خجؿ وال حياء وال خوؼ مف اهلل سبحانو‬
‫ تموز مف عاـ‬/ ‫ بإسبانيا في يوليو‬،‫معرض تعميقو عمى البياف الختامي لمؤتمر حوار األدياف (الذي عقد في مدريد‬
‫ تحت رعاية الممؾ عبداهلل بف عبد العزيز) إلى حركة مضادة لمؤتمر يعقد في روما يدعو لو بابا الفاتيكاف [ الذي‬2008
‫كاف حاض اًر في مؤتمر مدريد!] ويحضره – كما قاؿ حرفياً بعضمة لسانو – ما ىب ودب مف ممؿ الكفر مف النصارى‬
‫وعباد البقر والبشر واألصناـ مف اليندوس والسيخ والطاوييف والزردشتييف والبوذييف وكؿ ممة كابدت مف اإلسبلـ‬
ّ ‫والييود‬
.‫ يبحث ىؤالء الكفرة الممحدوف الوجوديوف في سبؿ التصدي لئلسبلـ الذي أرعبيـ بمبادئو السامية‬.‫كما يزعـ ىذا األفّاؽ‬
."‫ وصدؽ رسوؿ اهلل صمى اهلل عميو وسمـ إذ يقوؿ "الكفر ممة واحدة‬.‫قاتميـ اهلل أنى يؤفكوف‬
(See also Hatim and Mason, 1990 and 1997; Boase-Beier, 2006; and others for more on
this point).

A Target Language translation forwarded to sensitive target readers can be purpose-

oriented, dealing with the SL text with extreme caution and sensitivity, with the aim to
avoid hurting the TL readers' feelings, morals, principles and beliefs, especially when anti-
Islamic texts are involved. Hence, the translator might delete, change or modify insulting
expressions, or translate them partly and partially, taking into account the TL readership's
reactions and feelings in the first place. It may also be reduced to a summary (see above),
or a commentary expressing the translator's attitude towards the SL text. A case in point is
the translation of the following text which comments on the writer's angry reaction to
307
Madrid Declaration on Interfaith dialogue held in Madrid in July, 2008, under the
patronage of King Abdullah of Saudi Arabia. The comment expresses an anti-religious,
anti-Islam and anti-God atheist opinion of a man who harbors a grudge against Islam and
is green with envy of the resolutions and recommendations of Madrid Dialogue among
religions. This man calls for an anti-Islam conference to counter the resolutions of Madrid
Declaration. He dares call upon what he directly and insolently describes as 'kafir groups',
which are to him all heavenly and pagan religions other than Islam. Therefore, I believe it
is absurd to translate the whole comment with minute details. Instead, a succinct
summary of general, indirect nature is provided alongside sharp comments by the
translator by way of responding properly to the SL writer’s atheism.

7.6.1 Purpose of the Translation

The purpose of writing the source text is to launch a vicious attack on Islam and Muslims,
and demand a counter-move against Madrid Declaration which represents to the SL writer
the hegemony of Islam over the world. So, he calls atheist groups and sects the world over
to form a movement against Islam, boasting that he is a ‘kafir’ (i.e. atheists), an Arabic
word which is not a part of English lexicon, but he means to use it sarcastically.

However, the purpose of the translation of this anti-Islamic source text is primarily to
react in the sharpest way possible to the aggression launched by the writer of the SL text
against Islam out of impudence, envy and outright enmity. Harsh words are suggested in
the counterattack of the translator against a heretic who holds no esteem to Muslims and
Islam. Therefore, as a Muslim, the translator is supposed to feel jealous toward his/her
religion and Muslim readers who would read the translation, and who are hypersensitive
to their holy religion and feel deeply insulted by the source text’s preposterous
accusations against them and Islam. A subsidiary personal purpose for the translator is to
prove himself/herself innocent of these allegations and accusations by the SL writer, for, if
he/she does not respond or react in some way to these outrageous charges, he/she might
be accused of complacency, or consent with the SL writer, whether he/she means it or
not.

7.6.2 Type of TL Readership

Obviously, the TL readership who would have interest in such sensitive topic, or willing to
read it for whatever reason, even by coincidence, can be any type, especially the educated
type. Whatever the type of readers might be, we expect them to be Muslim readers who
cannot tolerate any insults to their religion and Islamic beliefs for whatever reason, or by
anyone, even though the text is a translation. They expect the translator to express
his/her dissatisfaction with the SL writer’s anti-Islam language in an appropriate way.
Accordingly, the translator is required to take the utmost care and meet their needs and
expectations, which are after all, his/her needs and expectations. To achieve this purpose
satisfactorily in the readers’ eyes, he/she can summarize, cut off, delete, add,
overtranslate, undertranslate, paraphrase, and euphemize any term or expression if the
need arises, as demonstrated in the commentary-translation above.

308
7.6.3 Translation Problems

Under normal circumstances, the translation problems of this source text can be mainly
the individual religious terms of different ‘kafir’ sects and groups including: the Christian
confessions, the Jews, the Hindus, the Sikhs, the Taoists, the Buddhists, Thais, and
Chakma. However, in this context, and with a view to the purpose of the translation,
which is actually a brief commentary rather than a translation, the accurate translation of
each of these terms is not required here by the translator who is expected to react in
general and strong terms that do not necessarily reflect the literal meanings of the source
terms, but, rather, their pragmatic implications, as suggested above in the following
translation: ‫وعباد البقر والبشر واألصناـ مف اليندوس والسيخ‬
ّ ‫(ما ىب ودب مف ممؿ الكفر مف النصارى والييود‬
)‫والطاوييف والزردشتييف والبوذييف‬. It does not matter whether the TL readers understand or not
some of these terms for they are all representatives of ‘kafir’ groups, as described
collectively by the SLT writer. The use of ‘kafir’ is unique here. By using it instead of the
well-known word ‘atheist’, the sinister intention of the writer of the source text is to
ridicule the word in Islam, for most of the non-Muslims allege that the Muslims are the
‘kaffirun”, but the truth is absolutely the opposite. In consequence, the translation
suggested reacts vehemently in general terms that reflect the implications of the original.
No doubt, the Arabic commentary-translation is meant to be severely cynical and sharp,
especially the use of the two catchphrases ‫عباد البقر والبشر‬ ّ ‫ ما ىب ودب؛‬that are popular to
the target readers in a context of sarcasm. One more expression used to heighten the
tempo of sarcasm and rebuke is the informal emphatic cliché .‫ كما قاؿ بعضمة لسانو‬which is
added intentionally for this purpose.

Being more a commentary than a translation, the TL text elaborately employs strong
reactionary slurs to counter-balance the despicable attack of the SL writer on Muslims and
Islam who has not watched his words. In such text, written with evil and maleficent
intention on the part of a heretic person urges the translator to respond in some way.
Accordingly, objectivity or neutrality cannot be approved here and the translator cannot
distance himself/herself from an angry reaction toward the blasphemies of the source
text. In fact, he/she is demanded by his/her target readers to react and defend Islam and
Muslims. Hence, the following types of styles are suggested to achieve that purpose on
the basis of word choice:

- Sarcasm (e.g. ‫عباد البقر ; ما ىب ودب ;[ الذي كاف حاض اًر في مؤتمر مدريد!] ;صاحب ىذا التعميؽ‬
ّ
‫)والبشر‬
- Emphatic rhetoric (e.g. ً‫)كافر كف اًر بواحا‬
- Aggressive double negative (e.g. ‫)دونما خجؿ وال حياء وال خوؼ مف اهلل سبحانو‬
- Cynical emphatic accuracy (e.g. ‫)كما قاؿ بعضمة لسانو‬
- Explicit collocations (e.g. ‫)كفر بواح‬
- Korannic verses and terms (e.g. ‫)قاتميـ اهلل أنى يؤفكوف ;وال خوؼ مف اهلل سبحانو‬
- Prophetic phrases and sayings (e.g. ‫(الكفر ممة واحدة ;رسوؿ اهلل صمى اهلل عميو وسمـ‬
- Cause-and-effect phrases (e.g. ‫)(ألنو) أرعبيـ بمبادئو السامية → التصدي لئلسبلـ‬

309
 - Counter-balance phrases (e.g. ‫)كما يزعـ ىذا األفّاؽ ↔ كؿ ممة كابدت مف اإلسبلـ‬
- Exaggeration (e.g. ‫;عباد البقر والبشر واألصناـ‬
ّ ‫)ىؤالء الكفرة الممحدوف والوجوديوف‬
- Self-confession phrases (e.g. ‫)صرح عمناً؛ قاؿ بعضمة لسانو‬
- Asyndetic phrases (e.g. ‫)الكفرة الممحدوف الوجوديوف‬
- Syndetic phrases (e.g. ‫عباد البقر والبشر واألصناـ مف اليندوس والسيخ والطاوييف‬
ّ ‫النصارى والييود و‬
)‫)والزردشتييف والبوذييف‬
- Self-accusation (e.g. ‫ والبوذييف‬...‫وعباد البقر‬
ّ ‫)ممؿ الكفر مف النصارى والييود‬

Translators may differ in the way they do this kind of commentary-translation in regard to
the additions, deletions, implications and types of the styles of comments made.

7.6.4 Translation Strategies

(1) Pragmatic translation (e.g. the comments made on the basis of the original text)
(2) Naturalization (e.g. Jews, Buddhists, Taoists → ‫ الطاويوف‬،‫ البوذيوف‬،‫ ;الييود‬The Pope →
‫)البابا‬
(3) Transliteration (e.g. Sikhs, Hindus → ‫ اليندوس‬،‫)السيخ‬
(4) Addition (of Reactionary comments) (e.g. ‫)كما يزعـ ىذا األفاؽ‬
(5) Back transliteration into the original Arabic (e.g. kafir → ‫)كافر‬
(6) Religious cultural equivalent (e.g. Christians → ‫(نصارى‬
(7) Paraphrase (e.g. World Conference on Dialogue → ‫ بإسبانيا في يوليو‬،‫الذي عقد في مدريد‬
‫ تحت رعاية الممؾ عبداهلل بف عبد العزيز‬2008 ‫ تموز مف عاـ‬/)
(8) Back transliteration + translation (e.g. ‘kafir groups’ → ‫)مجموعات الكفر‬
(9) Deletion (e.g. Benedict XVI → zero)
(10) Compensation (e.g. the title of the Pope )‫ (بابا الفاتيكاف‬for his name (Benedict XVI))

7.7 TEXT 7: Alarming Translation: Dangers of the Nuclear Weapons

Nuclear Weapons present a real Danger to Humanity and Life on Earth

Nuclear weapons present humankind with an immense challenge, one far greater than
most people understand. Many people realize, of course, that nuclear weapons are
dangerous and deadly, and that in the past they were used to destroy the cities of
Hiroshima and Nagasaki, with a single weapon demolishing each city. But few people
have grappled with the proposition that these weapons are omnicidal; they go beyond
suicide and genocide to omnicide, the death of all.

310
‫‪In a cataclysmic strike, resulting in the destruction of present life forms on the planet,‬‬
‫‪these weapons would also obliterate the past and future, destroying both human memory‬‬
‫‪and possibility. They would obliterate every sacred part of being, leaving vast ruin and‬‬
‫‪emptiness where once life, love, friendship, decency, hope and beauty had existed.‬‬
‫‪(David Krieger, Nuclear Age Peace Foundation, on GlobalResearch, March 27, 2010).‬‬

‫تحذير شديد الميجة‪ :‬األسمحة النووية تشكل خط ارً حقيقياً ومحدقاً عمى البشرية والحياة عمى األرض‬
‫أييا القارئ العزيز‪ :‬إف خطر األسمحة النووية أشد مما نظف بكثير‪ .‬وصدؽ مف سماىا ‘أسمحة الدمار الشامؿ’‪ .‬إذ تشكؿ‬
‫تحدي ًا كبي ًار لمبشر أكثر مما يتوقع غالبيتنا‪ .‬كمنا نعمـ تقريب ًا أف األسمحة النووية خطرة وفتاكة‪ ،‬وأف أمريكا كما نعمـ جميع ًا‬
‫أيض ًا استخدمتيا في ال قرف الماضي ودمرت مدينتي ىيروشيما وناغازاكي اليابانيتيف عف بكرة أبييما ولـ يسمـ منيا ال‬
‫بشر وال حجر وال شجر في أبشع جريمة يشيدىا التاريخ الحديث‪ .‬فقنبمة واحدة ألقيت عمى كؿ مدينة مف المدينتيف كانت‬
‫كافية لتدميرىا بالكامؿ‪ ،‬ولكف بقي مف الناس مف كاف عمى يقيف مف فكرة أف األسمحة النووية ساحقة ماحقة تدمر كؿ‬
‫شيء‪ .‬وىي كذلؾ فعبلً‪ ،‬وتتعدى الجرائـ الفردية والمجازر الجماعية البشعة إلى إبادة جماعية ال تبقي وال تذر‪ ،‬وقضاء‬
‫مبرـ عمى كؿ شيء‪ .‬إنيا موت لمجميع وىبلؾ لكؿ شيء عمى وجو األرض‪ ،‬وال يبقى ألحد أو لشيء مف باقية‪ .‬ىؿ تعمـ‬
‫ىذا يا رعاؾ اهلل؟ حفظ اهلل الجميع‪.‬‬

‫خذ عمى سبيؿ المثاؿ‪ ،‬ضربة واحدة باألسمحة النووية سوؼ تزلزؿ األرض زلزلة‪ ،‬وتغير مبلمحيا الجيولوجية وتيز‬
‫أركانيا ى اًز‪ ،‬مما يؤدي بالطبع إلى تدمير كؿ أشكاؿ الحياة عمى كوكب األرض‪ ،‬ليس ىذا فحسب‪ ،‬بؿ ستؤدي إلى محو‬
‫أي ذاكرة لمماضي والحاضر والمستقبؿ‪ .‬صدؽ أو ال تصدؽ‪ ،‬ال شيء يبقى‪ ،‬مقدساً كاف أـ غير مقدس‪ ،‬كؿ شيء‬
‫يصبح أث اًر بعد عيف‪ .‬دمار ىائؿ ‪ .....‬فراغ رىيب عمى أرض دبت الحياة عمييا يوماً ما‪ ،‬وكانت مشاعر الحب‬
‫والصداقة والعفة والفضيمة والنور واإليماف وكؿ ما ىو جميؿ سائداً بيف البشر يوماً ما‪ ،‬ولساف حالنا يقوؿ‪ :‬كنا ىنا ذات‬
‫يوـ‪ ،‬ىذا إذا كاف ىنا بعدىا‪ .‬ىؿ وصمت رسالتي لكـ حوؿ الخطر الرىيب لؤلسمحة النووية؟ أرجو ذلؾ‪.‬‬
‫‪311‬‬
7.7.1 Purpose of the Translation

The purpose of the source text is to break to SL readers new findings about the lethal and
devastating dangers of the nuclear weapons that ruin all signs of life of mankind and
everything on earth. It tries to convince them by means of horrendous facts about a
potential nuclear strike, supported by a picture of a nuclear explosion. Now the purpose of
translating this text into Arabic is to issue an alarming warning against the imminent
catastrophic aftermath of the nuclear weapons that is far more serious than readers may
know. Hence, the translator is recommended to approach translating the source text with
this purpose of warning the target readers in mind and look for the most appropriate
styles of addressing his/her readers to caution them against the nuclear weapons’
consummate devastating power (see 7.7.3 below).

7.7.2 Type of TL Readership

The target readers expected to be addressed by the translation of a source text about
nuclear weapons are principally those interested in this topic among educated readers in
particular. Yet, the Arab readers at large are aimed at by the translator for the fatal
dangers of nuclear weapons must worry everybody all over the world. To help readers get
the message intended, the translator may resort to appropriate ways of alarming target
readers by means of employing different styles of addressing and communicating his/her
target readers of different types directly in the translation, as illustrated in the next
section.

7.7.3 Translation Problems

The technical terms and expressions of the nuclear weapons of the source texts are
fortunately not many. However, one or two terms might cause some headache, that is,
‘omincide/omnicidal’ which is not found in several good traditional dictionaries; and
‘cataclysmic’ which is unfamiliar but is on the list of entries of good dictionaries in general.
The former is found to mean ‫ قضاء ُمبرـ‬/ ‫ إبادة جماعية‬which is compared to ‘suicide’
)‫جريمة فردية‬/‫ (انتحار‬and ‘genocide’ )‫(مجزرة جماعية‬, both of which are horrible crimes, but still
‘omnicide’ is the ugliest and most horrible crime that is unknown to mankind yet, for it
means the death and elimination of everybody and everything.

The second term, ‘cataclysmic’, is expressive of a phenomenal, unprecedented earthquake

that is generally similar to the Tsunami of Japan which took place a short time ago. Hence,
it can be overtranslated into ‫ وتغير مبلمحيا الجيولوجية وتيز أركانيا ى اًز‬،‫ تزلزؿ األرض زلزلة‬so as to
express its implications satisfactorily. Other terms in the text are not really demanding to
translate into Arabic.

Yet, the real translation problems are not in the terminology, but in the ways (i.e. styles)
the translator is going to achieve the purpose of translating the source text into a
communicative Arabic text of issuing alarming warning against the pernicious effects of a
nuclear weapons’ strike. The following styles and expressions are suggested in the
translation above, all of which draw heavily on the communicative and pragmatic methods
312
of translation to produce the required effect on the target readers as much as respond to
their needs and purposes:

 Initial emphatic and alarming warning phrase (e.g. ‫)تحذير شديد الميجة‬
 Direct address: vocative case (e.g. ‫)أييا القارئ العزيز‬
 The use of first person plural to involve all of ‘us’ being closer than ‘them/people’
(e.g. ‫ كمنا نعمـ‬.‫غالبيتنا‬...‫)نظف‬
 Shared knowledge, filler expressions involving readers (e.g. ‫كما نعمـ‬... ‫)كمنا نعمـ‬
 Overexaggerative catchphrases ( ‫ودمرت مدينتي ىيروشيما وناغازاكي عف بكرة أبييما ولـ يسمـ‬
‫)منيا ال بشر وال حجر وال شجر (في أبشع جريمة يشيدىا التاريخ الحديث‬
 Emphatic hyperboles (e.g. ‫ إنيا موت لمجميع وىبلؾ لكؿ شيء عمى وجو األرض؛‬،‫ساحقة ماحقة‬
‫)وتيز أركانيا ى اًز‬
 Religious expressions (e.g. from the Holy Quran: ‫وال يبقى ;ال تبقي وال تذر ;تدمر كؿ شيء‬
‫)تزلزؿ األرض زلزلة ;ألحد أو لشيء مف باقية‬
 Emphatic collocations (e.g. ‫)قضاء مبرـ؛ عف بكرة أبييا؛ إبادة جماعية؛ مجازر بشعة‬
 Communicative imperative phrases addressing and involving the reader directly
(e.g. ‫)خذ عمى سبيؿ المثاؿ‬
 Emotive-religious phrases (e.g. ‫)تدمر كؿ شيء مقدس أـ غير مقدس‬
 Direct questions and phrases of engagement (e.g. ‫)ىؿ تعمـ ىذا يا رعاؾ اهلل؟‬
 Classical cordial cliché phrases of direct communication with the reader (e.g. ‫يا‬
‫)رعاؾ اهلل‬
 Classical religious phrases of supplication to readers (e.g. ‫)حفظ اهلل الجميع‬
 Classical assertive collocations (e.g. ‫)أثر بعد عيف‬
 Unofficial direct emphatic address phrases to involve the individual reader (e.g.
‫)صدؽ أو ال تصدؽ‬
 Literary slow-tone coordinative phrases (e.g. ‫ فراغ رىيب‬..... ‫)دمار ىائؿ‬
 Emotive, poetic phrases (e.g. ً‫ بيف البشر يوما‬... ‫ وكانت مشاعر الحب‬،‫دبت الحياة فييا يوماً ما‬
‫)ما‬
 Emotive expressions of love, goodness and peace ( ‫وكانت مشاعر الحب والصداقة والعفة‬
‫)والفضيمة والنور واإليماف وكؿ ما ىو جميؿ سائداً بيف البشر‬
 Emotive catchphrases (e.g. ‫ ذات يوـ‬،‫(لساف حالنا‬
 Emotive wishes (e.g. !!!‫)ىذا إذا كاف ىنا بعدىا‬.
 Reassuring phrases (e.g. ً‫(صدؽ مف سماىا ;وىي كذلؾ فعبل‬
 Emotive rhetorical questions of involvement (e.g. ‫(ىؿ وصمت رسالتي لكـ حوؿ الخطر‬
‫الرىيب لؤلسمحة النووية؟ أرجو ذلؾ‬
 Closing personal involvement of the writer/translator (e.g. ‫(أرجو ذلؾ‬

313
7.7.4 Translation Strategies

(1) Communicative translation (e.g. most of communicative phrases of the previous

examples)
(2) Pragmatic translation (e.g. these weapons are omnicidal → ‫األسمحة النووية ساحقة ماحقة‬
ً‫ وىي كذلؾ فعبل‬.‫( تدمر كؿ شيء‬see also examples of the previous strategy).
(3) Transliteration (e.g. Hiroshima and Nagasaki ‫)ىيروشيما وناغازاكي‬
(4) Overtranslation (e.g. see examples of 1 above)
(5) Classifier (e.g. Hiroshima and Nagasaki → ‫)مدينتا ىيروشيما وناغازاكي اليابانيتاف‬
(6) Communicative additions (e.g. ‫أييا القارئ العزيز؛ يا رعاؾ اهلل؛ حفظ اهلل الجميع؛ صدؽ أو ال‬
...‫ ;تصدؽ‬see 1 for further examples)
(7) Deletions of unnecessary words and phrases (e.g. present (in the title) → zero)
(8) Paraphrase (e.g. obliterate every sacred → ‫ كؿ‬،‫ مقدساً كاف أـ غير مقدس‬،‫ال شيء يبقى‬
‫)شيء يصبح أث اُر بعد عيف‬
(9) Literary translation (e.g. leaving vast ruin and emptiness → ‫ وفراغ‬..... ‫دمار ىائؿ‬
‫)رىيب‬
(10) Cliché translations (e.g. ...‫)ذات يوـ؛ لساف الحاؿ‬
(11) Transposition: verb → adj. + prep. phrase (e.g. demolishing →...‫)كافية لتدمير‬
(12) Modulation: passive → active (e.g. they were used to destroy... → ‫استخدمتيا أمريكا‬
...‫ ودمرت‬...)

7.8 TEXT 8: Unearthing the Truth: Translating the Sub-text: Exposing Assad’s Lies

A general text that is full of lies and fallacies might be translated pragmatically into the TL,
to unearth the truths that may be hidden and lie behind the surface text. In other words,
the translator sometimes translates the sub-text, the implied meanings of the source text,
which can be quite the opposite of what the SL writer alleges. Meyer (1974) has taken the
concept of ‘sub-text’ to be “what is implied, but not said, the meaning behind the
meaning, the ‘hidden agenda’; and the translator is in pursuit of this hidden meaning” (in
Newmark, 1988: 77). Despite the objections to applying this approach to translation of all
texts and contexts, it cannot be rejected outright for there is a truth in it with certain
types of texts that are either meant to be understood by implication, written or spoken by
people who have proved to be big liars like specific names of authors, narrators,
journalists, politicians, ministers, governments, spokesmen, presidents and so on. The
following text is extracted from an interview by the BBC with the tyrant of Syria, Bashar
Assad, who proved over the past four years of the People’s revolution against him and his
barbaric regime to be an outright liar about the brass tacks of what is going on in his
country. So, it can be the job of the translator, a brave and honest translator, to disclose
the pack of lies by Assad, and, instead, unearths the truths he hides behind his lies, on the
condition that the translator derives his/her evidence from confirmed sources and
common knowledge facts known to the public at large:

314
‫‪Q: Mr President, you've lost control over large areas of Syria, the Islamic State has‬‬
‫‪emerged, there are perhaps 200,000 Syrians dead, millions have lost their homes. Has‬‬
‫?‪Syria become a failed state‬‬

‫سؤاؿ ‪ :‬لقد فقدتـ السيطرة عمى أجزاء كبيرة مف سوريا‪ ،‬وظيرت داعش‪ ،‬ومات أكثر مف ‪ 200,000‬سوري‪ ،‬وفقد المبلييف‬
‫منازليـ‪ .‬ىؿ أصبحت سوريا دولة منيارة؟‬

‫‪A: No, as long as the government and the state institutions are fulfilling their duty toward‬‬
‫‪the Syrian people, [we] cannot talk about failed states. Talking about losing control is‬‬
‫‪something completely different. It's like if you have [an] invasion of terrorists coming from‬‬
‫‪abroad and the government is doing its job in fighting and defending its country‬‬
‫جواب ‪ :‬ال‪ ،‬طالما أف الحكومة ومؤسسات الدولة تقوـ بأعماليا في خدمة الشعب السوري‪ ،‬ال نستطيع الحديث عف دولة‬
‫منيارة‪ .‬أما الحديث عف فقد السيطرة فاألمر مختمؼ تماماً‪ .‬ىناؾ غزو مف اإلرىابييف يأتوف مف الخارج‪ ،‬وتقوـ الحكومة‬
‫بواجبيا بقتاليـ والدفاع عف البمد‪.‬‬
‫(والحقيقة‪ :‬فقدنا السيطرة عمى كؿ شيء تقريباً في البمد وال بقي بمد وال شيء‪ ،‬والحكومة اسـ حكومة‪ ،‬صورية الحوؿ ليا‬
‫وال قوة‪ ،‬وال تخدـ الشعب‪ .‬أصبلً ال يوجد شعب نحكمو‪ .‬ومؤسسات الدولة دمرناىا معظميا‪ ،‬وما تبقى منيا سندمره قريباً‪.‬‬
‫وتصحيحاً لكبلمؾ‪ ،‬قتمنا حتى اآلف أكثر مف ‪ 500,000‬سوري وشردنا ‪ 11‬مميون ًا حتى تاريخو والحبؿ عمى الجرار‪ .‬في‬
‫الحقيقة ليس ىناؾ إرىابي وف مف الخارج وداعش صنيعتنا وحميفتنا‪ ،‬وأذكرؾ بما قمتو في خطابي في نيساف عاـ ‪2014‬‬
‫أماـ زبانيتي ممف يفتروف عمى الناس ويسموف أنفسيـ رجاؿ ديف‪ .‬قمت بالحرؼ الواحد‪ :‬يوجد "عشرات اآلالؼ مف‬
‫اإلرىابييف السورييف" الذيف خمفيـ "حاضنة اجتماعية" ويقدر عدد أفراد تمؾ الحاضنة بما يصؿ إلى "المبلييف مف‬
‫السورييف"‪ .‬يعني ال يوجد إرىابيوف مف الخارج‪ ،‬بؿ ادعيت ذلؾ لكي تكوف حجة لي أماـ العالـ ألقتؿ الشعب السوري‬
‫وأشرده وأدمر البمد بأكممو ألنيـ تظاىروا ضدي وأصبح الكرسي ميدداً‪ .‬وأنا عمى استعداد لقتميـ جميعاً مف أجؿ‬
‫الكرسي‪).‬‬

‫‪Q: You've talked about the influence of terrorism, as you call it, from the very beginning.‬‬
‫‪But I was able as a reporter to go to some of those early demonstrations inside Damascus,‬‬
‫‪in areas outside as well, and people there were not saying they wanted an Islamic‬‬
‫‪Caliphate - they were saying they wanted freedom, democracy - not some kind of vision‬‬
‫?‪that IS have now for the country. Do you think you got it wrong‬‬
‫سؤاؿ‪ :‬تحدثت عف تأثير اإلرىاب كما تسميو أنت‪ ،‬منذ بداية الثورة‪ .‬لكنني أنا شخصياً بصفتي مراسبلً صحفياً‪ ،‬ذىبت‬
‫لبعض تمؾ المظاىرات األولى داخؿ دمشؽ‪ ،‬وفي مناطؽ أخرى خارجيا أيضاً‪ ،‬ولـ يكف الناس يقولوف إنيـ يريدوف‬
‫خبلفة إسبلمية‪ ،‬بؿ كانوا يقولوف بدنا حرية وديمقراطية‪ ،‬وىذه ليست مف أفكار داعش حوؿ الدولة اإلسبلمية‪ .‬ىؿ تعتقد‬
‫أنكـ أخطأتـ في طريقة التعامؿ مع األمر؟‬

‫‪A: You in the West called it that time, and some still talk about that period as [a] peaceful‬‬
‫‪demonstration period. And I will tell you that during the first few weeks many policemen‬‬
‫‪were killed. Shot dead. I don't think they were shot dead and killed by the sound waves of‬‬
‫‪the demonstrators - so it was just a fantasy to talk about this... we have to talk about‬‬
‫‪facts. From the very beginning the demonstrations weren't peaceful.‬‬

‫‪315‬‬
‫جواب ‪ :‬أنتـ في الغرب تسمونيا كذلؾ في ذلؾ الوقت‪ ،‬ومازاؿ بعض الناس يتكمموف عف ىذه الفترة عمى أنيا فترة‬
‫مظاىرات سممية‪ .‬وأقوؿ لؾ في األسابيع القميمة األولى مف ىذه الفترة قتؿ عدد كبير مف رجاؿ األمف رمياً بالرصاص‪.‬‬
‫وال أعتقد أنيـ قتموا بفعؿ الموجات الصوتية ليتافات المتظاىريف‪ .‬لذا كاف الحديث عف المظاىرات ترىات‪ ،‬وعمينا أف‬
‫نتحدث عف حقائؽ‪ .‬فمنذ البداية لـ تكف المظاىرات سممية‪.‬‬

‫(والحقيقة‪ :‬فعبلً كانت المظاىرات سممية في األشير الستة األولى مف الثورة عمي‪ ،‬وقمت ىذا في أحد خطاباتي عاـ‬
‫‪ ، 2012‬أال توثقوف خطاباتي؟ ولكي أقمع ىذه المظاىرات أصدرت األوامر لرجاؿ األمف ومخابراتي أف يطمقوا النار عمى‬
‫زمبلئيـ ويتيموا المتظاىريف بذلؾ لكي أبرر قتمي ليـ‪ ،‬وىـ في الحقيقة لـ يكونوا مسمحيف إال بأصواتيـ وىتافاتيـ‪).‬‬
‫?‪Q: What about barrel bombs, you don't deny that your forces use them‬‬

‫سؤاؿ ‪ :‬ماذا عف البراميؿ المتفجرة؟ ال تستطيع أف تنكر ذلؾ فقواتؾ تستخدميا؟‬

‫‪A: I know about the army, they use bullets, missiles, and bombs. I haven't heard of the‬‬
‫‪army using barrels, or maybe, cooking pots.‬‬

‫جواب ‪ :‬ما أعرفو عف الجيش أنو يستخدـ الرصاص‪ ،‬والصواريخ والقنابؿ‪ .‬لـ أسمع أف الجيش يستخدـ براميؿ‪ ،‬أو‬
‫طناجر!!!‬

‫(الحقيقة‪:‬ما أعرفو عف جيشي أنيـ وبأوامر مني يستخدموف كؿ أنواع األسمحة‪ :‬الرصاص والقنابؿ والصواريخ الفراغية‬
‫والبالستية والكيماوي والقنابؿ العنقودية والذكية والغبية والبراميؿ والحاويات المتفجرة –حاويات الزبالة (فيي أرخص)‪،‬‬
‫والطناجر واألواني والسكاكيف‪ ،‬وكؿ ما يخطر عمى بالؾ‪ ،‬وما بقي غير النووي لـ أستخدمو في حرب اإلبادة التي أشنيا‬
‫عمى الشعب السوري والبمد برمتو ألنو غير متوفر لدي‪ .‬ولو توفر الستخدمتو‪).‬‬

‫‪Q: Large barrels full of explosives and projectiles which are dropped from helicopters and‬‬
‫‪explode with devastating effect. There's been a lot of testimony about these things.‬‬
‫سؤاؿ‪ :‬البراميؿ الضخمة المميئة بالمتفجرات والقذائؼ الصاروخية تُمقى مف طائرات الييموكوبتر وتنفجر محدثة تأث اًر‬
‫مدم اًر‪ .‬وىناؾ أدلة كثيرة عمى ذلؾ‪.‬‬
‫‪A: They're called bombs. We have bombs, missiles and bullets... There is [are] no barrel‬‬
‫‪bombs, we don't have barrels.‬‬
‫جواب ‪ :‬ونحف نسمييا قنابؿ‪ .‬عندنا قنابؿ‪ ،‬وصواريخ‪ .‬ال يوجد براميؿ متفجرة‪ .‬ما عندنا براميؿ‪.‬‬

‫(والحقيقة‪ :‬ال فرؽ عندنا في التسمية‪ ،‬الميـ أنيا أسمحة تقتؿ وتدمر وتفتؾ بالشعب والبمد وتحرؽ األخضر واليابس)‬
‫)‪(From an interview by the BBC, 10 February 2015‬‬

‫‪7.8.1 Purpose of the Translation‬‬

‫‪While the purpose of the ST text is to propagate the sheer lies of Bashar Assad, the‬‬
‫‪dictator of Syria, the purpose of the TL translation is to expose and scandalize his lies by‬‬
‫‪deciphering the depths of the source text to translate its subtext, or the hidden truth‬‬

‫‪316‬‬
behind these lies, as most of the world confirms with indelible evidence of live pictures,
reports, on-the-ground reporters, on websites and by TV documentaries.

7.8.2 Type of TL Readership

Readers of all educational levels, ages and social classes are thirsty to know the truths
behind the lies of the ugliest dictator in history who kills helpless and innocent people and
ruins the country indiscriminately by the hour. The translator is required to be honest,
determined, courageous and audacious enough to do this great job of exposing the
heresies of this devilish oppressor.

7.8.3 Translation Problems

The problems of translating the original text are solvable for it is usually translated literally
and directly in a normal situation. However, as a big fabricator of lies like Assad is
involved, the problems of translations would be created by the implications of the sub-
text to be uncovered by the translator on the basis of background knowledge of the facts
behind the speaker’s lies from different authorities and informed sources locally,
nationally as well as internationally. In the pragmatic translation suggested above, which is
justified on the grounds demonstrated earlier, the translator has challenged the elaborate
lies of the speaker who knows the truth, but tries to distort it deliberately. Therefore, the
translator has provided the truth about each lie of the speaker’s based on the following
sources:

- Self-incrimination by the speaker who admits on two occasions that the

demonstrations were peaceful in the first six months of the revolution (2012: ‫(في‬
‫األشير الستة األولى كانت المظاىرات سممية‬, and that millions of Syrians are terrorists
(2014: ‫يوجد "عشرات اآلالؼ مف اإلرىابييف السورييف" الذيف خمفيـ "حاضنة اجتماعية" ويقدر عدد أفراد‬
"‫)تمؾ الحاضنة بما يصؿ إلى "المبلييف مف السورييف‬. These confessions make the
contradiction in the speaker’s allegations crystal clear.

- Almost all world news agencies have covered live Assad’s killings and
bombardments of the Syrian people in most parts of the country, providing clear
evidence for his crimes.

- Video documentaries for Assad’s bombardment of the Syrian people with barrel
bombs (e.g. Al-Jazeera’s documentary video for two Assad’s soldiers preparing a
barrel bomb to throw down on civilians in Syria few days after Assad’s denial of
using barrel bombs in the BBC interview highlighted above. Few days later (11
February, 2015), the UK Foreign Secretary, Philip Hammond, declared that Assad
was lying about the use of his military of barrel bombs to kill innocent civilians).

317
 - Leaks from within Assad’s regime about atrocities committed against political
prisoners (55 thousand pictures were submitted to the United Nations
Organization in 2014 by a dissident Syrian officer nicknamed Caesar )‫)(القيصر‬.

- Special documented authentic reports by pro-Syrian revolution national and

international activists, correspondents and reporters on the ground inside Syria
confirming the truths about what is happening in Syria, which unveils Assad’s
fabrications and denial of facts.

Below is a table juxtaposing the two versions of translation, the false and the true, to
allow for a sharper contrast between them:

The Questions →→→ Assad’s lies→→→ →→→The Truth

Q: Mr President, you've lost
control over large areas of
Syria, the Islamic State has
emerged, there are perhaps
200,000 Syrians dead,
millions have lost their
homes. Has Syria become a
failed state?

‫ لقد فقدتـ السيطرة عمى أجزاء‬:‫سؤاؿ‬

‫ طالما أف الحكومة‬،‫ ال‬:‫جواب‬ ‫ فقدنا السيطرة عمى كؿ‬:‫(والحقيقة‬
،‫ وظيرت داعش‬،‫كبيرة مف سوريا‬
‫ومؤسسات الدولة تقوـ بأعماليا في‬ ‫شيء تقريب ًا في البمد وال بقي بمد وال‬
،‫ سوري‬200,000 ‫ومات أكثر مف‬
‫ ال نستطيع‬،‫خدمة الشعب السوري‬ ،‫ والحكومة اسـ حكومة‬،‫شيء‬
‫ ىؿ أصبحت‬.‫وفقد المبلييف منازليـ‬
‫ أما‬.‫الحديث عف دولة منيارة‬ ‫ وال‬،‫صورية الحوؿ ليا وال قوة‬
‫سوريا دولة منيارة؟‬
‫الحديث عف فقد السيطرة فاألمر‬ ‫ أصبلً ال يوجد شعب‬.‫تخدـ الشعب‬

Q: You've talked about the
influence of terrorism, as
you call it, from the very
beginning. But I was able as
a reporter to go to some of
those early demonstrations
inside Damascus, in areas
outside as well, and people
there were not saying they
wanted ... freedom,
democracy ... Do you think
you got it wrong?
‫ ىناؾ غزو مف‬.ً‫مختمؼ تماما‬ ‫ ومؤسسات الدولة دمرناىا‬.‫نحكمو‬
‫ وتقوـ‬،‫اإلرىابييف يأتوف مف الخارج‬ ‫ وما تبقى منيا سندمره‬،‫معظميا‬
‫الحكومة بواجبيا بقتاليـ والدفاع عف‬ ‫ قتمنا‬،‫ وتصحيحاً لكبلمؾ‬.ً‫قريبا‬
.‫البمد‬ 500,000 ‫حتى اآلف أكثر مف‬
‫ مميوناً حتى‬11 ‫سوري وشردنا‬
‫ في‬.‫تاريخو والحبؿ عمى الجرار‬
‫الحقيقة ليس ىناؾ إرىابيوف مف‬
،‫الخارج وداعش صنيعتنا وحميفتنا‬
‫وأذكرؾ بما قمتو في خطابي في‬
‫ أماـ زبانيتي‬2014 ‫نيساف عاـ‬
‫ممف يفتروف عمى الناس ويسموف‬
‫ قمت بالحرؼ‬.‫أنفسيـ رجاؿ ديف‬

318

‫سؤاؿ‪ :‬تحدثت عف تأثير اإلرىاب كما‬
‫تسميو أنت‪ ،‬منذ بداية الثورة‪ .‬لكنني‬
‫أنا شخصياً بصفتي كمراسؿ صحفي‪،‬‬
‫ذىبت لبعض تمؾ المظاىرات األولى‬
‫داخؿ دمشؽ‪ ،‬وفي مناطؽ أخرى‬
‫خارجيا أيضاً‪ ،‬ولـ يكف الناس يقولوف‬
‫إنيـ يريدوف خبلفة إسبلمية‪ ،‬بؿ كانوا‬
‫يقولوف بدنا حرية وديمقراطية‪ ،‬وىذه‬
‫ليست مف أفكار داعش حوؿ الدولة‬
‫اإلسبلمية‪ .‬ىؿ تعتقد أنكـ أخطأتـ في‬
‫طريقة التعامؿ مع األمر؟‬
‫‪Q: What about barrel‬‬
‫‪bombs, you don't deny that‬‬
‫?‪your forces use them‬‬
‫سؤاؿ‪ :‬ماذا عف البراميؿ المتفجرة؟ ال‬
‫فقواتؾ‬ ‫ذلؾ‬ ‫تنكر‬ ‫أف‬ ‫تستطيع‬
‫تستخدميا؟‬
‫الواحد‪ :‬يوجد "عشرات اآلالؼ مف‬
‫اإلرىابييف السورييف" الذيف خمفيـ‬
‫"حاضنة اجتماعية" ويقدر عدد‬
‫أفراد تمؾ الحاضنة بما يصؿ إلى‬
‫"المبلييف مف السورييف"‪ .‬يعني ال‬
‫يوجد إرىابيوف مف الخارج ‪ ،‬بؿ‬
‫ادعيت ذلؾ لكي تكوف حجة لي‬
‫أماـ العالـ ألقتؿ الشعب السوري‬
‫وأشرده وأدمر البمد بأكممو ألنيـ‬
‫تظاىروا ضدي وأصبح الكرسي‬
‫ميدداً‪ .‬وأنا عمى استعداد لقتميـ‬
‫جميعاً مف أجؿ الكرسي‪.‬‬
‫جواب‪ :‬أنتـ في الغرب تسمونيا‬ ‫(والحقيقة‪ :‬فعبلً كانت المظاىرات‬
‫كذلؾ في ذلؾ الوقت‪ ،‬ومازاؿ بعض‬ ‫سممية في األشير الستة األولى مف‬
‫الناس يتكمموف عف ىذه الفترة عمى‬ ‫الثورة عمي‪ ،‬وقمت ىذا في أحد‬
‫أنيا فترة مظاىرات سممية‪ .‬وأقوؿ لؾ‬ ‫خطاباتي عاـ ‪ ،2012‬أال توثقوف‬
‫في األسابيع القميمة األولى مف ىذه‬ ‫ىذه‬ ‫أقمع‬ ‫ولكي‬ ‫خطاباتي؟‬
‫الفترة قتؿ عدد كبير مف رجاؿ األمف‬ ‫المظاىرات أصدرت األوامر لرجاؿ‬
‫رمياً بالرصاص‪ .‬وال أعتقد أنيـ قتموا‬ ‫األمف ومخابراتي أف يطمقوا النار‬
‫بفعؿ الموجات الصوتية ليتافات‬ ‫عمى زمبلئيـ ويتيموا المتظاىريف‬
‫المتظاىريف‪ .‬لذا كاف الحديث عف‬ ‫بذلؾ لكي أبرر قتمي ليـ‪ ،‬وىـ في‬
‫أف‬ ‫وعمينا‬ ‫ترىات‪،‬‬ ‫المضاىرات‬ ‫الحقيقة لـ يكونوا مسمحيف إال‬
‫نتحدث عف حقائؽ‪ .‬فمنذ البداية لـ‬ ‫بأصواتيـ وىتافاتيـ‪.‬‬
‫تكف المظاىرات سممية‪.‬‬
‫جواب‪ :‬ما أعرفو عف الجيش أنو‬ ‫(والحقيقة‪ :‬ما أعرفو عف جيشي‬
‫والصواريخ‬ ‫الرصاص‪،‬‬ ‫يستخدـ‬ ‫أنيـ وبأوامر مني يستخدموف كؿ‬
‫والقنابؿ‪ .‬لـ أسمع أف الجيش يستخدـ‬ ‫أنواع األسمحة‪ :‬الرصاص والقنابؿ‬
‫براميؿ‪ ،‬أو طناجر!!!‬ ‫والبالستية‬ ‫الفراغية‬ ‫والصواريخ‬
‫والكيماوي والقنابؿ العنقودية والذكية‬
‫والغبية والبراميؿ والحاويات المتفجرة‬
‫–حاويات الزبالة (فيي أرخص)‪،‬‬
‫والطناجر واألواني والسكاكيف‪ ،‬وكؿ‬
‫ما يخطر عمى بالؾ‪ ،‬وما بقي غير‬
‫‪319‬‬
 Q: Large barrels full of ‫النووي لـ أستخدمو في حرب‬
explosives ... explode with
‫اإلبادة التي أشنيا عمى الشعب‬
devastating effect. There's
been a lot of testimony ‫السوري والبمد برمتو ألنو غير‬
about these things. .‫ ولو توفر الستخدمتو‬.‫متوفر لدي‬
‫ البراميؿ الضخمة المميئة‬:‫سؤاؿ‬
‫ عندنا‬.‫ ونحف نسمييا قنابؿ‬:‫جواب‬ ‫ ال فرؽ عندنا في‬:‫(والحقيقة‬
‫بالمتفجرات والقذائؼ الصاروخية تُمقى‬
‫ ال يوجد براميؿ‬.‫ وصواريخ‬،‫قنابؿ‬ ‫ الميـ أنيا أسمحة تقتؿ‬،‫التسمية‬
‫مف طائرات الييموكوبتر وتنفجر‬
.‫ ما عندنا براميؿ‬.‫متفجرة‬ ‫وتدمر وتفتؾ بالشعب والبمد وتحرؽ‬
‫ وىناؾ أدلة كثيرة‬.‫محدثة تأث اًر مدم اًر‬
)‫األخضر واليابس‬
.‫عمى ذلؾ‬

7.8.4 Translation Strategies

(1) Translating the sub-text: Pragmatic translation (e.g. the truth versions)
(2) Deliberate deletion to imply no respect (e.g. Mr. President → zero (for he is no
more so)
(3) Transliteration (e.g. Assad→ ‫)األسد‬
(4) Naturalization (e.g. Damascus → ‫)دمشؽ‬
(5) Classifier (e.g. Assad → ‫الظالـ األسد‬/‫)الطاغية‬
(6) Modulation: positive → negative title (e.g. Assad →‫( )الطاغية األسد‬c.f. positive
classifier →‫)الرئيس األسد‬
(7) Linguistic cultural equivalent (e.g. ‫ → براميؿ متفجرة‬barrel bombs)
(8) Military cultural equivalence (e.g. policemen → ‫المخابرات‬/‫)رجاؿ األمف‬
(9) Pejorative acronym (e.g. IS (Islamic State) → ‫)داعش‬
(10) Semi-formal and more cynical equivalent (e.g. cooking pots → ‫( طناجر‬c.f. the
formal ‫(أواني الطيي‬

7.9 Summary

In conclusion, this chapter can be described as an essential contribution of this book to

translation theory and application. In the previous chapters, translating general texts in
terms of purpose into the TL can be understood to be done only partly, with few changes
done here and there in the translation, as illustrated in the former parts of the book.
However, this chapter changes the whole direction of the source text to achieve a
completely new purpose in the TL in response to specific needs and requirements of the
target readers. Hence, the TL readership may require a source text to be summarized for
the purpose is to learn about the main points of the SL text, as full details are not quite
necessary (TEXT 1). Perhaps the TL readers aim at educating themselves about an
interesting topic in the SL (TEXT 2). Well, a technical text about a vital theme like car
driving is required by the target readers to be made to fit their non-specialist levels of
education, and would like such a text to be translated in simple terms with no presence of
technical terms (TEXT 3). Probably, a medical text that is quite useful to the target general

320
public, but it is highly technical, and essential terms are unknown to them, so the
translator is recommended to dispose the translation of technical terminology and replace
it with popular language (TEXT 4).

On the other hand, jargon language is really hard to understand by general readers, so it
requires to be de-jargonized so that every target reader can read it (TEXT 5). Now, a text
whose topic is sensitive to target readers such as those about anti-Islam topics, would
require a reaction, or a commentary rather an accurate, faithful translation to appease
his/her TL readers’ feelings of resentment and avoid insulting them (TEXT 6). Yet, those
readers perhaps need be alarmed against a dangerous issue in a straightforward,
communicative way along with the message of the translation (TEXT 7). That said, the TL
readers may demand none of these purposes to meet; they might urge for knowing the
truth behind a source text that is full of lies and outright fabrications (TEXT 8).
In fine, the translator can have the response to the TL readers’ purpose as his/her sole
target behind translating a source text, converting it into a general text in the target
language that may suit all types of target readers with respect to lexis and style in
particular.

321
EXERCISES

1. The following text is about a topic that can be quite interesting to many TL
readers: ‘how to be great” in your business, career and, eventually, your life. A
very short summary is provided in Arab as target readers may need be acquainted
with the main points of the text. However, it is a very short summary which can be
double the size of that provided below. Pick up other main points to translate and
add to the outline suggested below. Consult Text 1 earlier in the chapter for help

Good to Great and the Social Sectors: Why Business Thinking Is Not the Answer

“The following are short excerpts from the monograph Good to Great and the Social
Sectors: Why Business Thinking Is Not the Answer, published in 2005 by Jim Collins.
We must reject the idea—well-intentioned, but dead wrong—that the primary path to
greatness in the social sectors is to become "more like a business." Most businesses—like
most of anything else in life—fall somewhere between mediocre and good. Few are great.
When you compare great companies with good ones, many widely practiced business
norms turn out to correlate with mediocrity, not greatness. So, then, why would we want
to import the practices of mediocrity into the social sectors?

I shared this perspective with a gathering of business CEOs, and offended nearly everyone
in the room. A hand shot up from David Weekley, one of the more thoughtful CEOs—a man
who built a very successful company and who now spends nearly half his time working
with the social sectors. "Do you have evidence to support your point?" he demanded. "In
my work with nonprofits, I find that they're in desperate need of greater discipline—
disciplined planning, disciplined people, disciplined governance, disciplined allocation of
resources."

"What makes you think that's a business concept?" I replied. "Most businesses also have a
desperate need for greater discipline. Mediocre companies rarely display the relentless
culture of discipline—disciplined people who engage in disciplined thought and who take
disciplined action—that we find in truly great companies. A culture of discipline is not a
principle of business; it is a principle of greatness."
Later, at dinner, we continued our debate, and I asked Weekley: "If you had taken a
different path in life and become, say, a church leader, a university president, a nonprofit
leader, a hospital CEO, or a school superintendent, would you have been any less
disciplined in your approach? Would you have been less likely to practice enlightened
leadership, or put less energy into getting the right people on the bus, or been less
demanding of results?" Weekley considered the question for a long moment. "No, I suspect
not."

That's when it dawned on me: we need a new language. The critical distinction is not
between business and social, but between great and good. We need to reject the naive
imposition of the "language of business" on the social sectors, and instead jointly embrace
a language of greatness.

The pivot point in Good to Great is the Hedgehog Concept. The essence of a Hedgehog
Concept is to attain piercing clarity about how to produce the best long-term results, and
322
then exercising the relentless discipline to say, "No thank you" to opportunities that fail the
hedgehog test. When we examined the Hedgehog Concepts of the good-to-great
companies, we found they reflected deep understanding of three intersecting circles: 1)
what you are deeply passionate about, 2) what you can be the best in the world at, and 3)
what best drives your economic engine.

Social sector leaders found the Hedgehog Concept helpful, but many rebelled against the
third circle, the economic engine. I found this puzzling. Sure, making money is not the
point, but you still need to have an economic engine to fulfill your mission.

Then I had a conversation with John Morgan, a pastor with more than 30 years of
experience in congregational work, then serving as a minister of a church in Reading,
Pennsylvania. "We're a congregation of misfits," said Morgan, "and I found the idea of a
unifying Hedgehog Concept to be very helpful. We're passionate about trying to rebuild
this community, and we can be the best in our region at creating a generation of
transformational leaders that reflects the full diversity of the community. That is our
Hedgehog Concept."

And what about the economic engine?

"Oh, we had to change that circle," he said. "It just doesn't make sense in a church."

"How can it not make sense," I pressed. "Don't you need to fund your work?"

"Well, there are two problems. First, we face a cultural problem of talking about money in
a religious setting, coming from a tradition that says love of money is the root of all evil."

"But money is also the root of paying the light and phone bills," I said.

"True," said Morgan, "but you've got to keep in mind the deep discomfort of talking
explicitly about money in some church settings. And second, we rely upon much more than
money to keep this place going. How do we get enough resources of all types—not just
money to pay the bills, but also time, emotional commitment, hands, hearts, and minds?"

Morgan put his finger on a fundamental difference between the business and social
sectors. The third circle of the Hedgehog Concept shifts from being an economic engine to
a resource engine. The critical question is not "How much money do we make?" but "How
can we develop a sustainable resource engine to deliver superior performance relative to
our mission?"

I do not mean to discount the systemic factors facing the social sectors. They are
significant, and they must be addressed. Still, the fact remains, we can find pockets of
greatness in nearly every difficult environment—whether it be the airline industry,
education, healthcare, social ventures, or government-funded agencies. Every institution
has its unique set of irrational and difficult constraints, yet some make a leap while others
facing the same environmental challenges do not. This is perhaps the single most
important point in all of Good to Great. Greatness is not a function of circumstance.
Greatness, it turns out, is largely a matter of conscious choice, and discipline.
323
‫‪Business executives can more easily fire people and—equally important—they can use‬‬
‫‪money to buy talent. Most social sector leaders, on the other hand, must rely on people‬‬
‫‪underpaid relative to the private sector or, in the case of volunteers, paid not at all. Yet a‬‬
‫‪finding from our research is instructive: the key variable is not how (or how much) you pay,‬‬
‫‪but who you have on the bus. The comparison companies in our research—those that‬‬
‫"‪failed to become great—placed greater emphasis on using incentives to "motivate‬‬
‫‪otherwise unmotivated or undisciplined people. The great companies, in contrast, focused‬‬
‫‪on getting and hanging on to the right people in the first place—those who are‬‬
‫‪productively neurotic, those who are self-motivated and self-disciplined, those who wake‬‬
‫‪up every day, compulsively driven to do the best they can because it is simply part of their‬‬
‫‪DNA. In the social sectors, when big incentives (or compensation at all, in the case of‬‬
‫‪volunteers) are simply not possible, the First Who principle becomes even more important.‬‬
‫”‪Lack of resources is no excuse for lack of rigor—it makes selectivity all the more vital.‬‬
‫)‪Copyright © 2005 Jim Collins. http:llwww.jimcollins.com‬‬

‫(القفز من الجيد إلى العظيم والقطاعات االجتماعية‪ :‬لماذا يعتبرالتفكير التجاري ليس حالً ناجعا)‬

‫ينبغي عمينا أف نرفض الفكرة القائمة إف الطريؽ إلى العظمة في القطاعات االجتماعية يكمف في رؤيتيا مف منظور‬
‫األعماؿ التجارية‪ .‬فيذه الفكرة غير مجدية لبلرتقاء إلى مستوى متميز عظيـ‪ ،‬فيي لـ تحقؽ أكثر مف المستوى العادي‬
‫في مختمؼ القطاعات االجتماعية‪.‬‬

‫ولعؿ الحؿ األفضؿ واألمثؿ يكمف في كممة السر"االنضباط والنظاـ"‪ ،‬أي‪ :‬تخطيط منضبط‪ ،‬وأشخاص منضبطوف‪،‬‬
‫وادارة منضبطة‪ ،‬وتخصيص موارد منضبط‪ .‬إف ثقافة االنضباط ليست ثقافة تجارة بؿ ىي ثقافة تفوؽ وتميز وعظمة‪.‬‬

‫تتجمى النقطة األساسية لمتحويؿ مف مستوى الجيد إلى مستوى العظيـ بمفيوـ القنفدة الحصيف وىو مفيوـ قائـ عمى‬
‫النظرة الثاقبة الواضحة حوؿ كيفية تحقيؽ أفضؿ النتائج عمى المدى الطويؿ ومف ثـ االلتزاـ باالنضباط الصارـ‪ .‬يرتكز‬
‫مفيوـ القنفدة عمى ثبلثة أسس (‪ )1‬إلى ماذا يميؿ قمبؾ في مجاؿ عممؾ؟ (‪ )2‬ما أفضؿ شيء تستطيع أف تبرز فيو‬
‫كأفضؿ شخص في العالـ؟ (‪ )3‬ما ىي الطريقة األمثؿ لدفع عجمتؾ االقتصادية؟‬

‫تؤخذ ىذه العناصر المكونة لمفيوـ القنفدة مجتمعة عمى أنيا كؿ متوحد لمسير قدماً في عممية تطوير المجتمع واعادة‬
‫بناء أسسو‪ ،‬وايجاد جيؿ مف القادة االجتماعييف القادريف عمى التحويؿ والتجديد والتطوير‪.‬‬

‫ىناؾ فرؽ واضح وشاسع بيف المديريف التجارييف القادريف عمى فصؿ الناس مف أعماليـ بسيولة‪ ،‬والقادريف عمى شراء‬
‫المواىب بصرؼ النظر عف الوازع الشخصي وانعداـ االنضباط عند اآلشخاص‪ ،‬وبيف المؤسسات المتميزة والعظيمة التي‬
‫ترتكز عمى اختيار الشخص المناسب في المكاف المناسب‪ ،‬والذي يتحمى بالحافز الشخصي لمعمؿ واإلنتاج واالنضباط‬
‫الشخصي في العمؿ‪ ،‬والذي يسري في عروقو ويعتبر جزءاً مف حمضو النووي (‪( )DNA‬الػ‪ :‬دي‪-‬إف‪-‬إيو) أف يسعى‬
‫ليكوف ىو األفضؿ واألوؿ وفي الريادة‪).‬‬

‫‪324‬‬
 2. Following is a technical medical text translated into an Arabic technical
translation. For the purpose of making it available to target readers of different
types to benefit from it, dispose the translation of technical terminology,
especially the underlined terms and phrases, using normal and popular ones
instead:

A case of toxoplasmosis associated with Hodgkin’s disease

“Toxoplasmosis and Hodgkin’s disease may present a very similar clinical picture, which is
characterised primarily by a deterioration health, fever and generalised lymphadenopathy.

An accurate diagnosis can generally be made on the basis of a histological examination of

a biopsy specimen. However, the appearance of the lymph nodes which are sometimes
found in Toxoplasmosis closely resembles that of those in Hodgkin’s disease. Serological
tests for Toxoplasmosis are therefore considerable assistance in diagnosis, and should be
carried out as a matter of routine, like other, serological investigations, in all patients with
Hodgkin’s disease.

These diagnostic problems are rather complex in themselves, and may become even more
difficult when both disorders occur in association... .”
(Newmark, 1988: 250)

‫حاالت داء المقوسات المترافقة مع داء ىودجكن‬

،‫ والتي تتميز بشكؿ رئيسي بتدىور الحالة الصحية العامة‬،‫(قد يتشابو داء المقوسات وداء ىودجكف مف الناحية السريرية‬
.‫والحمى واعتبلؿ عقدي لمفي عاـ‬
‫ إف شكؿ العقد الممفية التي‬،‫ عمى أية حاؿ‬.‫يمكف إجراء تشخيص عاـ عمى أساس إجراء فحص نسيجي لعينة خزعة‬
‫ لذلؾ تعتبر الفحوصات المصمية لداء‬.‫توجد أحياناً في داء المقوسات يشبو جداً شكؿ العقد الممفية لداء ىودجكف‬
‫ شأنيا في ذلؾ شأف الفحوصات المصمية األخرى بالنسبة لمرضى‬،ً‫المقوسات ميمة في التشخيص وينبغي إجراؤىا دوريا‬
.‫داء ىودجكف جميعيـ‬
)425 :2004 :‫) (غزالة‬. ...ً‫ وقد تصبح أكثر تعقيداً إذا ما اجتمع الداءاف معا‬،ً‫تعد مشاكؿ التشخيص ىذه معقدة أصبل‬

3. Economic jargon is not unfamiliar to readers, but sometimes it can be quite hard
to understand in accurate terms, especially for Arab target readers. Therefore, it
need be normalized. The next passage has few economic jargon terms. Translate
it into Arabic and de-jargonized jargon terms underlined in the SL text below in a
way similar to that in TEXT 5 above in this chapter:

“There is a popular and pervasive myth about international trade. The myth, simply stated,
is that trade deficits are bad and trade surpluses are good. Good or bad for whom, one
might ask? Well, for the entire country. The presence of a trade deficit, or an increase in
the trade deficit in a previous month or quarter, is commonly reported as a sign of distress.
Similarly, a decrease in a trade deficit, or the presence of or increase in a trade surplus, is
commonly viewed as a sign of strength in an economy.

325
Unfortunately, these perceptions and beliefs are somewhat misguided. In general, it is
simply not true that a trade deficit is a sign of a weak economy and a trade surplus is a
sign of a strong economy. Merely knowing that a country has a trade deficit, or that a
trade deficit is rising, is not enough information to say anything about the current or future
prospects for a country - and yet that is precisely how the statistics are often reported.

The truth about trade deficits is that sometimes they are good, sometimes they are bad,
but most times, they are benign (i.e. they just don’t matter). There are situations in which
trade deficits could be interpreted as a sign of a strong thriving economy. There are other
situations in which trade deficits could be indicative of economic problems. In most
situations, however, trade deficits are not large enough to warrant a positive or negative
interpretation. In this case, they should be viewed without interest. These same points
apply to trade surpluses as well.

4. Consider the following text about the topic of “The Promised Land”. To us, Arabs
and Muslims, this promise is fake, and the truth is that the Zionist Jews occupied
Palestine by force, with the aid of the then British government who were
occupying Palestine. Translate the text into Arabic twice: once literally and
directly; then translate the subtext of the text pragmatically and unearth its
hidden truth that exposes the Jews lies. Check in particular the underlined terms
and expressions and some contradictory concepts in the text itself. (See the
translation of TEXT 8 earlier to follow it suit):

The Promised Land ‫ أرض المٍعاد‬is the land promised or given by God, according to the
Hebrew Bible, to the descendants of Abraham, first to his son, Isaac, and then to Isaac's
son, Jacob. The Promised Land was described in terms of the territory from the River of
Egypt (The Nile) to the Euphrates River (in Iraq and Syria) and was given to their
descendants after Moses led the Exodus of the Israelites (i.e. Jacob’s Children) out of Egypt.

The concept of the Promised Land is the central tenet of Zionism that suggests that
modern Jews descend from the Israelites through which they inherit the right to re-
establish their "national homeland".

Today, approximately, five million Jews, more than a third of the world's Jewish
population, live in the land of Israel. Jews make up more than eighty percent of the
population of the land, and non-Jews who become citizens of Israel have the same legal
rights as Jewish citizens of Israel.

About half of all Israelis descended from Jews who have been in the land since ancient
times or who were forced out of Arab countries after Israel was founded. Most of the rest
descended from Jews who fled persecution in Eastern Europe starting in the late 1800s,
from Holocaust survivors, or from other immigrants who came at various times. Jews
continue to immigrate to Israel in large numbers. Under Israel's Law of Return, any Jew
who has not renounced the Jewish faith (by converting to another religion) can
automatically become an Israeli citizen.
(Copyright 5759-5771 (1999-2011), Tracey R Rich & Wikipedia).

326
 CONCLUSIONS
In conclusion, Translating General Texts: A Textbook introduces to the translation of
general texts as an essential component of any translation course, and a daily practice of
professional translators. They are TL reader-oriented in the sense that translator observe
the target readers’ needs and requirements to respond to them appropriately in terms of
language, style and purpose.

CHAPTER ONE has introduced shortly to the translation of general texts and the chapters
forthcoming. Several points have been investigated including types of general texts, text
typology, technical vs. non-technical language, simplicity vs. complexity of style, style as
choice, the readership, producing effect on the TL readership: the notion of equivalent
effect, translation methods of general texts, with special emphasis on ‘skopos theory’ as a
purpose theory of translation. Finally, some kind of framework of approach to the
translation of general texts has been put forward in terms of four main points: (i) purpose
of the translation; (ii) type of TL readership; (iii) translation problems and (iv) translation
strategies. The conclusions drawn from the discussion of these points stress that general
texts have specific characteristics and typology of their own that have to be taken into
account by translators, especially their general nature in terms of language and style,
purpose of translation, TL readership’s types, education, specialization, biases, needs and
requirements.

CHAPTER TWO has investigated in some details the translation of a major type of general
texts, CORRESPONDENCE. Samples of many types and subtypes of letter writing are
exemplified, translated and discussed from four main translational points: purpose of the
translation, type of TL readership, problems of translation and translation strategies. Some
letters are formal, others informal, or semi-formal in tone, which is essential in the
translation for the TL readership in the first place. Second, at translating any type of
letters, the TL readership is always borne in mind by the translator. Third, the translator
has to identify the purpose of translating the letter before anything else. Fourth, the
translation problems of all types of correspondence are solvable by several means
including, first and foremost, translation strategies which are exemplified for extensively
throughout.

CHAPTER THREE has tackled popular general LEAFLETS that are common in use by the
target reader. It covers the translation and investigation of service, academic, tourist,
instructions, religious / Islamic, political, health and car leaflets, with special focus on the
purpose of the translation, type of TL readership, translation problems and translation
strategies employed to fix the latter. The common denominator among these leaflets in
regard to their translation is that their purposes respond fully to the requirements of the
target readers who are always taken into account in terms of type, language and style.
Besides that, simplicity, easiness, clarity, non-technicality and direct address of TL
readership have been overwhelmingly attended to in all leaflets. This leads to the
conclusion that general texts like these addressing solely and directly the general public
should be translated into the TL in the target readers’ terms of style, language, purpose,

327
type and requirements, sorting out their translation problems in as clear, convenient and
easy ways and strategies as possible.

CHAPTER FOUR has treated the problems of translating ADVERTISEMENTS including public
notices. All types of ads have been introduced and defined as directly and simply as
possible. Then, the stylistic features and functions of commercials have been discussed,
followed by sample examples of the major types of ads and public notices. These samples
have been translated into Arabic and discussed in reation to translation purpose, type of
TL readership, translation problems and translation strategies. More than one conclusion
has been drawn from the foregoing investigation of translating advertisements. Style is
the basis of translating these texts. Further, since they are forwarded directly to the real
and potential readers, the translator has to bear in mind that meeting the target readers’
demands and requirements, and influencing, persuading, attracting and sometimes
entertaining them should be a priority. Hence, it has been suggested that his/her task is
primarily to produce effect on them by stylistic means of using impressive, effective,
emotive and communicative type of language. Aesthetic and rhythmical language and
style might be at times essential in the target translation as an instrument of attracting,
enjoying and, eventually, convincing him/her to purchase the product advertised for.
However, avoiding using technical terminology along with simplification of language and
style with a tint of informality has been claimed to be dominant in the translation of all
types of ads. Indeed, these texts are the target readers’ property, and the translator is
required to respond to their demands as much stylistically, semantically, grammatically,
rhetorically, communicatively and effectively as cordially.

CHAPTER FIVE is on translating the general texts of the NEWSPAPER. It has pointed out
that not all newspapers are of the same type in terms of language, style, seriousness and
respectability. There are two main types of newspaper in English: Quality Newspapers
(formal, serious and respected), and Popular Newspaper (informal, less serious and less
respectable). However, in Arabic there is only one type, Formal Newspaper. Focus has
been on translation from English into Arabic only, as usually the case in practice, and the
stylistic features of both types of newspaper are put to use in translation later on in the
practical part of the chapter. Further, although all types of texts are present in
newspapers, they are treated as general texts in the sense that they are not forwarded to
specialists, and technical language is generally avoided in favor of simple, general and
comprehended language and style. Moreover, the purpose of the translation and type of
TL readership are , as usual, in focus by translators, for newspaper articles are vocative
texts, directed to TL readers in a straightforward way. In addition, the problems of
translating the different types of newspaper texts centre around words of different types
(technical, non-technical, concept words, cultural words, words in contexts, etc.), features
of style (formal, informal, expressive, rhetoric, repetitive, variant, hyperbolic, ironical,
serious, respectful, disrespectful, passive, active, etc.), literal, free or pragmatic translation
methods, and occasional grammatical and phonological problems of translation. Solutions
to these problems have been suggested and investigated in detail in relation to each text
handled in the chapter. Finally, it has been claimed that the translation of different
samples of types of newspaper texts in this chapter might justify classifying them into
general texts addressing the common public in a simplified, non-technical and direct
language and style.

328
CHAPTER SIX has surveyed the translation of a group of GENERAL TEXTS of different topics
and purposes. They are approached in a similar way in regard to their purposes and types
of TL readership. Their translation problems and the strategies employed to sort them out
have been so diversified, but quite constructive as far as translation theory and practice
are concerned. The conclusions drawn from the chapter have been numerous. First, the
argument for treating general texts as a separate type is fully justified with respect to
purpose, target readers, style and language in particular. Second, generalization about
these texts is difficult in terms of translation problems and strategies. Yet, the strategies of
naturalization, transliteration, undertranslation, overtranslation, paraphrase, deletion and
addition, and pragmatic/communicative translation method are common among many
texts translated in this chapter. Third, TL readers are always in the translator’s mind in
relation to simplicity, readability, understandability and clarity of style, language and
message.

Finally, CHAPTER SEVEN has ended up the book. It covers the translation of SL specialized
texts into TL general, non-technical texts for specific purposes. The main focus has been
on changing the SL text’s purpose in the translation for the TL readership of different
types, levels of education, needs and requirements. Hence, this chapter can be described
as an essential contribution of this book to translation theory and application. In the
previous chapters, translating general texts in terms of purpose into the TL can be
understood as to be done only partly, with few changes done here and there in the
translation, as illustrated in the former parts of the book. However, this chapter changes
the whole direction of the source text to achieve a completely new purpose in the TL in
response to specific needs and requirements of the target readers. Therfore, the TL
readership may require a source text to be summarized, for the purpose is to learn about
the main points of the SL text, and full details are not quite necessary (TEXT 1). Perhaps
the TL readers aim at educating themselves about an interesting topic in the SL (TEXT 2). A
technical text about a vital theme like car driving is required by the target readers to be
made to fit their non-specialist levels of education, and would like such a text to be
translated in simple terms with no presence of technical terminology (TEXT 3). Probably, a
medical text is quite useful to the target general public, but it is highly technical, and
essential terms are unknown to them, so the translator is recommended to neutralize the
translation of technical terminology and replace it with popular language (TEXT 4). On the
other hand, jargon language is really hard to understand by general readers, and, hence,
requires to be de-jargonized so that every target reader can read it (TEXT 5) comfortably.
A text whose topic is sensitive to target readers such as those about anti-Islam topics,
would require a reaction, or a commentary rather an accurate, faithful translation to
appease his/her TL readers’ feelings of resentment and avoid insulting them (TEXT 6). Yet,
those readers perhaps need be alarmed against a dangerous issue in a straightforward,
communicative way alongside with the message of the translation (TEXT 7). That said, the
TL readers may demand none of these purposes to meet; they might urge for knowing the
truth behind a source text that is full of lies and outright fabrications (TEXT 8).
Throughout, the translator has responded carefully to the TL readers’ purpose as his/her
sole target behind translating a source text by converting it into a general text in the
target language that may suit all types of target readers with respect to lexis and style in
particular.

329
In the end, the writer of this book hopes to have introduced readers to the translation of
general texts of major types in different contexts and ways satisfactorily, and hence, has
contributed in some way to translation theory and practice. It is also his wish that other
authors in the field, who have a special interest in the subject, may develop and/or modify
some of the ideas, suggestions and approaches put forward in this book in the future.

330
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NEWSPAPERS

BBC News, 19, 1, 2015.

Mail Online, 20 April 2015
New York Post, 28, 7, 2014)
New York Times, 20.4.2015
Reuters April 20 2015
The Daily Mirror, 29.4. 2015
The Economist May 9th 2015
The Express (Daily and Sunday) Apr 20, 2015
The GUARDIAN APRIL 29, 2015
The Guardian, 5May 2015
The Observer USA, May 2015)
THE SUNDAY TIMES
The Telegraph, 19, 1, 2015)
USA Today 6.52015

WEBSITES

http://www. Academia.com
http://www.AlAhli Takaful
http://www.Businessballs 2015)
http://www.Election Leaflets
http://www.Encyclopedia Academia
http://www.Flynn P. 2010
http://www.Ian Linton, Demand Media
http://www.INVESTOPEDIA
http://www.leaflets_lifeplus.
http://www.luckypath-fengshui.com/what-is-feng-shui/
http://www.moh.gov.sa/HealthAwareness/Campaigns/h5n1/Plan/Pages/010.aspx) 2012
http://www.Newspapers.com
http://www.nottingham.ac.uk/careers
http://www.OxfordUniversityPress 2015
http://www.Saudi-US-Relations.org (19 July 2008)
http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org
http://www.silampos.pt
http://www.Spiceworks
http://www.teachit.co.uk/attachments/leaflets.
http://www.theukexperience.com
http://www.toyota.com.sa/en/modelsprices.asp?model_id=4
http://www.Tracey R Rich (1999-2011)
http://www.translationjournal.net/ journal/46skopos.htm
http://www.Translexi.online (2009)
http://www.unitemps.com
http://www.WhatIs.com
http://www.Wikipedia.com

337
 GLOSSARY
abstract ‫مجرد‬
academic language ‫عالية المستوى‬/‫فصحى‬/‫لغة أكاديمية‬
accurate ‫دقيؽ‬
ad ‫إعبلف‬
adaptation ‫اقتباس‬
advert ‫إعبلف‬
advertisements ‫إعبلنات‬
advertisers ‫أصحاب اإلعبلنات؛ المعمنوف‬
advertising ‫اإلعبلف؛ إعبلنات‬
aerial advertising ‫إعبلف‬
aesthetic ‫بديعي؛ جمالي‬
aesthetic function ‫وظيفة جمالية‬
alarming translation ‫ترجمة تحذيرية‬
antonymy ‫تضاد‬
appellative function ‫وظيفة خطابية‬
argumentation ‫الجدؿ؛ المجادلة؛ فف الجدؿ‬
argumentative ‫جدلي‬
argumentative texts ‫مثيرة لمجدؿ‬/‫نصوص جدلية‬
article ‫مقاؿ‬
Associationism ‫داللة ثقافية‬
Audience )‫المستمعيف‬/‫جميور (المتمقيف‬
audio and video advertising )‫مرئي(فيديو‬-‫إعبلف صوتي‬
authoritative statements ‫نصوص رسمية‬/‫بيانات‬
autobiography ‫سير ذاتية‬/‫نصوص شخصية‬
average educated readership ‫جميور قراء عادي‬
Back page of a newspaper )‫الصفحة الخمفية (لصحيفة‬
backs of event tickets ‫إعبلنات عمى قفا التذاكر‬
bank leaflets ‫مطويات بنكية‬
Berliner )‫صحافة متوسطة الحجـ (بيف الشعبية والراقية‬
biased information ‫معمومات منحازة‬
biases of various types ‫أراء منحازة متعددة‬/‫مواقؼ‬
billboards )‫لوحات إعبلنات ضخمة (في األماكف المزدحمة‬
bound free translation ‫مقيدة‬/‫ترجمة حرة محدودة‬

338
broadsheets ‫الصحافة الراقية (ذات الصفحات الكبيرة)؛ صحافة بحجـ كبير‬
bus stop benches ‫باصات‬/‫إعبلنات عمى قفا مقاعد مواقؼ الحافبلت‬
business correspondence ‫مراسبلت تجارية‬
business letters ‫رسائؿ تجارية‬
business-to-business marketing ‫تجاري‬-‫تسويؽ تجاري‬
by-line news ‫أخبار ثانوية‬
car brochures / catalogues / leaflets ‫كتالوجات سيارات‬/‫مطويات‬
celebrities )...‫مشاىير (الفف‬
celebrity branding advertising ‫إعبلف مف أحد المشاىير‬
classical Arabic ‫التقميدية‬/‫المغة العربية التراثية‬
classical literature ‫الكبلسيكي‬/‫األدب التراثي‬
classification ‫تصنيؼ؛ تبويب‬
classified listings ‫قوائـ مبوبة‬
client ‫عميؿ‬
coffee cup advertising ‫إعبلنات (عمى) فنجاف القيوة‬
collocability ‫تبلزمية الكممات‬/ ‫تبلزـ‬
collocations ‫متبلزمات لفظية‬
colloquial ‫العامية‬
commercial ‫تجاري‬
commercial advertising media ‫وسائؿ اإلعبلنات التجارية‬
commercial purposes ‫أغراض تجارية‬
commercials ‫إعبلنات تجارية‬
communication by letters ‫تواصؿ بالرسائؿ‬
communication channels ‫قنوات تواصؿ‬
communicative clues ‫فؾ رموز تخاطبية‬
communicative functions ‫وظائؼ تخاطبية‬
communicative translation ‫ترجمة تخاطبية‬
communicatively ً‫تخاطبيا‬
compact newspapers ‫مكتنزة‬/‫صحافة صغرة‬
complex structures ‫معقدة‬/‫تراكيب مركبة‬
complex style ‫معقد‬/‫أسموب مركب‬
complex words ‫ معقدة‬/ ‫كممات مركبة‬
comprehensible ‫مفيوـ‬
comprehensive ‫شامؿ‬
concept of style ‫مفيوـ األسموب‬

339
conceptualization ‫مفيمة األشياء؛ تحويؿ األشياء إلى مفاىيـ‬
concretized )‫مبمور (عمى أرض الواقع‬
َ
consumer ‫مستيمؾ‬
Contextualization ‫سياقية؛ فيـ الكبلـ في السياؽ‬
Conversation ‫محادثة؛ حوار‬
cordial expressions ‫تعابير ودية‬
core vocabulary ‫المفردات الجوىر؛ األلفاظ األساسية في المغة‬
corporate advertising ‫إعبلنات متحدة‬
correspondence ‫مراسبلت؛ مراسمة‬
correspondence of different types ‫مراسبلت متنوعة‬
covert advertising ‫غير مباشرة‬/‫إعبلنات ضمنية‬
create a debate ‫ال‬
ً ‫جد‬/ً‫يثير نقاشا‬
creative translation ‫ترجمة إبداعية‬
cross-cultural event ‫حدث ثقافي مشترؾ‬
cultural texts ‫نصوص ثقافية‬
culture-free ‫(نص) خاؿ مف المضاميف الثقافية‬
daily newspaper ‫صحافة يومية‬
debates ‫نقاشات‬
de-jargonization ‫التخمص مف الرطانة‬/‫إسقاط‬
de-mystification of equivalence ‫توضيح الترادؼ‬
description ‫وصؼ‬
descriptive terms ‫مصطمحات وصفية‬
designers ‫مصمموف‬
de-technicalization ‫التخمص مف المصطمحات الفنية؛ التبسيط‬
dethroning of SL ‫إقصاء النص المصدر‬
dialects ‫ليجات‬
direct mail ‫بريد مباشر‬
direct mail coupon mailers ‫مراسمو قسائـ بالبريد المباشر‬
direct response advertising ‫إعبلنات الرد المباشر‬
directory advertising ‫إعبلنات دليؿ الياتؼ‬
doors of bathroom stalls advertising ‫إعبلنات أبواب الحمامات‬
double technical terminology ‫ازدواجية المصطمحات المعربة‬
duplicated meaning ‫ازدواجية المعنى‬
dynamic translation ‫متغيرة‬/‫ترجمة حركية‬
economic ‫اقتصادي‬

340
economic globalization ‫عولمة اقتصادية؛ اقتصاد عالمي موحد‬
educated ‫مثقؼ‬
effective ad ‫إعبلف مؤثر‬
electronic ad ‫إعبلف إلكتروني‬
electronic letters (or e-letters) ‫رسائؿ إلكترونية‬
electronic newspaper ‫صحافة إلكترونية‬
e-mail ‫بريد إلكتروني؛ اإليميؿ‬
entertainment texts ‫نصوص مسمية‬
equivalent effect ‫تأثير مواز‬
exchange of information ‫تبادؿ معمومات‬
exposition )‫عرض؛ تفاصيؿ (الموضوع‬
express an attitude ‫يعبر عف موقؼ‬
expressive function ‫وظيفة تعبيرية‬
faithful translation ‫ترجمة وفية‬
faithfulness in translation ‫الوفاء في الترجمة‬
fax ‫الفاكس‬
figurative ‫مجازي‬
forced advertising on websites ‫إعبلنات قسرية عمى مواقع الشبكة‬
foregrounding ‫تقديـ؛ تصدير؛ توكيد‬
forehead advertising )‫إعبلنات الجبية (عمى جبية الشخص المعمِف‬
form of marketing communication ‫بيف األسواؽ‬/‫شكؿ مف أشكاؿ التواصؿ التسويقي‬
formal ‫فصحى‬/‫فصيح‬
Formal correspondence ‫مراسمة رسمية‬
formal email ‫بريد إلكتروني رسمي‬
formal equivalence ‫ثابت‬/‫ترادؼ حرفي‬
formal method of communication ‫طريقة رسمية في التواصؿ‬
formal occasions’ letters ‫رسائؿ المناسبات الرسمية‬
formal terms ‫مصطمحات فصحى‬
formal written Arabic of today ‫المغة العربية المكتوبة اليوـ‬
formality ‫فصاحة‬
Format ‫صيغة؛ شكؿ‬
free translation ‫ترجمة حرة‬
Friday sermon ‫خطبة الجمعة‬
front page of a newspaper )‫الصفة األولى (في صحيفة‬
frozen formal ‫قحة‬/‫فصحى جامدة‬

341
‫‪functional categories‬‬ ‫فئات وظيفية‬
‫‪functional typology of translations‬‬ ‫تنميط وظيفي لمترجمات‬
‫‪functionalism's translation approach‬‬ ‫منيج الوظيفية في الترجمة‬
‫‪functionalist school‬‬ ‫مدرسة وظيفية؛ منيج وظيفي (في الترجمة)‬
‫‪gazette: a newspaper or official journal‬‬ ‫صحيفة دورية رسمية‬
‫‪general public‬‬ ‫العامة؛ عامة القراء‪/‬الناس‬
‫‪general purpose texts‬‬ ‫نصوص ذات أغراض عامة‬
‫‪general readership‬‬ ‫جميور قراء عاـ؛ عامة القراء‬
‫‪general subject matter‬‬ ‫موضوع عاـ‬
‫‪general texts‬‬ ‫نصوص عامة‬
‫‪general translation‬‬ ‫ترجمة عامة‬
‫‪generality‬‬ ‫تعميـ؛ عمومية‬
‫‪goal-oriented‬‬ ‫موجية اليدؼ؛ موجية ليدؼ معيف‬
‫‪grammatical styles‬‬ ‫أساليب نحوية‪/‬قواعدية‬
‫‪handwritten‬‬ ‫بخط اليد؛ مكتوبة باليد‬
‫‪health leaflets‬‬ ‫مطويات صحية‬
‫‪high frequency of occurrence‬‬ ‫نسبة تكرار‪/‬ورود عالية‬
‫‪highly educated‬‬ ‫رفيع الثقافة؛ ذو ثقافة عالية‬
‫‪human billboards‬‬ ‫إعبلنات عمىموحات بشرية؛ إعبلنات تعمؽ عمى األشخاص‬
‫‪humanitarian texts‬‬ ‫نصوص ذات صبغة إنسانية‬
‫‪ideology‬‬ ‫فكر موجو؛ إيديولوجيا‬
‫‪idiomatic translation‬‬ ‫ترجمة اصطبلحية‪/‬مجازية‬
‫‪illiterate‬‬ ‫أمي‬
‫‪in-door advertisement‬‬ ‫إعبلنات منزلية تفصيمية‬
‫‪industrial advertising‬‬ ‫إعبلنات موجية لمصناع والتجار‬
‫‪infomercials advertising‬‬ ‫إعبلنات تمفزيونية مطولة(مزودة بأرقاـ ىواتؼ لبلتصاؿ المباشر لشراء السمعة)‬
‫‪informal‬‬ ‫شبو‪/‬غير فصيح؛ عامي‬
‫‪informal email‬‬ ‫بريد إلكتروني عامي‬
‫‪informality‬‬ ‫عدـ فصاحة؛ عامية‬
‫‪informative texts‬‬ ‫نصوص إعبلمية‬
‫‪Inside pages‬‬ ‫الصفحات الداخمية (لمصحؼ)‬
‫‪in-store advertising‬‬ ‫إعبلنات داخؿ المحاؿ التجارية‬
‫‪instructions‬‬ ‫تعميمات (االستخداـ‪)...‬‬
‫‪instructions leaflets‬‬ ‫مطويات تعميمات (االستخداـ‪)...‬‬
‫‪instrumental‬‬ ‫مصمحي‬

‫‪342‬‬
intaglio printing process ‫طباعة (الصور) بتقنية عالية‬
interested readers ‫قراء ميتموف‬
interesting topic ‫موضوع مثير لبلىتماـ‬
international newspapers ‫عالمية‬/‫صحؼ دولية‬
intralingual translation ‫داخؿ المغة نفسيا‬/‫لغوية‬-‫ترجمةداخؿ‬
intratextual coherence ‫داخؿ النص نفسو‬/‫نصي‬-‫تماسؾ داخؿ‬
item of news ‫خبر؛ نبأ‬
jargon ‫رطانة؛ لغة عقيمة‬
Jargonized َّ
‫عقيـ المغة؛ رطاني؛ مرطف‬
jazzed up language )‫لغة محببة (لمناس‬
jump-on-the-bandwagon ads )‫إعبلنات جماعية مباشرة (لمجميور‬
language functions ‫وظائؼ المغة‬
language repertoire ‫مخزوف المغة؛ المخزوف المغوي‬
layman readership ‫جميور قراء عاـ؛ عامة القراء‬
leaflet ‫مطوية‬
letters of application ‫رسائؿ تقديـ الطمبات‬
letters of approval/dismissal ‫رفض‬/‫رسائؿ قبوؿ‬
letters of claim/complaints ‫الشكاوى‬/‫رسائؿ التشكي‬
letters of inquiry ‫ إجراء تحقيقات‬/‫رسائؿ تحقيؽ‬
letters of recommendations ‫تزكية‬/‫رسائؿ توصية‬
letters of sales ‫رسائؿ مبيعات‬
letters to get action ‫رسائؿ اتخاذ إجراءات عممية‬
level of a general language ‫مستوى المغة العامة‬
level of education ‫المستوى الثقافي‬
level of formal language ‫مستوى المغة الفصحى؛ مستوى الفصاحة‬
level of terminology ‫المصطمحات‬/‫مستوى المصطمحية‬
lexical simplicity of general texts ‫البساطة الفظية لمنصوص العامة‬
lexical styles ‫أساليب لفظية‬
limited functions ‫وظائؼ محدودة‬
linguistic components ‫عناصر لغوية‬/‫مكونات‬
literal translation ‫ترجمة حرفية‬
loose free translation ‫سائبة‬/‫ترجمة حرة فضفاضة‬
love letters ‫رسائؿ الحب والغراـ‬
low educated ‫متدني الثقافة؛ ذو ثقافة متدنية‬
magazine advertising ‫إعبلنات المجبلت‬

343
‫‪magazines‬‬ ‫مجبلت‬
‫‪Manual‬‬ ‫كتيب؛ دليؿ؛ كتالوج‬
‫‪mass media‬‬ ‫وسائؿ اإلعبلـ‬
‫‪medium-educated‬‬ ‫متوسط الثقافة‬
‫‪memorandum‬‬ ‫مذكرة‬
‫‪message‬‬ ‫رسالة؛ فحوى‬
‫‪metalingual function‬‬ ‫وظيفة واصفة لمغة‬
‫‪middle-class educated‬‬ ‫متوسط الثقافة‬
‫‪minutes‬‬ ‫وقائع الجمسة‬
‫‪miscellaneous general‬‬ ‫نصوص عامة شتى‪/‬متنوعة‬
‫‪mobile advertisement‬‬ ‫إعبلف عبر الجواؿ‬
‫)‪modern standard Arabic (MSA‬‬ ‫المغة العربية الفصحى الحديثة‬
‫‪modernization‬‬ ‫تحديث‬
‫‪modes of discourse‬‬ ‫أنماط الخطاب‬
‫‪multimedia presentation‬‬ ‫تقديـ متعدد الوسائؿ‬
‫‪narration‬‬ ‫إرواء؛ رواية‬
‫‪national pride‬‬ ‫اعتزاز بالنفس‪/‬بالوطف‬
‫‪needs‬‬ ‫حاجات؛ احتياجات‬
‫‪neutral field of discourse‬‬ ‫مجاؿ محايد لمخطاب‬
‫‪new media advertising‬‬ ‫إعبلنات الوسائؿ الحديثة‬
‫‪news headlines‬‬ ‫عناويف الصحؼ الرئيسية؛ العناويف الرئيسية لمصحؼ‬
‫‪news stories‬‬ ‫عناويف األخبار‬
‫‪newspaper‬‬ ‫صحافة؛ صحؼ‬
‫‪newspaper advertising‬‬ ‫إعبلنات صحفية‬
‫‪newspaper articles‬‬ ‫مقاالت صحفية‬
‫‪newspaper reports‬‬ ‫تقارير صحفية‬
‫‪newspapers‬‬ ‫صحؼ‬
‫‪nominalizations‬‬ ‫جمؿ إسمية‬
‫‪non-aesthetic‬‬ ‫خاؿ مف المحسنات البديعية؛ غير جمالي‬
‫‪non-ambiguous‬‬ ‫غير غامض؛ ال غموض‪/‬لبس فيو؛ واضح جداً‬
‫‪non-creative translation‬‬ ‫ترجمة غير إبداعية؛ ترجمة عادية‬
‫‪non-exaggerative‬‬ ‫ال مبالغة فيو‬
‫‪non-figurative‬‬ ‫غير مجازي‬
‫‪non-foreign/non-loan words‬‬ ‫كممات غير أجنبية‪/‬غير مستعارة‬
‫‪non-general texts‬‬ ‫نصوص غير عامة‬

‫‪344‬‬
‫‪non-idiomatic translation‬‬
‫‪nonpersonal advertising‬‬
‫‪non-pragmatic translation‬‬
‫‪non-probabilistic‬‬
‫‪non-specialism‬‬
‫‪non-specialist‬‬
‫‪non-specialized readership‬‬
‫‪non-suggestive‬‬
‫‪non-surmising‬‬
‫‪non-technical language‬‬
‫‪non-technicality‬‬
‫‪non-technicalization‬‬
‫‪notices‬‬
‫‪notion of equivalent effect‬‬
‫‪official letters‬‬
‫‪one-to-one translation method‬‬
‫‪online advertising‬‬
‫‪online newspapers‬‬
‫‪outdoor advertising‬‬
‫‪paper‬‬
‫‪passenger screens‬‬
‫‪passives‬‬
‫‪personal advertising‬‬
‫‪personal correspondence‬‬
‫‪persuade‬‬
‫‪Persuasive‬‬
‫‪phatic function‬‬
‫‪point of departure‬‬
‫‪political correspondence‬‬
‫‪political leaflets‬‬
‫‪political speeches‬‬
‫‪political texts‬‬
‫‪popular‬‬
‫‪popular fiction‬‬
‫‪popular newspapers‬‬
‫ترجمة غير اصطبلحية‪/‬خالية مف المجاز‬
‫إعبلنات غير شخصية‪/‬ال حضور لؤلشخاص فييا‬
‫ترجمة مقصدية؛ ترجمة المقاصد‪/‬النوايا‬
‫ال احتمالي‬
‫انعداـ التخصص‬
‫غير متخصص‬
‫جميور قراء غير متخصصيف‬
‫غير إيحائي؛ ال يوحي بشيء‬
‫ال حدسي؛ غير ظني‬
‫لغة غير فنية؛ لغة عادية‬
‫ال فنية‬
‫غياب المصطمحات الفنية (المتخصصة)‪ ،‬استعماؿ لمغة العادية‬
‫إعبلناف رسمية‬
‫فكرة الترادؼ الموازي‬
‫رسائؿ رسمية‬
‫طريقة الترجمة واحد مقابؿ واحد‬
‫إعبلنات عمى الشبكة‪/‬اإلنترنت‬
‫صحافة إلكترونية‪ /‬عمى اإلنترنت؛ صحافة غير مطبوعة‬
‫إعبلنات في اليواء الطمؽ (عمى الطرؽ وأسوار الموانئ والمباني‪)...‬‬
‫صحيفة؛ بحث؛ ورقة‬
‫شاشات إعبلنية لممسافريف‬
‫صيغ المبني لممجيوؿ‬
‫إعبلنات شخصية‪ /‬بحضور شخصي‬
‫مراسبلت شخصية‪/‬خاصة‬
‫يقنِع‬
‫إقناعي‬
‫وظيفة اجتماعية‬
‫نقطة خبلؼ‪/‬اختبلؼ‬
‫مراسبلت سياسية‬
‫مطويات سياسية‬
‫خطابات سياسية‬
‫نصوص سياسية‬
‫شعبي؛ شائع؛ عاـ‬
‫القصص الشعبي‬
‫الصحؼ الشعبية؛ الصحؼ الرخيصة‬
‫‪345‬‬
‫‪popular/layman vocabulary‬‬ ‫مفردات عامة‪/‬شائعة‬
‫‪popularity‬‬ ‫شعبية‬
‫‪popularized language‬‬ ‫لغة شعبية‪/‬شائعة‬
‫‪posters‬‬ ‫ُممصقات‬
‫‪press advertising‬‬ ‫إعبلنات صحفية‬
‫‪printed‬‬ ‫(إعبلنات‪/‬صحؼ) مطبوعة‬
‫‪printed flyers‬‬ ‫إعبلنات قماشية مطبوعة؛ نشرات إعبلنية مطبوعة‬
‫‪printed medium‬‬ ‫قناة‪/‬وسيمة إعبلمية مطبوعة‬
‫‪priority‬‬ ‫أولوية‬
‫‪producing effect on the TL readership‬‬ ‫إحداث تأثير عمى جميور القراء المستيدؼ‬
‫‪product‬‬ ‫منتَج‬
‫‪product advertising‬‬ ‫إعبلنات منتجات‪/‬مروجة لممنتوجات‬
‫‪professional advertising‬‬ ‫إعبلنات موجية لعمية القوـ‬
‫‪professional terms‬‬ ‫مصطمحات تخصصية‪/‬عالية المستوى‬
‫‪promotion‬‬ ‫إعبلف ترويجي (لسمعة)؛ ترويج‬
‫)‪proof-of-performance ad (or p.o.p‬‬ ‫إعبلف األداء الناجح (في المناسباتالخاصة)‬
‫‪propaganda‬‬ ‫دعاية‬
‫‪Prophet's Tradition‬‬ ‫السنة النبوية‬
‫‪public notices‬‬ ‫إعبلنات عامة‬
‫‪public press‬‬ ‫صحافة عامة‪/‬شعبية‬
‫‪public relations‬‬ ‫عبلقات عامة‬
‫‪public service advertising‬‬ ‫إعبلنات الخدمات العامة‬
‫‪public service leaflet‬‬ ‫مطوية خدمات عامة‬
‫‪publicity‬‬ ‫إعبلف‬
‫‪purpose‬‬ ‫غرض‬
‫‪purpose theory of translation‬‬ ‫نظرية الغرض لمترجمة‬
‫‪putative readership‬‬ ‫جميور قراء افتراضي‬
‫‪quality newspapers‬‬ ‫صحافة راقية‪/‬محترمة‬
‫‪rack cards advertising‬‬ ‫إعبلنات عمى ورؽ فاخر (في األماكف المزدحمة)‬
‫‪radio advertising‬‬ ‫إعبلنات إذاعية‬
‫‪reactionary commentary‬‬ ‫تعميؽ‪/‬تعقيب رد‪-‬فعمي‬
‫‪reader comments’ letters‬‬ ‫رسائؿ تعميقات القراء (عمى الشبكة)‬
‫‪reader-orientation‬‬ ‫توجيو لمقراء‬
‫‪reader-oriented‬‬ ‫موجو لمقراء‬
‫‪re-conceptualization‬‬ ‫إعادة مفيمة األشياء؛ مفيمة جديدة‬

‫‪346‬‬
‫‪register‬‬ ‫نمط؛ نوع؛ نسؽ‬
‫‪relevance theory‬‬ ‫نظرية الصمة‪/‬المطابقة (لمقتضى الحاؿ)‬
‫‪religious leaflets‬‬ ‫مطويات دينية‬
‫‪report‬‬ ‫تقرير‬
‫‪Requirements‬‬ ‫متطمبات‬
‫‪respond to‬‬ ‫يستجيب لػ‪...‬‬
‫‪rhetorical strategies‬‬ ‫استراتيجيات‪/‬إجراءات ببلغية‬
‫‪roof mounts‬‬ ‫إعبلنات معمقة؛ المعاقات السقفية‬
‫‪rotary press‬‬ ‫صحافة مطبوعة (في مطبعة بأسطوانتيف دوارتيف)‬
‫‪rotogravure: printed material‬‬ ‫طباعة (صور) عالية التقنية‬
‫‪sales promotions‬‬ ‫إعبلنات ترويجية لممبيعات‬
‫‪sandwich boards advertising‬‬ ‫إعبلنات بشكؿ المفافة (لوحة مف أماـ الشخص وأخرى مف خمفو)‬
‫‪school newspaper/paper‬‬ ‫صحيفة مدرسية‬
‫‪search advertising‬‬ ‫إعبلنات صفحات البحث عمى الشبكة‬
‫‪semantic and communicative translation methods‬‬ ‫طريقتا الترجمة المعنوية والتخاطبية‬
‫‪semantically‬‬ ‫معنوياً؛ داللياً‬
‫‪sentimental type of language‬‬ ‫لغة عاطفية؛ لغة العواطؼ‬
‫‪sheltered outdoor advertising‬‬ ‫إعبلنات األماكف المظممة (كالخياـ)‬
‫‪grabertising‬‬ ‫إعبلنات ممصقات متنوعة‬
‫‪shopping carts advertising‬‬ ‫إعبلنات (عمى) عربات التسوؽ‬
‫‪sides of airplanes advertising‬‬ ‫إعبلنات عمى جوانب الطائرات‬
‫‪sides of buses advertising‬‬ ‫إعبلنات (عمى) الحافبلت‬
‫‪simple structures‬‬ ‫تراكيب بسيطة‪/‬سيمة‬
‫‪simplicity of style‬‬ ‫بساطة األسموب؛ أسموب بسيط‬
‫‪simplicity of grammar‬‬ ‫بساطة القواعد؛ قواعد بسيطة‬
‫‪simplicity of language‬‬ ‫بساطة المغة؛ لغة بسيطة‬
‫‪simplicity of lexis‬‬ ‫بساطة األلفاظ؛ ألفاظ‪/‬مفردات بسيطة‬
‫‪skopostheorie‬‬ ‫نظرية الغرض‬
‫‪skywriting adverts‬‬ ‫إعبلنات طائرة‬
‫‪SL readership‬‬ ‫جميور قراء النص المصدر‬
‫‪Slang‬‬ ‫سوقي‬
‫‪SL-oriented‬‬ ‫موجو لمنص المصدر‬
‫‪smoothness‬‬ ‫سبلسة (األسموب)‬
‫‪SMS messages‬‬ ‫سائؿ نصية قصيرة (عمى الجواؿ)‬
‫)‪source language (SL‬‬ ‫المغة المصدر‬

‫‪347‬‬
‫‪specialism/specialization‬‬ ‫تخصص؛ اختصاص‬
‫‪specialist‬‬ ‫متخصص؛ مختص‬
‫‪specialist/specialized texts‬‬ ‫نصوص متخصصة‬
‫‪specialized readership‬‬ ‫قراء متخصصوف‬
‫‪specialized translation‬‬ ‫ترجمة تخصصية‪/‬متخصصة‬
‫‪standardization of scientific terms‬‬ ‫معيرة‪/‬تعريب المصطمحات العممية‬
‫‪stickers on apples in supermarkets‬‬ ‫ممصقات عمى التفاح في األسواؽ‬
‫‪street advertising‬‬ ‫إعبلنات الشوارع‬
‫‪style‬‬ ‫أسموب‬
‫‪style as choice‬‬ ‫األسموب مسألة اختيار‬
‫‪style as mind‬‬ ‫األسموب تعبير عف العقمية‬
‫‪style as tone‬‬ ‫األسموب كنغمة‬
‫‪style of advertising‬‬ ‫أسموب اإلعبلف؛ أسموب إعبلني‬
‫‪style-based methods‬‬ ‫طرؽ مرتكزة عمى األسموب‪/‬أساسيا األسموب‬
‫‪stylistic duplicity‬‬ ‫ازدواجية أسموبية (في المصطمحات المعربة)‬
‫‪stylistic features‬‬ ‫سمات أسموبية‬
‫‪stylistic functions‬‬ ‫وظائؼ أسموبية‬
‫‪stylistics‬‬ ‫األسموبية؛ عمـ األساليب‬
‫‪subject matter‬‬ ‫الموضوع (الرئيسي)‬
‫‪summarization‬‬ ‫تمخيص‬
‫‪summary‬‬ ‫ممخص‬
‫‪superordinateness‬‬ ‫احتواء (لفظي ترادفي)؛ شمولية المفظة‬
‫‪surrogate advertising‬‬ ‫إعبلنات بديمة لسمع ممنوعة‬
‫‪syntactic substitution‬‬ ‫إبداؿ‪/‬استبداؿ نحوي‬
‫‪tabloids‬‬ ‫الصحافة الضغرة‪/‬الصفراء‪/‬الشعبية‬
‫)‪target language (TL‬‬ ‫الغة اليدؼ‬
‫‪target market‬‬ ‫السوؽ المستيدؼ‬
‫‪target readers‬‬ ‫اليدؼ‪/‬المستيدفوف‬
‫َ‬ ‫القراء‬
‫‪taxicab doors‬‬ ‫إعبلنات (عمى) أبواب سيارات التكسي‬
‫‪technical language‬‬ ‫لغة فنية‪/‬تقنية‬
‫‪technical term‬‬ ‫مصطمح فني‪/‬تقني‬
‫‪technical vocabulary‬‬ ‫مفردات فنية‪/‬تقنية‬
‫‪technical duplicity‬‬ ‫ازدواجية مصطمحات فنية (في التعريب)‬
‫‪techniques of commercial messaging‬‬ ‫أساليب إرساؿ الرسائؿ التجارية‬
‫‪television advertising‬‬ ‫إعبلنات تمفازية‪/‬تمفزيونية‬

‫‪348‬‬
text typology ‫تنميط نصي؛ تقسيـ النصوص إلى أنماط‬
textbook ‫مقرر‬/‫مدرسي‬/‫كتاب جامعي‬
text-categories ‫فئات النصوص‬
text-types ‫أنماط النصوص‬
textual equivalence ‫ترادؼ نصي‬
the end justifies the means ‫الغاية تبرر الوسيمة‬
TL readership ‫(جميور) قراء المغة اليدؼ‬
TL-oriented ‫منحاز لمغة اليدؼ‬/‫موجو‬
tourist leaflet/brochure ‫كتيب سياحي‬/‫دليؿ‬
transit advertising )...‫عبور (عمى الحافبلت والسيارات‬/‫إعبلنات مرور‬
translation as a social action ‫الترجمة فعؿ اجتماعي‬
translation as social construction ‫مركب اجتماعي‬/‫الترجة تركيب‬
translation problems ‫مشاكؿ الترجمة‬
translation process ‫سير الترجمة‬/‫عممية‬
translation purpose orientation ‫توجو نحو غرض الترجمة‬
translation strategies ‫استراتيجات ترجمة‬
translation’s purpose ‫غرض الترجمة‬
tv commercials ‫إعبلنات تجارية تمفزيونية‬
tv news ‫أخبار التمفزيوف‬
type of TL readership ‫نوع جميور قراء المغة اليدؼ‬
type or mode ‫نسؽ‬/‫نمط‬
types of advertising ‫أنواع اإلعبلنات‬
types of newspaper ‫أنواع الصحؼ‬
uneducated ‫غير مثقؼ‬
uninterested readers ‫قراء غير ميتميف‬
university leaflets(guides and prospectuses) ‫الدليؿ اإلرشادي لمجامعات‬
vocabulary ‫مفردات؛ ألفاظ‬
vocative function ‫وظيفة خطابية‬
voicemail ‫بريد صوتي‬
vulgar ‫سوقي‬
wall paintings ‫رسوـ حائطية‬
web banners ‫يافطات عمى الشبكة‬
web popups ‫إعبلنات نوافذ خاصة عمى شبكة اإلنترنت‬
website contents ‫محتويات الموقع‬
website intruders ‫إعبلنات دخيمة عمى الموقع‬

349
weird texts ‫نصوص غريبة‬
well-established translation method ‫طريقة ترجمة راسخة‬
word-for-word translation ‫الترجمة كممة بكممة‬
written format ‫خطية‬/‫صيغة مكتوبة‬

350
Subject and Author Index

Abdul-Aziz Bin Abdul-Rahman Aal Saud Bound free translation 31

83 Bradford 11
Academia.com 4 Bühler's three functions 4
advertisement 138 business letters 44
advertising 138 car leaflets 130
advertising age 153 Carter 11-12
advertising: definitions 138 Carter & Nash 11, 14, 187
aerial advertising 149 Carter and Burton 11
Ai-jun 22 Carter and McCarthy 14
AlAhli.com 106-8 catalogues and leaflets 144
Aldamer 84 Catford 32
Al-Qarni 267 celebrity branding advertising 148
Al-Yaziji 210 Chatman 11
Antonymy 13 Chinese sense 168
As-Simari et al. 84 coffee cup advertising 148
associationism 13 collocability 13
Aveling 26 complaint letters 62
Baker 32, 117 complex structures 11
bank leaflets 104 complex words 12
Basic Word List of English Language 14 conclusions 327
BBC 316 core words 13
Bell 32 core vocabulary 12
Beylard-Ozeroff et al 32 coreness in language 14
Bias 141 corporate advertising 146
Biases 20 correspondence 36
Blum and Levenston 12 covert advertising 149
Boase-Beier 11, 31-33 cross-cultural event 26
Crystal and Davy 11, 186
351
cultural texts 216 Hatim and Mason 32, 220
culture-free 13 health leaflets 124
definition of style 11 health texts 221
direct mail coupon mailers 143 Heidi Richards Mooney 166
direct mail, 144 hibernating
direct response advertising 146 high frequency of occurrence 14
directory advertising 145 Hönig 26
Dixon 12 Hough 11
domain name advertising 147 humanitarian texts 207
duplicity of technical terms 9 Hutchinson 12
Durant et al 11 ideology 19
e-letters 71 importance of information in advertising
e-mail letters 71 141
Encyclopedia Academia 5 in-door advertisement 150
Engman 141 industrial advertising 150
Enkvist 11 infomercials advertising 149
entertainment texts 212 informal email 74
Equivalence 23 in-store advertising 148
Extension 13 instructions leaflets 109
Fabb et al 11 interference expressions 128
Fan Yong 22 international economics 300
features of style 232 invitation letters 68
Feng Shui 167 Jakobson’s functions 4
Flynn 21 Jeffries 11, 117
Formal correspondence vs. textual jump on the bandwagon advertising 147
equivalence 32 Krieger 311
formal email 71 language functions 4, 5
Formal equivalence vs. dynamic leaflet (definition) 87
translation 32 leaflet (effective design) 87-88
formal letters 46 Leech 117
formal occasions’ letters 49 Leech and Short 11
Free/communicative translation 32 letters of … 37
Freeborn 5, 187 letters to get action 65
Freeman 11 letters to the editor 51
Friday Sermon 272 level of education 18
functional framework 4 levels within a specialized text 6
functional target text 27 literal and free translation 30
functional translation units 4 literal/semantic translation 32
general correspondence 37 loose free translation 31
general purpose texts 7 love letters 60
general texts are a fact 5 magazine advertisements 166
Gentzler 23-24 magazine advertising 144
German functionalism 21 Mail Online 208
Ghazala 5, 11, 13, 31-32, 117, 187, 220, major parts of a letter 37-38
325 McCarthy 12
grammatical and lexical styles 10 memorandum 39
guides 100 mentality 19
Gutt 32-33 Met Ball 216
352
Meyer 314 prospectuses 100
mobile cell phone advertising 144 psychological texts 228
movie theater advertising. 144 public notices 175
MSA 16 public service advertising 149
Nash 239, 242, 249, 257, 278-9, 294 public service leaflet 88
national pride 20 Purpose 23-26
needs and requirements 20 purpose of advertising 150
neutral field of discourse 13 purpose of the translation 42, 45, 47, 49,
new media advertising 148 52,54, 57, 61, 64, 67, 69, 75, 78, 89,
new media advertising 172 95, 102, 107, 110, 115, 122, 127, 131,
New York Times 208 150, 155, 159, 162, 165, 167, 173, 178,
Newmark 5-8, 10, 20, 28, 32, 296, 314, 194, 198, 203, 206, 209, 214, 217, 225,
325 230, 239, 243, 246, 249, 254, 257, 262,
newspaper advertisement 153 268, 272, 287, 291, 294, 297, 302, 308,
newspaper185 312, 317
newspapers.com 186 purpose theory of translation 21
Nida &Taber 32 purpose translation 281
Nida 20, 32 purposes (kinds of) 26
non-creative vs. creative translation 32 radio advertising 145
non-foreign plural forms 14 radio commercials 161
non-foreign/non-loan words 14 reader comments’ letters 77
non-idiomatic vs. idiomatic readership 17
translation, 32 recommendation / reference letters 53
non-pragmatic vs. pragmatic translation re-conceptualization 27
32 Reddit 227
Nord 4, 23-25, 33 references 331
offer of information 26 Reiss 24-25
official letter37, 39 religious leaflets 112
online advertising 146 Reuters 197
online advertising 163 rhetorical vs. non-rhetorical 117
outdoor and transit advertising 145 Richards 12
Pannwitz 218 Rojo 220, 245, 291
personal business letters: 68 Roosevelt 83
personal letters 56 Rudzka et al 13
persuasive 142 sales promotions 149
political correspondence 83 Schulte et al 218
political leaflets 120 Schultz 173
political texts 192 scientific texts 201
politicization 19 search advertising 143
Popovič 6 semantic vs. communicative translation
pragmatics 117 28-29
pre-translational text analysis 4 Shaheen 6
problems of translation 67 sheltered outdoor advertising 148
producing effect on the TL readership 20 silampos.pt 109
product advertising 146 simple structures 12
professional advertising 150 simple words 12
proof of performance advertising 147 simplicity of core words 14
Proper English 128 simplicity vs. complexity of style 10
353
Simpson 11 text 7: the secret of character 260
skopos of translating 23 text 8: the hollow men are noisy 267
Skopos theory 21-23 text 8: unearthing the truth: 314
skopos theory 21 text 9: Friday Sermon 272
Snell-Hornby 32 text typology 2
social texts 196 text-categories 5
specialised texts 5, 6 the concept of style as choice 11
specialism 18 The Daily Mirror213
specialized vs. general texts and The Express
translation 5 The Guardian 120
street & outdoor advertising 169 The Guardian 192
street advertising 148 the language of the newspaper 186
Stubbs 14 the notion of equivalent effect 20
style as tone: formal vs. informal 15 The Sunday Times 237
style of advertising 150 theory of communication 22
style of lexical simplicity of general texts Thornborrow et al 11
12 Toolan 11
Stylistic duplicity 10 tourist leaflets/brochures 91
stylistic features and functions of the Tracey R Rich 326
language of the newspaper 187 translatability of general texts 281
summarization 281 translating formal correspondence 39
summary 13, 33, 180 translating general texts 1
Superordinateness 13 translating informal correspondence 55
syntactic substitution 13 Translating is acting 23
Taflinger 141 translating miscellaneous general texts
Takaful 106-8 translating newspaper articles
technical vs. non-technical language 7 translating specialist texts into general
technical vs. non-technical terms 9 texts: 281
television advertising 145 translating the sub-text314
terminology 7 translation approach 21
tests of core items/words 11 Translation Methods 28
text 1: smoking 239 translation methods of general texts 28
text 2: education: what is alcohol? 290 translation problems 34, 45, 48, 50, 52,
text 2: living in London 242 54, 57, 61, 65, 72, 75, 78, 90, 96, 102,
text 3: a driving lesson: normalizing a 107, 110, 115, 122, 127, 132, 156, 159,
technical text 294 162, 165, 168, 171, 174, 178, 195, 199,
text 3: what is abuse? 245 203, 206, 210, 214, 219, 225, 230, 240,
text 4: a humorous text 248 243, 246, 250, 255, 258, 262, 268, 273,
text 4: non-technicalization of medical 287, 292, 295, 298, 302, 309, 312, 317
text 296 translation strategies, 44, 46, 48, 50, 52,
text 5: de-jargonizing economic jargon 55, 59, 61, 65, 67, 73, 77, 80, 90, 99,
300 104, 108, 112, 120, 129, 133, 157, 160,
text 5: informal conversation 253 163, 166, 169, 172, 174, 180, 196, 200,
text 6: reactionary commentary: anti- 204, 207, 211, 216, 221, 227, 231, 241,
Islam texts 307 244, 253, 256, 259, 266, 271, 276, 290,
text 6: stereotypes 257 293, 296, 299, 306, 309, 314, 321, 124
text 7: alarming translation: dangers of Translexi 23
the nuclear weapons 310 Translexi.online 6
354
 Traugot and Pratt 11 types of readership 17
Traugott and Pratt 10 Unitemps 101-3
treatment of acute renal failure 296 USA Today 228
tv commercials 157 varieties of technical style 8
type of TL readership 42, 45, 48, 50; 52, Vermeer 21-25, 27
54, 57, 61, 64, 67, 69, 72, 75, 78, 89, Wang- Baorong 24
96, 102, 107, 110, 115, 122, 127, 131, Wan-wei et al 21
155, 159, 162, 165, 168, 174, 178, 195, Waters 12
199, 203, 206, 209, 214, 217, 225, 230, weird texts 205
240, 243, 246, 249, 255, 257, 262, 268, Widdowson 11
273, 287, 291, 294, 297, 302, 308, 312, Wikimedia)
317, Wikipedia 138-141
types and purpose 138 Wikipedia 185
types of advertising 142 Wikipedia 326
types of general texts 2 Wikipedia 37
university leaflets 100 writing a textbook 248

355

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