164 5.

Boundary-Layer Program for External Flows

TE = X(Kl,L,JD)
X(Kl,L,JD)= X(LS,L,JD)
30 X(LS,L,JD)= TE
40 XKl = X(Kl,Kl,JD)
Transition in
DO 50 I=K,Nl
X(l,Kl,JD)= X(l,Kl,JD)/XKl Two-Dimensional Flows
DO 50 J=K,Nl
50 X(l,J,JD)= X(l,J,JD)-X(l,Kl,JD)*X(Kl,J,JD)
60 CONTINUE
RETURN
END

SUBROUTINE USOLV (DELJ,NROW,UJ,YJ,NOl,N02,N03 ,JD)

DIMENSION DELJ(NOl,N02,N03),UJ(NOl,N03),YJ(NOl,N03),NROW(NOl,N03)
C - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Nl = NROW(l,JD) 6.1 Introduction
UJ(l,JD) = YJ(Nl,JD)
DO 20 !=2,NOl
At sufficiently high Reynolds numbers, most flows are turbulent rather than
NI = NROW(l,JD)
SUMU = YJ(Nl,JD)
laminar, and this transition to turbulence has been the object of many studies
11 = I-1 utilizing several approaches. One approach discussed, for example, in [1], con­
DO 10 K=l,11 siders the solutions of the parabolized stability equations (PSE), and another
10 SUMU = SUMU-DELJ(l,K,JD)*UJ(K,JD) considers the solutions of the unsteady Navier-Stokes equations ( called direct
20 UJ(l,JD)= SUMU
numerical simulation, DNS) and another approach considers the solutions of
UJ(NOl,JD)= UJ(NOl,JD) /DELJ(NOl,NOl,JD)
DO 40 !8=2,NOl the linear stability equations based on small-disturbance theory. Despite the
= NOl-IB+l progress being made with the PSE approach, this method currently is some
11 = l+l time away from being used as an engineering tool; it is still under development.
SUMU = UJ( I ,JD)
The direct numerical simulation (DNS) approach offers exciting possibilities; the
DO 30 K=11,N01
30 SUMU = SUMU-DELJ(I,K,JD)*UJ(K,JD)
excellent review of Kleiser and Zong [2] describes the rapid progress with this
40 UJ(I,JD)= SUMU/DELJ(l,l,JD) approach and shows that the prediction of transition can already be achieved
RETURN in some simple flows with this method. The computer requirements of DNS,
END however, are large, and it is unlikely that this approach can be used for tran­
sition calculations on complex bodies in the near future. The only engineering
calculation method for predicting transition at this time, aside from correlation
methods, is the e n-method based on small disturbance theory to be discussed in
this chapter for two-dimensional flows and in Chapter 11 for three-dimensional
flows.
Section 6.2 describes the transition process associated with the growth of dis­
turbances within the boundary-layer. Section 6.3 discusses the linear stability
equations based on small-disturbance theory and the properties of the stability
equations. Predicting transition by empirical correlations and en -method is ad­
dressed in Section 6.4 and the factors that influence transition in Section 6.5.
The numerical solution of the stability equation and the eigenvalue procedure
associated with the stability equation are described in Section 6.6.

166 6. Transition in Two-Dimensional Flows
6.2 Transition Process
If the intensity of freestream turbulence (see Eq. 6.5.3) is low, a first step in
the transition process is the development of instabilities commonly referred to
as Tollmien-Schlichting (TS) waves. Earliest studies on the development of the
transition process from the appearance of TS waves to turbulence were con­
ducted by Emmons (3], Schubauer and Skramstad [4], Schubauer and Klebanoff
[5]. From observations of the flow on a water table, Emmons formulated the
view that turbulence starts in the form of randomly distributed spots of turbu­
lence, each of which expands as it moves downstream. Fully developed turbulent
flow begins when these expanding regions of turbulence merge across the whole
span. The transition region can therefore be said to start at the streamwise
position where the spots first appear and to end where they have merged to
form a continuous front.
Figure 6.1 shows the oscillograms of hot-wire response showing fluctuations
at various distances behind the leading edge of a flat plate. They were obtained
by Schubauer and Skramstad [4] in a low turbulence wind tunnel at the National
Bureau of Standards. The oscillations represent fluctuations in the boundary­
layer velocity measured at 0.6 mm from the surface. As can be seen, the dis­
turbances grow as the distance from the leading edge increases. At x = l.83 m,
however, some irregularities occur in the TS waves. These are "bursts" of high
frequency fluctuations ordinarily associated with turbulent flow. The bursts be-
1.22
1.37 ---�----------------
Distance from
leading edge,
Meters 1.68
1.91 --.!VI.,•'
,. J
1.98
Fig. 6.1. Oscillograms of hot-wire response showing fluctuations in the laminar boundary
layer on a flat plate [4]. Distance from surface 0.6 mm, ue = 24.4 ms-1, time interval
between dots 0.033 s.
6.2 Transition Process 167
come more frequent and of longer duration with distance; at x = 2.44 m from
the leading edge, the entire flow becomes turbulent.
The details of the geometry of the spots and their growth with movement
downstream were measured by Schubauer and Klebanoff [5]. A spot was intro­
duced into a laminar boundary layer on a flat plate in a wind tunnel by means
of an electrical spark, and the details of its growth were measured as it was
carried downstream by the flow. Figure 6.2 shows the spot's development into a
roughly triangular region of turbulence. As can be seen, the forward apex moves
downstream at close to the mainstream velocity, but its rear records within the
growing "triangular" region are much the same as those of fully developed turbu­
lent flow, upstream of this region at any instant the flow is smooth and laminar.
Consistent with this, Schubauer and Klebanoff found that the instantaneous ve­
locity profiles in the transition region had the time characteristics of turbulent
flow for part of the time, and at other times those of a laminar boundary layer.
For a more detailed discussion of the formation of spots and how they arise, the
reader is referred to Refs. 5 and 6.
Spark
�
�
2: = �··· . .....
Natural
0.4,-
!
Spark, 2.3 ft.
fromL.E.
Plan view
2 3
Feet
Elevation view on center line
Fig. 6.2. Turbulent spot initiated by electric spark between needle electrode and surface.
Oscillograms with 1/60 s timing dots shown above, edge is convected downstream at about
half that speed 33 ft/s. The spot expands outwards so that its tips define the sides of a
wedge of semi-angle a � 11 ° and apex at the spot origin. Hot-wire time progression from
left to right upper showing spark discharge on right and spot passage on left, lower showing
natural transition [5].
 168 6. Transition in Two-Dimensional Flows 6.3 Linear Stability Theory 169

The fraction of the total time that the flow is turbulent can be quantified 5 X 10 6

at any point in the transition region. This fraction may be defined as the inter­ NACA66,-018, Re= 4 x 10:x
mittency factor, '"Ytr with '"Ytr = 0 corresponding to the onset of transition, and
NACA66,-018, Re= 2 x IO'/
'"Ytr = 1 to the stage when the flow is fully turbulent. For a flat plate, it is found 10'
that '"Ytr can be described as a function of ( where, with Xtr denoting the onset
of transition,
(x - Xtr)
(= (6.2.1) ONERA-D, Re = 3 x IO'
a NACA65-213, Re= 2.4 x IO'
= x,tr=0.75 X LNVI09A, Re= 3.75 x IO'
a - x,tr=0.25 (6.2.2) , I I I _L_L___J
10 '
20 40 60 80 100 120 Fig. 6.3. Variation of C2 /3 with transition
Clearly at small values of '"Ytr (less than 0.25), the turbulent spots are small in
c 13
2
Reynolds number Rx ,,.
comparison to the distance between them. As the turbulent spots spread into
surrounding nonturbulent fluid, '"Ytr rises. When '"Ytr is of the order of 0.5, the
spots begin to merge with each other, and eventually the whole shear layer 6.3 Linear Stability Theory
becomes turbulent btr = 1). According to Dhawan and Narasimha [7], the in­
termittency factor '"Ytr on a flat plate can be described by The en -method discussed in subsection 6.4.2 is based on small-disturbance the­
ory in which a small sinusoidal disturbance is imposed on a given steady lam­
'"Ytr = 1 - exp(-0.412(2) (6.2.3) inar flow to see whether the disturbance will amplify or decay in time. If the
which correlates well with experimental data. disturbance decays, the flow will stay laminar; if the disturbance amplifies suf­
ficiently, the flow must change in some way, probably to become turbulent. The
The process of transition in the presence of a pressure gradient is more
small-disturbance theory does not predict the details of the nonlinear process by
complex, and Chen and Tyson [8] proposed the expression
which the flow changes from laminar to turbulent. It establishes which shapes
= 1 - exp [-c(x - Xtr) 1 dx]
x of velocity profiles are unstable, identifies those frequencies that amplify fastest,
'"Ytr (6.2.4)
Xtr Ue and indicates how the parameters governing the flow can be changed to delay
transition.
for incompressible flows with
In this section using the small disturbance theory, we discuss the derivation
of the linear stability equations for two-dimensional incompressible mean flows
(6.2.5) with two-dimensional disturbances. We assume that u, v, and p in the two­
dimensional form of Eqs. (2.2.1) to (2.2.3) represent the instantaneous compo­
and C = 60 to represent the intermittency distribution in attached flows where nents of the flow properties, and these components are divided into a mean-flow
transition takes place naturally. For low Reynolds number flows, the transition term and a fluctuating term so that the instantaneous velocity components are
is separation induced, and the extent of the transition region can be signifi­ u+u' and v+v' and the instantaneous pressure is p+p'. The mean-flow velocity
cantly less than that computed by Eq. (6.2.4). Subsequently, Cebeci [9] devised and pressure terms satisfy the boundary-layer equations for a steady laminar
a formula to represent C in Eq. (6.2.5) in terms of Rxtr· This formula is shown flow given by Eqs. (2.3.3) and (2.3.4) with the Reynolds stress term neglected
in Fig. 6.3 together with the experimental data obtained for several airfoils. The and with overbars on u, v and p.
data encompasses a typical low Reynolds number range from Re = 2.4 x 105 to Next we consider Eqs. (2.2.1) to (2.2.3) with instantaneous velocity compo­
Re = 2 x 106 , falls conveniently on a straight line on a semi-log scale and can nents and pressure expressed in terms of their mean and fluctuating components.
be represented by the equation Since u', v' and p1 are small, their squares and products can be neglected. Not­
ing that the mean velocity and pressure satisfy the two-dimensional equations
C2 = 213 [log Rxtr - 4.7323] (6.2.6) of motion, the equations simplify further and can be written as
Care should be taken in the use of this equation outside the range of experi­ ou ov'
'
-+-=0 (6.3.1)
ments, particularly at high Reynolds numbers where the separation bubble is
ax oy
likely to be small and a limiting value of C = 60 applies.
170 6. Transition in T wo-Dimensional Flows 6.3 Linear Stability Theory 171

au' ,au au' ,au au' 1 op' 2 , q(y) is the amplitude function of a typical flow variable q'(x,y, t), a is a dimen­
- +u -+ u-+v-+v- = ---+v"v u (6.3.2) sionless wave number, and w is the radian (circular) frequency of the distur­
at ax ax &y &y P ax
bance. The dimensionless forms of a and w are defined by
0V 1
OV 0V I OV OV 1 Op 1
1
2 /
1
-+uI -+u-+v-+ v-= ---+v"v v (6.3.3)
at ax ax &y &y P &y 21rL * w*L
a=--=aL ' w=-­ (6.3.10)
These equations, with the overbars on u and v dropped for convenience, can be Ax uo
simplified further by noting that all velocity fluctuations and their derivatives where Ax denotes the wavelength in the x-direction. In general q, q', a and ware
are of the same order of magnitude and by assuming that the mean flow velocity complex. With q; and q( denoting the real and imaginary parts of q', the mag­
u is a function of y only so that Eq. (3.1.2) gives v = 0, that is, nitude of q' is [(q;) 2 + (q;) 2] 1 1 2 and its relative phase angle is tan-1(q;f q;). The
real part of the exponential term represents a growth of disturbance amplitude
U = u(y), V =0 (6.3.4)
in x or t, while the imaginary part, exp(i0), can be rewritten as cos 0 + i sin 0,
This assumption is known as the parallel flow approximation; which, with the which represents the sinusoidal oscillation in x or t.
introduction of dimensionless quantities defined by The small-disturbance equations given by Eqs. (6.3.6) and (6.3.8) can also
be expressed in other forms. Eliminating pressure and introducing a stream
u'
u*I =-, v'* =-
v'
u*
u
= -, I
p* = pu
p'
-2 , t*
tu
o function 7/J(x, y, t) such that
uo uo uo o = L' (6.3.5) O'lp
x*
X
= L'
y
y* = ' R= uoL u
/
= O'lp' V
/ =-- (6.3.11)
L V &y OX
allows Eqs. (6.3.1) to ( 6.3.3) to be written as we can express the momentum equations (6.3.7) and (6.3.8) as a fourth-order
partial differential equation
-
au' + av'
-=0 (6.3.6)
!!_ "v 2 + u_!!_ ("v 2 ) - o'ljJ d u
2
ax &y = 2_ "\74 (6.3.12)
7/J 'l/J R '1/J
at &x ax dy 2
(6.3.7) Where "v4 = "v 2"v 2 and -"v 2 '1jJ is the fluctuating z-component of vorticity,
av'/ ox - au'/ oy. Equation (6.3.12) represents the rate of change of fluctuating
vorticity following the fluid along a mean streamline.
(6.3.8) Taking q' in Eq. (6.3.9) to represent the disturbance stream function
For convenience, the "star" on the dependent and independent variables has 7/J = </>(y)e i (ax-wt)
been dropped.
Equations (6.3.6) to (6.3.8) form a set of coupled partial-differential equa­ with q(y) replaced by cp(y), and introducing the resulting expression into Eq.
tions with solutions that describe how disturbances originate near the surface (6.3.12), we obtain the following fourth-order ordinary differential equation for
y = 0 and spread out through the boundary layer and beyond as they are con­ the amplitude cp(y)
vected along the local streamlines. To study the properties of these equations, (6.3.13)
we apply the standard procedure of stability theory, namely separation of vari­
ables. We assume that the small disturbance is a sinusoidal traveling wave and where a prime denotes differentiation with respect toy. This equation is known
represent a two-dimensional disturbance as as the Orr-Sommerfeld equation and is the fundamental equation for incom­
pressible stability theory.
q'(x,y,t) = q( y)e i (ax-wt) (6.3.9) The solutions of Eq. (6.3.13) correspond to small disturbance waves and are
sometimes called Tollmien-Schlichting waves. Despite the major assumptions
We seek the solutions of Eqs. (6.3.6) to (6.3.8) in the form of Eq. (6.3.9) since
made to derive this equation, the solutions of Eq. (6.3.13) are encouragingly
they are linear with respect to x and t; the coefficients of Eqs. (6.3.6) to (6.3.8)
close to the experimental results. The support to linear stability theory was
depend only ony. Here x,y, tare dimensionless quantities defined in Eq. (6.3.5),
first provided by the experiments of Schubauer and Skramstad [4] who used a
172 6. Transition in Two-Dimensional Flows 6.3 Linear Stability Theory 173

specially designed low turbulence wind tunnel and generated small sinusoidal
disturbances in a boundary layer on a flat plate by means of a vibrating ribbon
held parallel to the plate and normal to the freestream. The measured neutral
stability curve, critical Reynolds number and amplification rates, discussed in
[10], were found to agree well with the predictions of the linear stability theory.
The Orr-Sommerfeld equation (6.3.13) can be extended to three-dimensional
incompressible flows by using a procedure similar to that used for two-dimen­
sional flows. For a three-dimensional disturbance of q' of the form
q' ( x,y,z,t) =q (y)ei(ax+/3z-wt) (6.3.14)
the Orr-Sommerfeld equation, with </> denoting the amplitude function of the
vertical fluctuating velocity v', can be written in the same form as Eq. (6.3.13),
+ (a2 + (32)2</>
</>iv _ 2 (a2 + (3 2)¢"
(6.3.15)
= iR(au + (3w- w)[</>" - (a2 + (32)¢]- iR(au" + (Jw")</>
layer is approached. In such cases, the appropriate conditions can be obtained
by considering the Orr-Sommerfeld equation in the neighborhood of the edge
of the boundary layer, y = 8, where Eq. (6.3.16) becomes
<!> - d<1>"- d ( <I>" - d<1>) (6.3.19)
iv
=o
with u and w in �� evaluated at y = 8.
The general solution of this reduced equation is
</> = a1e- (1 Y + a2e(1Y + a3e- 6Y + a4e6Y
We require that real parts of a, 6 and 6 are greater than zero. In order that
the boundary-layer disturbances decay near the edge of the boundary-layer, it
is necessary that a 2 = a4 = 0. This can be assured by imposing the following
boundary conditions, with D = d/dy (see Problem 6.6)
y = 8, (D + 6)(D + 6)</> = 0, (D + 6)( D 2- �r)</> = 0 (6.3.20)

or in a compact form
6.3.2 Properties of the Orr-Sommerfeld Equation
(6.3.16) for Two-Dimensional Flows

by defining Note from the Orr-Sommerfeld equation, given by Eq. (6.3.15) and its boundary
d = a + fJ 2 2
(6.3.17a) conditions given by Eqs. (6.3.18) and (6.3.20) that if a solution to this system
can be found with the real parts of 6, 6 strictly positive, then solutions will
d = d + iR(au + (3w- w) (6.3.17b)
exist only for certain combinations of Reynolds number R and the parameters of
6 = iR(au" + (Jw") (6.3.17c) the disturbance a, (3 and w, since all the boundary conditions are homogeneous.
Thus the problem is an eigenvalue problem in which values of R, a, (3 and w are
Here (3 denotes the wave number in the z-direction and w the dimensionless
the eigenvalues and the corresponding amplitude functions are eigenfunctions.
velocity profile in the z-direction.
Hence, in general, no nontrivial solution of this system exists. Only if o:, (3, w,
R satisfy one or more relations of the form
6.3.1 Boundary Conditions
F(a,(3,w,R) =0 (6.3.21)
The solution of the Orr-Sommerfeld equation requires conditions to be imposed
on the bounding surfaces of the flow. There are many flow configurations to for three-dimensional flows and
which the stability theory can be applied, but we shall restrict our discussion F(a,w,R)=0 (6.3.22)
to boundary-layer flows.
On any rigid boundary surface the perturbation velocities must vanish. Thus, for two-dimensional flows can such a solution be found. However, before dis­
for a two-dimensional flow, we must have u' = v' = 0 at y = 0, or from Eqs. cussing the solution procedure, it is instructive to review the properties of the
(6.3.9) and (6.3.11), Orr-Sommerfeld equation by rewriting Eq. (6.3.13) as
y = 0, </> = 0, <I>' = 0 (6.3.18)
</> - 2a ¢"
iv 2
+ a 4 ¢ = iaR(u- c)(</>" - a 2¢)- iRau"</> (6.3.23)
For three-dimensional flows, the parameter </> is a function of u' and w' and
where c is the dimensionless complex phase velocity of the disturbance related
as a result, the boundary conditions given by Eq. (6.3.18) also apply to three­
to its dimensional value c* by
dimensional flows.
The boundary conditions away from the surface must be at sufficiently large
(6.3.24)
distances so that the perturbation velocities decay as the edge of the boundary
174 6. Transition in Two-Dimensional Flows 6.3 Linear Stability Theory 1 75

The solution of the Orr-Sommerfeld equation and its boundary conditions Table 6 . 1 . Critical Reynolds number
for Falkner-Skan flows [ l l ] .
may be obtained by temporal or spatial amplification theories. The former takes
w to be complex (= Wr + iwi) so that the amplitude of the disturbance varies Ri;, (3 H
with time as exp(wit) in contrast to the spatial amplification theory which takes 2.216
12490 1.0
w to be real and a to be complex, or w to be real and c to be complex, so that 10920 0.8 2.240
the amplitude varies with x as exp(-aix). Note that for Wi = 0 and given ar , 8890 0.6 2.274
a complex value of c implies values of the real frequency, Wr , and the spatial 7680 0.5 2.297
6230 0.4 2.325
amplification rate (-ai ). Also, if a and w are both real, then the disturbance 4550 0.3 2.362
propagates through the parallel mean flow with constant amplitude 1 ¢(y) I ; if a 2830 0.2 2.4l l
and w are complex, the disturbance amplitude will vary in both time and space. 1380 0.1 2.48 1
865 0.05 2.529
While both procedures have advantages, this discussion favors the solution 520 0.0 2.591
of the Orr-Sommerfeld equation based on the spatial amplification theory, since 318 -0.05 2.676
the amplitude change of disturbance with distance can be measured in a steady 199 -0.10 2.801
138 -0 .14 2.963
mean flow. The amplitude at a fixed point is independent of time and spa­ 67 -0. 1988 4.029
tial theory gives the amplitude change in a more direct manner than does the
temporal theory.
The eigenvalues of the Orr-Sommerfeld equation for the spatial-amplification Figure 6.4 shows typical (a, R) and (w, R) stability diagrams for Blasius
case are often presented in (a, R) and (w, R) diagrams that describe the three flow obtained with the computer program of Section 7.2 using the eigenvalue
states of a disturbance at a given Reynolds number R as damped, neutral or procedure described in subsection 6.6.1. The length scale L used in Eq. (6.3.5)
amplified. For two-dimensional flows the locus ai = 0, or Ci = 0, called the curve is chosen to correspond to that used in the definition of the similarity parameter
of neutral stability, separates the damped (stable) region from the amplified in Eq. (4.2.4a), that is,
(unstable) region. The point on this curve at which R has its smallest value is L = {Ei (6.3.25a)
of special interest, because at values of R less than this value, all disturbances are y -;;;
stable. This smallest Reynolds number is known as the critical Reynolds number, and the velocity scale u is taken to correspond to the external velocity Ue .
Rcr · The neutral curve is the same in both temporal and spatial amplification As a result the Reynolds number in the Orr-Sommerfeld equation is defined
theories. by

0.25 -
R= y;u;x
--;;- = VInR""x (6.3.25b)

Figure 6.5 and Table 6.1 show the variation of the critical Reynolds number,
ctj= O 0. 100
0.20
( _ _ � -0.004 R0 • , with dimensionless pressure gradient parameter (3 and shape factor H for
� -0.006
I
'
� -0 007 Falkner-Skan flows given by Eq. (4.2.5). Note that in this figure the critical
0. 15 \
a.
�;00"
0)
Reynolds number is based on displacement thickness 8*, and local velocity Ue .
0. 10 0.010 In terms of Falkner-Skan variables it can be expressed as

(6.3.26)
0.05
--------- -----------
!
with bi denoting a dimensionless displacement thickness parameter expressed
0.00 L2 - -'- 1 0. 001 2 in terms of Falkner-Skan variables by
1-L......:....lJ_____ l ...l..L.--�-'-- ; . l ;J.J1 __ J______L_J______

10 10' 10' 10 10 l� l� 1d
R R T/e
(a) ( b) bi = fo (1 - J')dry = T/e - fe (6.3.27)
Fig. 6.4. Stability diagrams for Blasius flow. (a) Cl'r vs R. (b) w vs R.
From Fig. 6.5 it is seen that accelerating flows can tolerate larger Reynolds
numbers than decelerating flows and, as a result, have a higher critical Reynolds
1 76 6. Transition i n Two-Dimensional Flows 6.4 Prediction of Transition 177

Later Tollmien showed that the existence of a point of inflection is also a

sufficient condition for the amplification of disturbances. As a result of this
theorem, one can conclude that the velocity profiles with a point of inflection
are unstable when R ---. oo .
2. If u " < 0, there is at least one point, y = Ye , where u - c = 0 for neutral
disturbances with c.;, = 0. That is, the phase velocity is equal to the mean
velocity at some point inside the flow. The place y = Ye , where u = c, is called
the critical layer of the mean flow.

The second theorem states the fact that any traveling-wave disturbance must
move at roughly the speed of the flow if it is to avoid rapid decay. The first
theorem implies that profiles with a point of inflection will be unstable at high
Reynolds numbers in real life.
101
2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5
I�_ ___�

H
Fig. 6.5. Variation of critical
Reynolds number, R6;, with H.
6.4 Prediction of Transition
number. On the other hand, decelerating flows have less tolerance to higher 6.4. 1 Empirical Correlations
Reynolds numbers, indicating that R0;r becomes smaller as H becomes bigger
which corresponds to smaller values of (3. Current engineering methods for predicting the onset of transition location in
A slightly different kind of stability theory, known as inviscid stability theory, two-dimensional incompressible flows are based on empirical correlations and
is based on the solution of Eq. (6.3. 13) or Eq. (6.3.23) when o:R ---. oo . In this the e n -method discussed in the following subsection. Here we present two of
case the viscous effects on the disturbances are neglected, and the solutions are these correlations which are useful in the calculation of the complete devel­
obtained from opment of boundary-layers at high Reynolds numbers where the final results
(6.3.28) are not too severely affected by assumptions about transition. One such use­
known as the Rayleigh equation. Since this equation is only of second order, ful expression is based on a combination of Michel's method [12] and Smith's
only two boundary conditions are required. For boundary-layer flows e9 correlation curve [13] . It is given by Cebeci and Smith [14] as a connection
between Ro (= ue 0/v) and Rx (= ue x/v) at transition (see Fig. 6.6)
y = 0, ¢=0 (6.3.29a)
10'
on the wall and, by an argument similar to that leading to Eq. (6.3.20) and
with the real part of o: greater than zero,

(D + o:)¢ = 0 (6.3.29b)
at the edge.
Earlier studies of stability theory solved Eqs. (6.3.28) and (6.3.29) rather to'
than the more complete Orr-Sommerfeld equation, Eq. (6.3. 13) or (6.3.23) , be­
cause of the unavailability of high-speed computers. Although this theory is not Smith
applicable exactly to flows at finite Reynolds number, it has led to important Michel
Eq. (6.4. 1) Fig. 6.6. Empirical transi­
theorems concerning the stability of laminar velocity profiles, including those of
tion correlation curves for two­
the following paragraphs. dimensional incompressible
1 Q2 L_ - - --�--'- '-·'·,.__L___________ ---'-----------'- ��.L .._ flows. The symbols denote var­
1. In order to have amplified disturbances, the velocity profile, u(y), must have 105 1 0' 107 J O'
ious experimental data taken
a point of inflection, (u" = 0). This theorem was first proved by Rayleigh. from Smith [13] .
178 6. Transition in Two-Dimensional Flows 6.4 Prediction of Transition 179

22,400 0.46 with Recr given by

R0tr = 1 . 1 74 ( 1 ) RXtr (6.4. 1 )
+ RXtr
54. 2 1 24 31.6
H > 2 _591
According to this method, the boundary-layer development on the body is H(H - 2.48) + H
calculated for a laminar flow starting at the leading-edge of the flow so that Recr = { 95 (6.4.4)
2.5 x 106 1 1
-) 1. H <
520
both Ro and Rx can be determined. Usually, the calculated Reynolds numbers - + --- ( - - - - 2.591
H H H 2.591
are beneath the curve given by Eq. (6.4. 1 ) . The location where the ( Ro , Rx )
values intersect this curve corresponds to the onset of transition location. In where H denotes the shape factor at the point of instability. Once Recr is known,
some cases, however, before this happens, flow separation takes place; in those the values of (Re - Rec, ) and >. are calculated from the point of instability, Rxcr ,
cases, the separation point is assumed to correspond to the onset of transition along the body, until they intersect the universal transition curve of Fig. 6. 7.
location. Granville's method has also been extended by Amal et al. [16] to include
Another method that can be used to predict transition is due to Granville the effects of freestream turbulence, Tu [see Eq. (6. 5 . 1 )]
[15] . This method uses for transition criterion a single curve of (R0tr - R 0c, ) as
(6.4.5)
� function of the mean Pohlhausen parameter >-e (see Fig. 6.7) . The parameter
>. e is an average >.e [see Eq. (4.4. 1 1 )]

-
>.0 = -
1
-- 1x -0 -
due2
dx
X - Xcr Xcr V dx The en -method, which utilizes linear stability theory, was first used by Smith [ 13]
and van Ingen [ 1 7] and is discussed in some detail in [18] . The basic assumption
which is obtained from the laminar boundary-layer solutions by using the ex­ is that transition starts when a small disturbance is introduced at a critical
pression Reynolds number and is amplified by a factor of en which, for a typical value of n
(6.4.2) equal to 9, is about 8000. Either temporal- or spatial-amplification theory can be
used, and the latter may be preferred since the amplitude change of disturbance
where the subscript "er" denotes the point of instability to TS waves. To predict with distance can be measured in a steady mean flow. The amplitude at a fixed
transition by this method, it is necessary to calculate Retr . That can be done point is independent of time, and the spatial theory gives the amplitude change
by means of the curve of Fig. 6. 7 which can be expressed by in a more direct manner than does the temporal theory.
The calculation of transition with this procedure is relatively straight­
- 0.04 � >-0 � 0. 024 ( 6.4.3) forward in two-dimensional ( and in axisymmetric) flows, requiring the calcula­
tion of the amplification rates ( -0:i) as a function of x ( or R) for a range of di­
2000 mensional frequencies w* . The stability calculations are preceded by boundary­
layer calculations and, for a given external velocity distribution Ue ( x) and
1 800 freestream Reynolds number, the laminar boundary-layer equations are solved
Ratr - Racr
1600 ' to obtain the streamwise velocity profile u and its second derivative u". The
1400 stability calculations begin at a Reynolds number, R8 • , slightly larger than the
critical Reynolds number, R8 • , on the lower branch of the neutral stability
1 200
curve at an x-location, say x ::; x1 (see Fig. 6.8). At this point, since u, u 11 and
1000 R are known, O'.r and w can be computed by the procedure of subsection 6 . 6 . 1
800 and the dimensional frequency w * determined from Eq. (6.3.10), that is,
600 uo
w * = w- ( 6.4.6)
400 L
200 _J_ and kept constant along line 1 defined by this constant dimensional frequency.
-0.04 -0.02 0.00 0.02 Fig. 6. 7. Granville's tran­ At the next x-location, x2 , two separate calculations are performed for the newly
sition correlation curve for
Ae two-dimensional flows. computed boundary-layer profiles u and u" and Reynolds number R. In one set
180 6. Transition in Two-Dimensional Flows 6.4 Prediction of Transition 181

12.0

10.0
line I
line2 line3
8.0
la n
6.0

4.0
Q)
2.0
Fig. 6.9. Variation of the integrated am­
0.0 plification factors with distance and fre­
0.0 1 .0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
R X (ft) quency for Blasius flow.
Fi g . 6.8. Strategy of calculating transition with the en -method.
6.4.3 H-Rx Method

of calculations (point 2 in Fig. 6.8) , O'.r and w are computed on the neutral curve
with the procedure used to obtain O'. r and w at point 1 so that a new dimensional
frequency can be defined on line 2. In the second set of calculations, point la, the
dimensionless frequency w is first determined from the dimensional frequency
w* on line 1 , and its characteristic velocity and length scales at point 2, that is,
L
W = W* - (6.4.7)
uo
With w known from Eq. ( 6.4. 7) and R defined at point 2 , o: can be determined
by the eigenvalue procedure of subsection 6.6.2. The procedure at point la is
then repeated at points 2b and 1 b, and a dimensional frequency is computed for
line 3. For example, at point lb, values of (o: r , o:i) are computed with the known
dimensional frequency on line 1 and the specified Reynolds number at point 3;
at point 2b, they are computed with the known dimensional frequency on line
2 and the specified Reynolds number at point 3. This procedure is repeated for
several lines and the variation of the integrated amplification rate, defined by
x
n= - 1xo O'.idx (6.4.8)
with xo corresponding to each value of x on the neutral stability curve, is com­
puted for each line. This procedure leads to the curves of constant frequency,
Fig. 6.9, and their envelope corresponds to the maximum amplification fac­
tors from which transition is computed with a value for n, commonly assumed
between 8 and 9. To cope with the effects of freestream turbulence [see Eq.
(6.5.3)] , Mack has suggested from the analysis of Dryden's measurements that
for freestream turbulence Tu > 0 . 1 % [19] ,
A useful shortcut method for predicting transition in a wide class of boundary­
layer flows, including the effects of pressure gradient, surface heat transfer and
suction, is the H-Rx method described by Wazzan et al. [20] . Here H and
Rx are the shape factor (= 8* /0) and the Reynolds number based on surface
distance ( = UeX / v), respectively. This method, which has not been correlated
with test data but rather has been justified in terms of TS waves and en-type
calculations, is simple to use and a good substitute to the en -method for a class
of two-dimensional and axisymmetric flows with pressure gradient, suction and
wall heating or cooling with n factor taken as 9. It is given by
log[Rx (e9 )] = -40.4557 + 64. 8066H - 26.7538H2 + 3.3819H 3
(6.4.10)
2.1 < H < 2.8
This method differs from the correlation methods discussed in subsection
6.4 . 1 . While Michel's and Granville's methods are strictly for two-dimensional
incompressible flows on airfoils and are not applicable to two-dimensional flows
with heating and suction and axisymmetric flows, the H-Rx method is appli­
cable to a wider range of flows. It gives reasonable results so long as the flow
does not vary too much from nearby similar flows, i.e., local similarity. Also,
it is applicable only so long as the effects of surface roughness and freestream
turbulence levels are sufficiently low, j ust as required in the basic en-method.
This method is also restricted to heating rates where the difference between sur­
face temperature and freestream temperature, Tw - T00 does not exceed about
23 °C.

n = -8 .43 - 2.4 ln Tu (6.4.9)

182 6. Transition in Two-Dimensional Flows 6.5 Factors that Influence Transition 183

6 . 5 Factors that Influence 'Iransition 5 D

'v
X 10-G
There are many factors that influence the onset of transition. These include Rxtr

disturbances in external flow in the form of turbulence and noise, heat trans­
fer, pressure gradient, suction, roughness and surface curvature and are briefly □
3
discussed in the following subsections.
□
2 □
6.5.1 Effects of Freestream Turbulence and Noise □

Depending on the environment , i.e., wind tunnel and flight, disturbances in · □ BOUNDARY LAYER CHANNEL (WELLS)
{UBAUER & SKRAMSTAD
the external flow can cover wide ranges of frequency, wavelength, velocity of LTZ,
. . KENYON, & ALLEN
propagation and direction. A comprehensive understanding and prediction of 0 I - -� - .. � - -
Fig. 6. 10. The effect of
0.0 0. 1 0.2 0.3 0.4 freestream turbulence on
these effects on transition is still very limited. In this section a brief discussion
boundary-layer transition for
of the effects of freestream turbulence on transition is presented. Tu low-turbulence intensities.
The intensity of freestream turbulence Tu is based on the sum of the Reynolds
normal stresses and, with u00 denoting the freestream velocity, may be defined
generally a mixing of turbulence and acoustics. Turbulence is made of three­
by
dimensional velocity fluctuations which are rotational and which span a range
J½ (u'2 + v' 2 + w'2) of frequencies. Acoustic perturbations are formed of irrotational waves, more
Tu = _,_____ _ _ (6. 5 . 1)
Uoo or less two-dimensional. A systematic study of the influence of noise frequency
In general, at a certain distance from the screens or honeycombs, the turbulence on transition shown in Fig. 6. 1 1 has been conducted by Spangler and Welb
in a wind tunnel becomes isotropic which means that [24] . If the frequency is in the range of natural unstable TS waves, a significant

(6.5.2)

In this case, it is customary to base the intensity of the freestream turbulence

on the axial normal stress and define Tu by

Tu =
H2
-­ ( 6.5.3 )
uoo
and use the above definition even in cases where the turbulence is not isotropic.
The influence of freestream turbulence on transition has been studied by
several investigators, including Dryden [2 1 ] , Hall and Hislop [22] , Schubauer and
.___,_, f '"" 76 Hz

Skramstad [4] and Wells [23] . In the latter two studies conducted for flows with
zero pressure gradient , the transition Reynolds number was found to increase
systematically with decreasing freestream turbulence intensity until a maximum
was reached which was not affected by further reductions in turbulence intensity, ..... ......
see Fig. 6 . 10. As can be seen, the maximum transition Reynolds number found
by Wells is 80% greater than that reported by Schubauer and Skramstad, being
5 x 106 and 2.8 x 106 , respectively, for disturbance intensities less than 0 . 1 % of 0 .L-------::-.�
0,
-------;;�
0
2-----� 3 -------;:
o.� o.4
0
the free stream.
2
l0 Tu

The turbulence level is not sufficient to characterize the effect on transi­ Fig. 6 . 1 1 . Effect of noise frequency on flat plate transition [24] .
tion in particular at low-turbulence intensities. Freestream perturbations are
184 6. Transition in Two-Dimensional Flows 6.5 Factors that Influence Transition 185

decrease in transition Reynolds number is recorded. In three-dimensional flows, 10-2

the effect of noise frequency on transition is not very well known.

6.5.2 Effects of Pressure Gradient

Before we demonstrate the effect of pressure gradient on transition, it is useful

to examine the stability diagrams for similar flows which show the effect of
pressure gradient on the frequency of unstable disturbances, amplification rates
and critical Reynolds number.
Figure 6.12 shows that an adverse pressure gradient [negative /3(= ��1 )]
10·•
decreases the critical Reynolds number based on displacement thickness, R 0;r. -0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
This decrease in R0;r causes the range of frequencies to which the boundary �
layer is unstable to increase. Similarly, a favorable pressure gradient (positive Fig. 6.13. The effect of pressure gradient on the maximum spatial amplification rate and
(3) increases the critical Reynolds number and causes the range of frequencies frequency of unstable disturbances [ 1 1 ) .

□ i"
to which the boundary layer is unstable to decrease.
F igure 6.13 shows the variation of the ratio of maximum amplification rate
(see Eq. (6.4.8) ) and R 0;r and frequency w (see Eq. (6.4.7)) of unstable dis­ 2
turbances at several values of (3. As can be seen, the pressure gradient has a
pronounced influence on the amplification rates and frequencies. Positive pres­ .v
(mm)
sure gradient (/3 < 0) increases them and negative pressure gradient (/3 > 0) 0.2 0.6 1.0
x/c
decreases them.
The global effect of a positive pressure gradient is to promote transition at
a smaller Reynolds number than with a zero pressure gradient. The location of
1 .2
• • •• • • • • • •• • • • • • •
!!.£ 1 .0 •• • •
the beginning of transition is more upstream and the length of the transition u.
region is reduced. If the pressure gradient is strong enough, the boundary-layer 0.8
0 __.__�.........-�-:._.......____,
0 . 6 �-��-�--�--� 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.S
0.0 0.S 1.0
ulu,
10- (a) x/c
(b)
F ig. 6. 14. Transition on airfoil ONERA D with positive pressure gradient [25) : ( a) external
4
velocity distribution and (b) mean velocity profiles in the boundary-layer.
10 0

separates. In certain cases, a transition bubble is formed. Transition occurs in

10
3
the separated boundary-layer and the turbulent boundary-layer can reattach.
Experimental observations show that the first stage of transition is the de­
Rser
•
velopment of TS waves as in the case of a flat plate boundary-layer. The down­
2
10 stream phenomena seem to depend on the intensity of the pressure gradient. If
the pressure gradient is moderate, the phenomena are qualitatively the same as
for the flat plate.
1
10 �J._ ____j_ _ _j _ _ _ _l___ ___L____ �
In the experimental study concerned with a boundary-layer on an airfoil
-0. 2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 Fig . 6 . 1 2 . The effect of pres­
sure gradient on the critical with positive pressure gradient conducted by Cousteix and Pailhas [25], the
Reynolds number [ 1 1 ] . development of instabilities looks quite different. The distribution of external
velocity is given in Figure 6.14 together with the evolution of mean velocity pro--
186 6. Transition in Two-Dimensional Flows 6.5 Factors that Influence Transition 187

files. Around the location x/c = 0. 73-0.8, a small separation bubble is present . nal. The spectra exhibit a sharp peak at frequency Ji = 1000 Hz for stations
x/c = 0.675, 0.73 and 0.825. Downstream, we observe harmonics at frequencies
t
Downstream, the boundary-layer reattaches and the velocity profile takes on a
typical turbulent behavior. The shape parameter H reflects this evolution. h = 2000 Hz, h = 3000 Hz, f4 = 4000 Hz, etc . . . . Other frequencies f,
In order to analyze the characteristics of the laminar-turbulent process, � f or fm/2 (m = 1 , 2, 3, . . . ) are also observed with symmetrical peaks around
records of the output voltage of anemometer are given in Fig. 6 . 1 5 together these frequencies. This type of transition has very close resemblance with the
with the corresponding spectra. A record corresponds to a given station for a N-type of transition studied with controlled disturbances for the flat plate (26) .
fixed distance to the wall (y = 0.5 mm) . The voltage fluctuations are directly It is also interesting to note that transition occurs without the formation of
proportional to the velocity fluctuations, but the records are given without scale: turbulent spots.
they give only a qualitative information. Upstream of station x/c = 0.875, the
velocity is perturbed by very regular fluctuations which are nearly sinusoidal; 6.5.3 Effects of Heat Transfer
the intensity of fluctuations increases downstream. These perturbations have
the same characteristics as Tollmien-Schlichting waves in flat plate boundary­ An indication of the qualitative effects of surface temperature, mass transfer
layer. The intensity of the waves are however much higher. It seems that this and pressure gradient on transition can be obtained from the x-momentum
first phase of the transition process is linear because the level of harmonics is equation by recalling Rayleigh's theorem which requires that in order to have
low. amplified disturbances, the velocity profile u( y ) must have a point of inflection
At station x/c = 0.925, nonlinear phenomena develop. The fundamental os­ (u" = 0) within the flow. To show this for the case of heat transfer, we consider
cillation is still visible and its frequency is close to the value recorded at sta­ the x-momentum equation for a variable viscosity on a zero pressure gradient,
tion x/c = 0.875, but the signal is distorted. Each cycle seems to be deformed nonporous surface and write it at the wall,
by similar perturbation. Downstream, the signal becomes richer and richer in
harmonics but we still observe a certain regularity in the shape of the sig- dµ du d2 u
0 = ( ) ( ) + µw ( ) (6.5.4)
dy w dy w dy2
w

or, with primes denoting differentiation with respect to y, as

O.Q1s

= -�
u Gain
d2 u " dµ
( ) = uw ( ) u' (6.5.5)

.
1 yt(' dy2 dy w w
� µw
w
' .,... The dynamic viscosity µ is a function of temperature, and decreases with in­
creasing temperature for liquids and increases with increasing temperature for
gases. It can be seen from Eq. (6.5.5) that if the plate is heated so that Tw > Te ,
then for a liquid ( dT/ dy ) w and dµ / dT are less than zero and as a result

• (6.5.6)

10 « � u, , 4 n is positive. Conversely, for a cooled plate, (dµ /dy) w is negative. As both µw

and u:V are positive for either case, it follows that for Tw > Te , u'/n < 0 and for
2 5 -----------..... Tw < Te , u'/n > 0. Since the curvature u" is vanishingly small but negative as
y - oo, it follows that if its value at the wall is positive there must be at least
0 2 3 4 one point of inflexion in the boundary layer (i.e., some point at which u" = 0) .
(a) flkhz)
(b) Thus for a liquid, we expect that heating stabilizes and cooling destabilizes the
Fig. 6.15. Transition on airfoil ONERA D with positive pressure gradient, [25]: (a) records laminar boundary layer. Conversely, for gases in which viscosity increases with
of output voltage of anemometer at y = 0.5 mm and (b) energy spectra of longitudinal temperature, heating and cooling destabilizes and stabilizes the flow, respec­
velocity y = 0.5 mm. tively.
188 6. Transition in Two-Dimensional Flows 6.5 Factors that Influence Transition 189

A similar analysis can be used to show the qualitative effects of suction and
injection as well as favorable and adverse pressure gradient on the curvature of
the velocity profile and subsequently on transition.
_
Pr - 13· 66
I( 73.376906 - 208.7474538Tr + 197.7604676T;
-68.8626188Tl + 7.4779458T;1
)

Here T is temperature in Kelvin, Tr a temperature ratio defined by Tr =

(6.5.l ld)

The effect of heat transfer on transition in incompressible flows can be stud­
ied with the e n -method provided that we modify the Orr-Sommerfeld equation.
This can be done by assuming explicit fluid property variations in only the
mean dynamic viscosity and no fluctuating temperature field as discussed in
[27] or by making use of the energy equation with all fluid properties considered
temperature dependent as discussed in [28]. The predictions of both approaches
essentially yield similar results and the former approach is considered here.
As discussed in Problem 6.16, the modified Orr-Sommerfeld equation for an
incompressible flow with heat transfer is
(au - w)( ¢" - a ¢) - au" ¢
2
(P16.9)
= _ _i_ [µ( ¢iv _ 2a 2 ¢" + a4 ¢) + 2µ'(¢"' _ a 2 ¢') + µ" ( ¢" + a 2 ¢)]
R slightly larger than the experimental value of 2.84 x 10 6 . For n = 8.2, the cal­
The variable mean-flow coefficients in this equation can be obtained from the
compressible continuity and momentum boundary-layer equations (see [29]),
(6.5.7)
(6.5.8)
and from the energy equation, which in terms of total enthalpy H, can be
written as
T/273.16.
Before we discuss the results with heat transfer obtained with the e n -method,
let us consider the unheated case so that the role of heat transfer on transition
can be demonstrated. The results presented here were obtained by Lee [30] who
used the same numerical procedure described in Section 6.6. Note that with
these length and velocity scales, u and u" in the Orr-Sommerfeld equation are
related to those computed by the boundary-layer program by
u = !' , u"
=
J
"' Rx =
J
"' (!!:_ ) 2
(6.5.12)
x2 X
Figure 6.16 shows the variation of n-factor with Rx for five dimensional
frequencies. For an n-value of 9, transition occurs at Rx = 3.20 x 10 6 , a value
culations agree well with experiment. The small discrepancy is within a scatter
of experimental data and within the uncertainties associated with the n-factor.
Figure 6.17 shows the variation of n-factor with Rx for uniformly heated
plates on which the difference between the wall and freestream temperature,
l.lT, is 5 and 30 °F, respectively. As in the results shown in Fig. 6.16, the
calculations were again performed for five frequencies. As expected, heat transfer
has a significant effect on the location of transition and shifts it downstream,
delaying the beginning of turbulent flow.
Figure 6.18 shows the variation of Rxtr as well as R0;r with heat transfer

pu 8
H
+ pv 8H = !!_ [_!!__
8H + µ (l _ �) u
Bu
By ]
(6.5.9)
for the two cases depicted in Fig. 6.17, including the case for l.lT = 20 °F. As
expected, due to the temperature-viscosity relationship of water, heat transfer
Bx By 8y Pr 8y Pr
increases both the transition and critical Reynolds numbers.
subject to
y = 0, u = v = 0, H = Hw (x) (6.5.l Oa)
y = b, u = Ue (x), H = He (6.5.lOb)
All fluid properties are assumed to vary. For example, for water, in terms of SI
units, they are given by n

µ = 1.79369 x 10 -5
I( 35.155539 - 106.9718715Tr + 107.7720376T;
-40.5953074Tl + 5.639148T;1
)
(6.5.l la)

p = 1002.28(0.803928 + 0.4615901Tr - 0.2869774T; + 0.0234689T;) (6.5.l lb)

5 6
Cp = 1301.83(1.4833689 - 0.8072591Tr + 0.328960T;) (6.5.l lc) Fig . 6.16. Integrated amplification rates
on a flat plate with zero heat transfer [29].
190 6. Transition in Two-Dimensional Flows 6.5 Factors that Influence Transition 191

10 0.5
10 9
8 0
8 7 5
6
6 0.3 20
5
4 4 0.2
3
2 2 I

0. 1 r

0 0
I

0 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 0 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 0.0 Lz_ _
Fig. 6. 19. Neutral stability curves for
i

7 10
Rx X 10-7 Rx X 10- heated flat plates [30].
(a) (b)
Fig. 6. 1 7. Integrated amplification rates - uniformly heated plates with ( a) t:..T = 5 °F
and (b) t:..T = 30 °F [30] . Freestream temperature T00 is 67 °F. fied. These two effects combine to improve the stability properties of laminar
boundary-layers. For two-dimensional flows, the second effect can be studied
qualitatively from the momentum equation, which at the wall becomes

au dp 82 u
V
P w ay + dx
= µ ay2
This equation shows that a positive pressure gradient induces a positive value
of the second velocity derivative and leads to the presence of an inflection point
which is likely to promote instabilities. A wall suction ( Vw < 0) competes with a
positive pressure gradient and can improve the stability of the boundary-layer.
As discussed in detail in [31] , it is desirable to have extensive regions of
laminar flow on underwater vehicles and aerodynamic bodies in order to reduce
the skin-friction drag. Suction is an effective way of accomplishing this objective.
To demonstrate this, consider flow over a flat plate with uniform suction and
0 10 20 30 40 Fig. 6. 18. Variation of Rx • assume that the velocity profile corresponds to the asymptotic suction profile
and R6 • with heat transf�� given by Eq. (P4. 1 1 .3 ) . The critical Reynolds number based on displacement
i:lT° F [30) . °'
thickness ' R8er• ' of this profile is about 70,000 , as compared with about 500 for
a Blasius profile.
Figure 6 . 19 shows the neutral stability curves in the (arb*) and R8 * plane The suction drag is defined as loss of momentum due to mass removed from a
for flat plates with four different b,.T values, namely, 0, 5, 20 and 30. As can boundary layer. If the mass removed is assumed to occur normal to the surface,
be seen, heat transfer strongly influences the stability properties; in addition then the force D acting on a flat plate with length L is (see problem P4.12)
to increasing the critical Reynolds number, it also reduces the extent of the
L
difference between lower and upper branches of the stability curves as heat D = pu00 fo Vw dx (6.5. 13)
transfer rate increases.
and the suction drag coefficient Cdq is defined by Eq. (P4. 12.3) , that is,
6.5.4 Effects of Suction
Suction has a double effect on a boundary-layer. First, the thickness of the (P4 . 1 2.3)
boundary-layer is reduced, second, the shape of the velocity profile is modi-
 192 6. Transition in Two-Dimensional Flows 6.5 Factors that Influence Transition 193

We can estimate the magnitude of the suction coefficient Cq to ensure stability The drag associated with boundary-layer flow and mass removed can be
to small disturbances for the asymptotic suction profile. From the first relation conveniently discussed by considering again a flat plate with uniform suction.
in Eq. (P4. 1 1 .4) and Eq. (P4. 12.4) , we can write It follows from the momentum integral equation, Eq. (P3. 13. 1 ) , that
1 d0
Cq = - _ Tw
I/
- =�
Ueb* R8•
(6.5. 14) Ue2 - - VwUe - - (6.5 . 15)
dx P
so that the boundary-layer would be laminar if Cq had the extremely low value
since the suction velocity is negative . It is clear from this equation that the wall
of 1/70,000 = 1 .4 X 10- 5 .
shear ( Tw ) represents the total loss and not just viscous loss in the boundary
In an actual case, however, the minimum value of Cq for a flat plate flow
layer.
with suction is higher than the value corresponding to the asymptotic suction
Integrating Eq. (6.5. 15) over the surface length L, letting T.E. denote the
profile. As discussed in Problem 5 . 1 , this profile develops only at a certain
trailing edge of the flat plate and rearranging, we get
distance from the leading edge. The velocity profiles between that point [see
Eq. (P5 . 1 . 1)] and the leading edge are of different shapes, changing gradually
from the Blasius profile with no suction at short distances behind the leading
2 (0) 2 {
L
Vw dx {
L
Tw dx - { L dx
L T. E . - Jo ue L = Jo (l/2)pu� L
- Jo CJ L (6.5.16)
edge to the asymptotic form. All the profiles in this region have lower limits
Here 0T . E. is obtained from the velocity profile calculated from a flow with
of stability than the asymptotic one, and it follows that the quantity of fluid
blowing. The usual definition of 0 is used.
to be removed over the initial length must be larger than the value of 1 . 4 x
The first term on the left-hand side of this equation is the momentum drag
10- 5 , if laminar flow is to be maintained. According to Schlichting [32] , the
associated with the wake, cdw . The second term is the suction drag coefficient
suction coefficient Cq must be greater than 1 . 18 x 10- 4 , which is still a relatively
and the term on the right-hand side is the average skin-friction coefficient , CF ,
small value from a practical point of view as it would pose very modest power
which represents the momentum loss in the external viscous flow passing into
requirements with only a small increase of skin friction drag over that of an
the wake plus the momentum loss of the fluid taken aboard . The latter loss
unsucked laminar boundary layer, as shown in Fig. 6.20. The variation of local
(suction drag) is analogous to ram drag of air entering an inlet. For this reason,
skin-friction coefficie.11, rJ under conditions of optimum suction corresponds to _
sometimes the momentum drag is also referred to as the ram drag or smk drag,
Cq of 1 . 18 x 10- 4 , which is just sufficient to maintain laminar flow. The distance
and is considered separately.
between the curve marked "optimum suction" and that marked "turbulent"
There are practical limitations to what can be achieved by suction. Increasing
corresponds to the saving in drag effected by the application of suction.
suction rates requires larger ducting system and more power so that at some
point, the weight penalty and the higher suction drag will produce d�mi� ishing
returns. Increased suction also makes the boundary layer thinner, which m turn
reduces the critical height of roughness which will cause transition. If suction
turbulent
is applied through discrete holes or slots and is not distributed over the area,
increased suction velocities may cause the suction holes or slots to become
Cr
.. optimum suction critical themselves and act as sources for disturbances. It is clear that the suction
· · · :._�
system must be carefully tailored to the mission at hand if optimum benefits
laminar · . ."-- are to be realized. A well-designed pumping system should restore about one
· · · ... "'--
Cq of the loss attributed to the ram drag.
------
6.5.5 Effects of Surface Roughness

i l--��
·
It is well known that a dirt particle or similar isolated roughness on the surface
I
__L__ _j______j__j_______l._L__
in a region of laminar flow may produce immediate transition, a wedge-shaped
I I I I

6
10
7 8
u= L
10 10 Fig. 6.20. Coefficient of local skin region of turbulent flow originating at the roughness and extending downstrearr.t .
friction of a flat plate at zero inci­ _
V dence [31] . It has also been observed that when roughness height or freestream velocity is
194 6. Transition in Two-Dimensional Flows 6.5 Factors that Influence Transition 195

reduced, the wedge of turbulence may begin some distance downstream from the 6.5.6 Effects of Surface Curvature
roughness element. According to experimental data, see for example, Ref. 29,
Surface curvature can also play an important role in influencing transition.
there is a marked difference between the effects of two-dimensional and isolated
On two-dimensional convex surfaces, transition may occur due to Tollmien­
roughness on transition.
Schlichting (T-S) instability and on three-dimensional convex surfaces due to
If we consider an isolated roughness on a body, we find that depending on
crossflow instability, or T-S, or a combination of both instabilities. On two- and
its shape, the external velocity distribution, location on the body and the fluid
three-dimensional concave surfaces, transition may also occur due to Gortler
viscosity, there is a critical roughness height, often called kcrit , below which the
instability, also known as Taylor-Gortler instability. While the T-S instability
roughness element has no effect on transition; that is, the location of transition
deals with small disturbances superimposed to the flow, the Gortler instability
is the same as that on a smooth surface. As the height of the roughness ele­
deals with the centrifugal instability caused by the curvature of the concave
ment is increased above this value, however, the location of transition moves
surface.
upstream until at a second critical value, say k;rit , transition occurs just aft of
There is an essential difference between the T-S waves shown in Fig. 6.1 and
the roughness element; a wedge-shaped region of turbulent flow then results
the disturbances found by Gortler, shown in F ig. 6.21. The latter type consists
trailing downstream from the roughness element at its apex and of semi-angl�
of vortices with axis oriented in the streamwise direction and is similar to the
of the order of 10° . With a two-dimensional roughness element e.g., a transi­
disturbances first discovered by G.I. Taylor in 1923 in his investigation of the
tion trip-wire, turbulent flow occurs over a whole span immediately aft of the
flow between rotating concentric cylinders. With the outer one at rest and the
roughness element for k > k;rit .
inner one rotating, the flow close to the surface of the outer one is effectively
These two critical heights are of considerable practical importance·· kcn• t de-
that over a concave surface. Instability manifests itself in the form of ring-like
fines the stage at which the roughness begins to produce a noticeable effect on
vortices which appear when the Taylor number Ta defined by
drag due to the forward transition movement ' while k*cn. t is a useful guide to
the height of a trip required to bring the transition to a specified location. The (6.5. 18)
critical roughness height, k;r it , is often used to help to reduce the uncertainties
of scale effect prediction in the use of wind tunnel models to simulate full-scale is approximately greater than 4.1. Here Rd is a Reynolds number based on
behavior in flight. the gap width d between the cylinders and circumferential velocity uo of the
Before closing this brief discussion on the effects of surface roughness on inner cylinder of radius ri. The regular pattern of laminar vortices arising from
transition , it is useful to mention that the minimum Reynolds number based the initial instability is found to continue for values of Ta up to about 4000;
on momentum thickness Re , for producing transition at the roughness element at higher values of Ta the flow becomes turbulent and the vortices lose their
is about 320 for full-developed turbulent boundary layers over a flat plate. The regular pattern.
minimum height of roughness can therefore be estimated from the equation Re+ After Taylor's discovery, Gortler analytically showed that an external flow
6Re = 320, where Re is the Reynolds number on a smooth plate at roughness on a concave surface becomes unstable if
location and 6Re is the increase in Re associated with the drag of the roughness
element. The latter can be expressed in the form

(6.5.17)

where CD is the drag coefficient referred to the velocity uk at the height of

roughness element and has a value of about 3/ 4 in the case of circular wire.
In general, surface roughness promotes transition. Sometimes, this effect is
favorable. This is indeed the purpose of dimples on golf balls. The advantage is
that a turbulent boundary-layer has a better ability to support adverse pressure
gradients without separating and the pressure drag of a sphere is reduced if
separation occurs further downstream when the boundary-layer is turbulent.
Fi g. 6.21. Streamline pattern of Gortler disturbances in laminar boundary-layer on a
concave surface.
 196 6. Transition in Two-Dimensional Flows 6.6 Numerical Solution of the Orr-Sommerfeld Equation 197

Ta = Re � (6.5 . 19) g' = d s - 61> (6.6. ld)

is greater than 0.58. Here Re is the Reynolds number based on the momen­ With these variables, the boundary conditions become
tum thickness, ue/v, and ro is the radius of curvature. Later, Dryden, based on = 0, f = 0 (6.6.2a)
y = 0, </>
Liepmann's experiments [33] , showed that for transition, the values of Ta, de­
pending on the freestream turbulence, are between 6 and 9 [34] . Thus, a concave y = 8; s + (6 + 6 ) f + 6 (6 + (2 )¢ = 0 ;
surface induces instabilities in the flow in the form of streamwise vortices to the g + 6s = 0 (6.6.2b)
subsequent development of turbulent flow, but the process of development can
be lengthy and complex. Forest [35] proposed a correlation which relates the where 6 , defined in Eq. (6.3. 1 7b) attains its value at y = 8.
Taylor number to the freestream turbulence level by We now consider a nonuniform mesh with y = 0 represented by Yo and y = 8
by YJ and approximate the quantities ( f , s , g , </>) at points Yj by (fj , Sj , 9j , </>j ) ­
Ta = 9 e -l7. 3Tu (6.5.20 ) As i n Section 4.5, we write the finite-difference approximations of Eqs. (6.6 . 1 )
for the midpoint Y - ½ using centered-difference derivatives to obtain
Gortler vortices coupled with T-S waves and crossflow instability can trigger j

early transition to turbulence. They may play an important role in internal </>j - </>j -l - c3 ( f1 + Jj - d = ( r1 ) j =0 (6.6.3a)
flows with concave curvature and on modern supercritical laminar flow control
wings which have concave regions near the leading edge and the trailing edges Jj - Jj - l - c3 ( Sj + Sj - i ) - c1 ( </>j + </>j - i ) = ( r3 ) j - l =0 (6.6.3b)
of the lower surface. S - Sj - 1 - c3 ( gj + 9j - l ) = ( r2 )j = 0 (6.6.3c)
j
There have been extensive studies devoted to the improvement and extension
9j - 9j - l - c4 ( Sj + Sj - l ) - c2 ( </>j + </>j - i ) = ( r4 ) j - l = 0 (6.6.3d)
of Gortler's analysis, and a thorough review of these efforts has been reported
by Herbert [36] and Saric [37] . There are a number of fundamental differences Here, with hj - l denoting Yj - Yj - l ,
in these theoretical studies as to the details of the formulation of the problem
as well as in the computed results. These are discussed by Floryan [38] . The (6.6.4)
influence of external disturbances and effects of suction are analyzed by Floryan
and Saric [39] . As in the procedure for solving the boundary-layer equations, Eqs. (6.6.3) are
again written in a sequence which ensures that the Ao-matrix in Eq. ( 4.5.24) is
not singular.
6.6 Numerical Solution of the Orr-Sommerfeld Equation Equations (6.6.3) are imposed for j = l, 2, . . . , J and additional conditions at
j = O and j = J are obtained from the appropriate boundary conditions which,
The box scheme described in Chapter 4 to solve the boundary-layer equations for an external flow , follow from Eqs. (6.6.2) and can be written as
for two-dimensional flows is also very appropriate to solve the Orr-Sommerfeld
equation as we discuss in this section and the linear stability and boundary­ </>o = (r 1 ) 0 = 0 , Jo = ( r2 ) 0
=0 (6.6.5a)
layer equations for three-dimensional flows as we discuss in Chapters 1 1 and 9, fJ + C3 S J + c1 </>1 = h ) 1 = 0 , 91 + C4 S J = ( r4 ) J = 0 (6.6.5b)
respectively.
To formulate the numerical scheme employing the box method, we consider where now
- 1
Eq. (6.3. 16) and its boundary conditions given by (6.3. 18) and (6.3.2 0 ) and c = (6.6.6)
3 6 +6'
reduce them to an equivalent first-order system. We define
The difference equations (6.6.3) and (6.6.5) have trivial solutions Jj = Sj = </>j =
(6.6 . l a) g1 = O for all j and we shall use the iteration procedure described below to find
the special parameter values for which nontrivial solutions exist .
!' = s + d<I> (6 .6.lb ) Since the Orr-Sommerfeld equation and the boundary conditions are ho­
s' = g (6.6. lc) mogenous, the trivial solution <J>(y) = 0 is valid for all values of a , /3, w and R. For
this reason to compute the eigenvalues and the eigenfunctions we first replace
and write Eq. (6.3. 16) as
the boundary condition ¢' (0) = 0 (that is Jo = 0 ) of Eq. (6.6.5) by ¢"(0) = 1 ,
 198 6. Transition in Two-Dimensional Flows 6.6 Numerical Solution of the Orr-Sommerfeld Equation 199

that is so = l . Now the difference equations have a non-trivial solution since upon six scalars. With any four of these scalars fixed, the remaining scalars can
¢" (0) -/= 0 and we seek to adjust or to determine parameter values so that the be computed in such a way that the missing boundary condition ¢' (0) = 0 is
original boundary condition is satisfied . This is achieved by an iteration scheme satisfied. In our finite-difference notation, this corresponds to the condition
based on Newton's method. Specifically, we first write the wall boundary con­
ditions fo (a, /3, w, R) =0 (6.6. 1 1 )
¢0 = ( r1 ) 0 = 0, so = h)o = 1 (6.6.7) The preceding formulation of the numerical method is general but the proce­
and the edge boundary conditions in Eq. (6.6.5b) and Eq. (6.6.3) in matrix­ dure for computing eigenvalues and eigenfunctions is different for two- and three­
vector form as in Eq. ( 4.5.23) , that is, dimensional flows. In the following subsections we consider two-dimensional
flows and postpone the discussion on three-dimensional flows to Chapter 1 1 .
A8 = f ( 4.5.23)
where 6.6.1 Eigenvalue Procedure for Two-Dimensional Flows
¢1 ( r1 ) 1
Sj ( r2 ) For a two-dimensional flow, the parameters 6 to 6 in Eqs. (6.6. 1 ) and (6.6.2)
� = J ' fj = ( r ) 1 (6.6.8) are given by
j 3 1
9j ( r4
and the A1 , B1 , C1 denote 4 x 4 matrices given by
)1
d=a 2
, �� = a2 + iR(au - w) , 6 = iRau" (6.6 . 1 2)

and Eq. (6.6 . 1 1 ) can be written as

1 0 0 0 1 0 - ( c3 ) 1 0
Ao =
0 1
( c1 ) i ( c3 ) i
0
1
0
0
' Aj = 0 1
( ci ) j+1 ( c3 ) j +1
0
1
(
- c3 ) 1 ,
0 l :S j :S J - 1
fo (a, w , R) = 0 (6.6.13)

To discuss the solution procedure for Eq. (6.6. 1 3 ) , let us consider the computa­
( c2 ) i ( c4 ) i O 1 ( c2 ) 1 + 1 ( c4 ) j + 1 0 1 tion of ar , w and R for a specified value of ai . In this case since w is real, the
1 0 - ( c3 ) J 0 solution of Eq. (6.6. 13) can be obtained by fixing one parameter and solving
0 1 0 - ( c3 ) J for the remaining two. The choice of the fixed parameter depends on the slope
AJ = of dar / dR so that, for example, it is more convenient to fix R and solve for O:r
( c1 ) ( c3 ) 1 0
0 ( c4 ) 0 1 and w away from the critical Reynolds number where dar / dR is small. In the
region of critical Reynolds number, dar /dR is large and increases as R � Iler
-1 0 - ( c3 ) 1 0
and it is necessary to specify ar and solve for w and R. To explain these points
0 -1 0 (
- c3 ) 1
1 5: j :S J further, consider the eigenvalue problem corresponding to small dar /dR. Since
0 0 0 0
Jo is complex, ai is given and R is fixed, Eq. (6. 6.13) represents two equa­
0 0 0 0
tions with two unknowns (a r , w) and the equations can be solved by Newton's
0 0 0 0 method. Specifically, if (a 11 , w 11 ) are the v-th iterates, the (v + 1 )-th iterates are
0 0 0 0 determined by using
Cj = ( 0 5, j :S J - l (6.6.9)
C I ) j+ l ( c3 ) j+ 1 - 1 0 a� + l = a� + l5a� (6.6.14a)
( c2 ) j+1 ( c4 ) j +1 0 - 1
w
v+ l
= w l5w
v
+ v
(6.6. 14b)
We note from the difference equations defined by Eqs. (6.6.3) and (6.6.5)
that the solution of Eq. (4.5.23) depends upon the four parameters a, (3, w in Eq. (6.6. 13), expanding Jo
about a� and w 11 and retaining only linear terms
and in the expansion. This gives the linear system by taking J;+ 1 = 0 and g+ 1 = 0
R and we can denote this dependence by writing

8 = 8(a, (3, w, R) (6.6. 10)

(6.6 . 1 5a)

Recalling that a and /3 are complex, and that w is real in spatial-amplific

ation
theory, the above relation implies that the solution of Eq. ( 4.5.23) (6.6. 1 5b)
depends
 200 6. Transition in Two-Dimensional Flows 6.6 Numerical Solution of the Orr-Sommerfeld Equation 201

Here, for convenience, we have dropped the subscript O on f and used r and i (6.6 . 1 9c)
to denote the real and imaginary parts of f at the wall. The solution of Eqs.

[r ( oowf ) - JV ( oowli ) ]
(6.6. 15) is,
v v (6.6 . 1 9d)
ooYr = � r
(6.6. 16a)
Li o r

_
i
To summarize one part of the iteration process for a fixed value of R and
[i;: ofi v o
ff ( fr ) ] for assumed values of ar and w, we solve Eq. (4.5.23) . If the initial estimates
v
Dw = �
v
( ) (6.6. 16b)
where
Lio
of v o v
oar Oa r of a r and w satisfy Eq. (6.6. 13) and that Jo = 0, then of course there is no
need to compute new values of ar and w. On the other hand, if Jo 0, then -/-
Lio = ( r ) ( li ) - ( oli ) ( ofr ) new estimates of ar and w are obtained by Newton's method. With the right­
v v
(6.6. 16c)
Oar ow Oar ow hand side of Eqs. (6.6 . 1 7a,b) given by Eqs. (6.6. 18) and (6.6. 1 9 ) , we solve Eqs.
To evaluate the derivatives of fr and Ji with respect to ar and w, we need only (6.6. 1 7a,b) to compute of /oar and of /ow. Then we compute Dar and ow from
to differentiate Eq. ( 4.5.23) and, since the vector f' is independent of ar and w , Eqs. (6.6. 16) and insert them in Eqs. (6.6. 14) so that we can solve Eq. (4.5.23)
we get : with new estimates of ar and w and satisfy Eq. (6.6 . 1 3) . This process is repeated

A ( OaoZ ) V
=
- ( oA ) v
zv = F (6.6. 1 7a)
until the increments j6wj and j6ar l are less than a specified tolerance parameter.
Once a solution to Eq. (6.6. 13) is obtained at a specified Reynolds number
Oar
r
Ro , we can determine (oar f oR)o and (ow/ 8R)o at R = Ro and decide whether
oZ
A (-
ow )
v
_
oA v ::::
- - ( - ) 6v = r
:::: (6.6. 1 7b)
we are going to solve the eigenvalue problem in which we compute ( ar , w) for a
fixed R, as we did above, or compute (R, w) for a fixed ar , For this purpose we
ow take the total derivative of Eq. (6.6. 13) with respect to R and after separating
the real and imaginary parts of the resulting expression, we get:
We shall refer to the above equations as the variational equations of Eq. (4. 5.23)
with respect to ar and w , respectively. Thus, to obtain the required derivatives,
(6.6.20a)
we need to solve only two linear systems with the same coefficient matrix A
already computed and factored for Eq. (4.5.23) . The vectors on the right-hand
side of Eqs. (6.6. 1 7a) are determined from Eqs. (6.6.3) , (6.6.5b) and (6.6.7) . For (6.6.20b)
Eq. (6 .6.l 7a) (ri )j = (r2 )j = 0 for O S j S J, but h ) j and (r4)j for 1 j J s s
are given by
(6.6. 1 8a) (8ar ) 1 o li
[( ) (
ofr
) (
o fr
)
(81i ) ] (6.6.21a)
oR O = Li o oR O ow O - oR O ow
( Ba8fi ) ]
0

(6.6. 18b) aw 1 8fr oli 8fr

( ) [( ) ( ) ( ) (6.6.21b)
oR O = � o oR O r o- oR o oa r o
(6.6 . 1 8c) where

(!�:)
(6.6.21c)
(r4 ) J =- JS
J
(6.6. 1 8d)
To evaluate the derivatives of fr and Ji with respect to R, this time we differ­
For Eq. (6.6. 1 7b) , again (r1 ) j = (r2 ) j = 0 for O s j s J, but with c 1 , c2 and entiate Eq. ( 4 . 5 . 23) to obtain the variational equations with respect to R,
c3 being independent of w for j S J - l , the coefficients (r 3 ) j and (r4 )j for
1 S j S J are given by (6.6.22)
(r3 )j - l = 0 (6.6. 1 9a)

(r4)j- 1 = 2 ( !�) sj - ½ (6.6. 1 9b) The right hand side vectors of the above equation with (ri ) j
0 S j S J, and with (r3) j and (r4)j for 1 S j S J are:
= (r2 ) j =0 for
 202 6. Transition in Two-Dimensional Flows 6.6 Numerical Solution of the Orr-Sommerfeld Equation 203

(6.6.23a) where now

(6.6.26c)
(6.6.23b)
To find the eigenvalues at a new chosen value of ar , we may again obtain

t
better estimates of w and R by writing
(6.6.23c)
R = Ro + ( :: Oar (6.6.27a)
(6.6.23d)

As before, with the coefficient matrix A already known, we now compute the
relations in Eqs. (6.6.23) so that of /oR can be obtained from the solution of
Eq. (6.6.22) Since 8f/Bar and of jaw are already known from the solutions
of Eqs. (6.6. 1 7) , aa r faR and aw/BR can be computed from Eqs. (6.6.21) to
decide on the choice of the eigenvalue procedure.
It should be mentioned that the values of Bar /BR and 8w/8R can also be
very useful in estimating the initial values of ar and w at a different Reynolds
number where new sets of a r and w are to be obtained. To discuss this point
w = wo + (::J /ar (6.6. 27b)
However, the additional work required to compute 8w/8ar may not justify this
advantage since the calculations are being performed near the critical Reynolds
number region for small increments in ar which make the initial guess and the
eigenvalue problem easier.
The calculation of w and R for a specified value of ar is very similar to the
one in which w and ar are computed for a specified R. With initial estimates of
w and R, Eq. (4.5.23) can be solved to see whether Eq. (6.6. 13) is satisfied. If

t
further, we expand ar and w by Taylor's series and by retaining only the first
term, we write not, new estimates are computed by using Newton's method. Equations similar
ar = (ar )o + ( �; to (6.6.l 7b) and (6.6.22) are solved to get of jaw and of /BR, respectively, and
8R (6.6.24a)
then new increments in R and w are obtained from the solution of Eqs. (6.6.26) .
The procedure is repeated until convergence, when, for example, l8w l and l8RI
w = wo + ( ;; ) /R (6.6.24b) become less than a specified tolerance parameter.
where 8R = R - Ro and subscript O denotes the values of ar and w at R = Ro .
If the slope oar/ BR is greater than a specified quantity, then the strategy 6.6.2 Eigenvalue Procedure for 'Iransition
of computing the eigenvalues for the specified value of ai needs to be changed.
The eigenvalue procedure for computing a needed to predict transition with
This can be done by incrementing a r by small specified values and, for each
the en -method for specified values of w and R is analogous to that described in
value, w and R that satisfies Eq. (6.6. 13) are computed. As in the procedure
the previous subsection. In this case, Eq. (6.6. 13) is expanded with the Taylor

r r
that led to Eqs. (6.6 . 1 5 ) , we now expand f in Eq. (6.6.13) about w v and Rv
series rather than Eqs. (6.6. 15), and linear terms are retained to give
and retain only linear terms in the expansion,

g + ( �: (6.6.28a)
8w v + ( �� 8Rv = o (6.6.25a)

Jr + (��r (��r
8wv + 8Rv = o (6.6.25b)
(6.6.28b)

The solution of these equations is similar to those given by Eq. (6.6. 16) ,
Solving for 8wv and 8Rv , we obtain essentially the same equations as those
given by Eqs. (6.6. 15) if we replace a r by R,
(6.6.29a)
(6.6.26a)
(6.6.29b)
(6.6.26b) where
204 6. Transition in Two-Dimensional Flows
(6.6.29c)
Differentiation of Eq. ( 4.5.23) with respect to O'. r and O'.i leads to the derivatives
of fr and Ji with respect to O'. r and O'.i , and an equation identical to Eq. (6.6. 1 7)
with w replaced by O'.i is obtained. Again the vectors on the right-hand side of
Eq. (6.6. 1 7) are determined from Eqs. (6.6.3), (6.6.5) and (6.6.7) , and (r1 ) j =
(r2 ) j = 0 for O S j S J, and (r3 ) j and (r4 ) j for O S j S J are given by Eqs.
(6.6. 18) with c1 , c2 , c3 and c4 now differentiated with respect to O'. r and O'.i ,
respectively.
References
[1] Herbert, T., "Parabolized Stability Equations," Special Course on Progress in Tran­
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[2] Kleiser, L. and Zong, T.A., "Numerical Simulation of Transition in Wall Bounded
Shear Flows," Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics, Vol. 23, pp. 495-538, 1991.
[3] Emmons, H.W., "The Laminar-Turbulent Transition in a Boundary Layer, Pt. I.," J.
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[4] Schubauer, G.B. and Skramstad, H., "Laminar Boundary-Layer Oscillations and Tran­
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[5] Schubauer, G.B. and Klebanoff, P.S., "Contributions on the Mechanics of Transition,"
NACA TN 3489, 1955.
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[13] Smith, A.M. O . , "Transition, Pressure Gradient , and Stability Theory," Proceedings IX
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W. Taylor Model Basin Rept. 849, 1953.
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[17] Van Ingen, J .L. , "A Suggested Semi-empirical Method for the Calculation of the
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Problems 205
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[22] Hall, A.A. and Hislop, G.S., "Experiments on the Transition of the Laminar Boundary
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[24] Spangler, J.G. and Wells, C.S., "Effect of Free Stream Disturbances on Boundary
Layer Transition," AIAA Journal, Vol. 5, no. 1, 1967.
[25] Cousteix, J. and Pailhas, G., "Etude exploratoire d'un processus de transition lamin­
aire-turbulent au voisinage du decollement d'une couche limite laminaire ," La Rech.
Aerosp. No. 1979-3, 1979.
[26] Kachanov, Y.S., "Physical Mechanisms of Laminar Boundary-Layer Transition," Ann.
Rev. Fluid Mech. , Vol. 26, pp. 41 1-82, 1994.
[27] Wazzan, A.R. , Okamura, T., and Smith, A.M . O . , "The Stability of Water Flow Over
Heated and Cooled Flat Plate," J. Heat Transfer, Vol. 90, pp. 109- 1 14, 1968.
[28] Lowell, R.L. and Reshotko, E., "Numerical Study of the Stability-Heated Water
Boundary Layer," Case Western Reserve University, FTAS TR 73-93, January 1974.
[29] Cebeci, T., and Bradshaw, P. , Physical and Computational Aspects of Convective Heat
Transfer, Springer-Verlag, New York, 1988.
[30] Lee, D.Q. , "Stability and Transition Characteristics of Water Boundary Layers with
Heat Transfer," Master's Thesis, Mechanical Eng. Dept., California State University,
Long Beach, 1985.
[31] Bushnell, D.M. and Hefner, J.N., Viscous Drag Reduction, AIAA "Progress in Aero­
nautics and Astronautics" Series, 1989.
[32] Schlichting, H., Boundary-Layer Theory, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1 98 1 .
[33] Liepman, H.W., "Investigation of Boundary Layer Transition on Concave Walls,"
NACA Wartime Report W-87, 1 945.
[34] Dryden, H . L . , "Recent Advances in the Mechanics of Boundary Layer Flow," In: Ad­
vances in Appl. Mech. I, pp. 1-40, ed. R. von Mises and Th. von Karman, New York,
1948.
[35] Forest, A . E . , "Engineering Predictions of Transitional Boundary-Layers," AGARD CP
224, 1977.
[36] Herbert, T., "On the Stability of the Boundary Layer along a Concave Wall," Arch.
Mech. Stosowanej, Vol. 28, 1976.
[37] Saric, W.S., "Gi:irtler Vortices," Ann. Rev. Fluid Mech. , p. 26, 1994.
[38] Floryan, J., "On the Gi:irtler Instability of Boundary Layers," Prag. Aerospace Sci. ,
Vol. 28, 1991.
[39] Floryan, J. and Saric, W.S., "Stability of Gi:irtler Vortices in Boundary Layers with
Suction," AIAA Paper No. 79- 1479, 1979.
Problems
6-1 . In order to illustrate an eigenvalue problem, consider
d2 y
+ a2 y = 0 0SxS 1
dx 2
and its boundary conditions
206 6. Transition in Two-Dimensional Flows Problems 207

y(O) = 0, y(l) =0 d u
2
2,
-2 - a u
dy
, " du
= i. R. [ ( au - w ) u - iv- + ap
dy
-J (P6.3.2)
A trivial solution is y = 0, but non-trivial solutions ( eigensolutions) exist for
particular values of a (eigenvalues) . Determine the set of eigenvalues and the d2 f; 2, . , . dfj
-2 - a v = iR [ (au - w)u - i- ] (P6.3.3)
corresponding eigenfunctions. dy dy

6-2. (a) Consider a combination of two waves (c) For wall boundary-layer flows, Eqs. (6.3.6) to (6.3.8) or (P6.3.l) to (P6.3.3)
are subject to the following boundary conditions at y = 0
(P6.2 . l )
(P6.3.4)
and show that
f = B cos(kx - wt) (P6.2.2) Show that u, v, and fj behave exponentially as y - oo with a typical asymptotic
representation
with u ~ A 1 e - 6 Y + A2 e-6 Y (P6.3.5)
B = 2A cos(�k x - �wt)
k1 + k2 where A 1 and A2 are constants and 6 and 6 are defined by
k =
2 d = a2 (P6.3.6a)
_
w_
2 -_w_1 k2 - k 1
�w =
2
�k =
2 d = a2 + iR[au - w] (P6.3.6b)
with the restriction that their real parts are not negative.
(b) Assuming that w1 and w2 are close to each other and, k 1 and k2 are also close
to each other, plot qualitatively the function f in Eq. (P6.2.2) as a function of 6-4. The equations in Problem 6.3 can also be expressed in other forms. Show
x for different values of t. that if we represent the amplitude functions of the perturbation quantities u' ,
(c) Plot the locus of the maximum value of B in the plane (x, t) and show that v' and p1 by f, ¢ and ll, respectively, and introduce them into Eqs. (P6.3.l) to
this point travels with velocity �w / �k, called the group velocity. ( P6.3.3) , we get

l
If we consider a more general combination of waves d¢
= iaf (P6.4 . l )
oo dy
f = j-oo ](k) e (kx-w(k)t) dk
+ i
(P6.2.3) . a2
R
du

dy
. a d2 f
af i(au - w) + - + a - ¢ + ilfo 2 - - -2 = 0
R dy
(P6.4.2)
in which the pulsation and the wave number are related through the dispersion [
dll 1 �¢
relation w( k) , the group velocity is dw/dk. It can be shown that the energy - = -i. ( au - w)¢ - -�
¢ + - ­2 (P6.4.3)
is transported with the group velocity. The concept of group velocity is also dy R R dy
important in wave theory as in studying the stability of laminar boundary­
layers (see Section 1 1 .3) .
6-5. Show that the equations in Problem 6.3 can also be expressed as a fourth­
6-3. (a) With the definitions in Eq. (6.3.5) and parallel flow approximation, order differential equation in ¢ in the form given by Eq. (6.3.13).
show that Eqs. (6.3. 1 ) to (6.3.3) can be written in the form given by Eqs.
(6.3.6) to (6.3.8). 6-6. The boundary conditions for the Orr-Sommerfeld equation follow from the
relations given by Eqs. (P6.3.4) and (P6.3.5). At the wall, it follows from Eq.
(b) Show that with q in Eq. (6.3.9) corresponding to u, v,
and p, the continuity (P6.3.4) that
and momentum equations given by Eqs. (6.3.6) to (6.3.8) can be written as fj = 0, ¢ = ¢' = 0 (P6.6. l )
. , dv At the edge of the boundary-layer, Eq. (6.3. 1 3) reduces to
wu + =0 (P6. 3 . l )
dy
¢iv - (d + (? ) ¢" + dd ¢ = o (P6.6.2)
208 6. Transition in Two-Dimensional Flows Problems 209

(a) In order that the disturbances in the boundary-layer decay near the edge of Hint: To obtain Eq. (P6.8.6) , for example, multiply Eqs. (P6.8.2) and (P6.8.3)
the boundary-layer so that ¢ and ¢' -+ 0 as y -+ oo, show that the solutions of by o: and /3, respectively, and add them.
Eq. (P6.6.2) must be of the form given by Eq. (P6.3.5) .
(b) Show that Eqs. (P6.8.6) to (P6.8.8) can also be expressed as a fourth-order
(b) Show that, with D = d/dy, the "edge" boundary conditions on ¢ can be differential equation in ¢
written as
( D 2 + 6 ) (D + 6) ¢ = 0 (P6.8.9)
(P6.6.3a)
( D + 6 ) ( D2 - d)¢ = 0 (P6.6.3b) Hint : Differentiate Eq. (P6.8.6) with respect to y and make use of Eqs. (P6.8.7)
and (P6.8.8) .
6-7. Noting that the characteristic equation for Eq. (P6.6.2) is (c) In boundary-layer flows, u and w tend to constant values as y -+ oo which we
take to be Ue and We , respectively. Show that u, v, w and fj behave exponentially
m (Er + d ) m + dE? = 0 as y -+ oo with a typical asymptotic representation,
4 2
-

verify Eq. (P6.3.5) . (P6.8.10)

6-8. For three-dimensional incompressible flows, the stability equations are where A 1 and A2 are constants, 6 is defined in Eq. (P6.8.5) and E3 is defined
given by [16] by
d= E§ + iR( o: ue + f3we - w) (P6.8. 1 1 )
(P6.8. l)
with the restriction that their real parts again are not negative.
(P6.8.2) (d) Show that the boundary conditions of Eq. (P6.8.9) can be written as (see
Problem 6.6)
(P6.8.3) y = 0, ¢ = ¢' = 0 (P6.8 . 12a)
y -+ x, (D + c,i ) (D + 6 )¢ = 0 (P6.8. 12b)
(P6.8.4) (D + E4 ) ( D 2 - E i )¢ =0 (P6.8. 12c)

where where with Re(x2) and Re(x4) > 0, 6 and E§ are given by Eq. (P6.8.5) and EJ
6 = au + f]w - w, d = o:2 + /32 (P6.8.5) is given by
= E i + i Rc,i
d (P6 .8. 13)
(a) If we represent the amplitude functions of the perturbation quantities u, v,
w and p by J , ¢, g and II, respectively, and introduce them into Eqs. (P6.8 . l ) 6- 9. Rayleigh's theorem discussed in subsection 6.3.2 requires that in order
t o (P6.8.4), we can also express t h e stability equations fo r three-dimensional to have amplified disturbances, the velocity profile u(y) must have a point of
incompressible flows as inflection (u" = 0) within the flow. To show how this can happen with surface
temperature, consider a flat-plate flow with a variable viscosity on a nonporous
surface and write the x-momentum equation
(P6.8.6)
+ w
O = ( �� ) w ( �: ) w µ ( �:� ) w

(P6.8.7) or, with primes denoting differentiation with respect to y, as

(P6. 9 . l )
(P6.8.8)
210 6. Transition in Two-Dimensional Flows Problems 211

The dynamic viscosity µ , which is a function of temperature, decreases with
increasing temperature for liquids and increases with increasing temperature
for gases. From the energy equation it is seen that if the plate is heated so that
Tw > Te , then for a liquid (dT/dy) w and dµ/dT are less than zero, and as a
result
is positive. Conversely, for a cooled plate, (du/dy ) w is negative. As both µw
and u� are positive for either case, it follows that for Tw > Te , u':v < 0, and
for Tw < Te , u'/v > 0. Since the curvature u" is vanishingly small but negative
as y � oo, it follows that if its value at the wall is positive, there must be at
least one point of inflexion in the boundary-layer (i.e., some point at which
u" = 0) . Thus for a liquid, one would expect that heating stabilizes and cooling
destabilizes the laminar boundary-layer. Conversely, for gases in which viscosity
increases with temperature, heating and cooling destabilizes and stabilizes the
flow, respectively.
Show that a similar analysis can be used to show the qualitative effects
of mass transfer (suction and injection) and pressure gradient (favorable and
adverse pressure) on the curvature of the velocity profile and subsequently on
transition. Note that in this case, Eq. (P6 . 9 . l ) becomes,
1 d
11
u - -u 1
Vw
+ - -p
w - v w µ dx
6- 10. Using Granville's method, calculate the transition location on a flat plate.
Compare the result with the one predicted by Michel 's method.
6- 1 1 . Using Granville's method, calculate the location of transition for external
velocity distributions given by Eq. (4.2. 10) for several values of m. Plot Rot, as
a function of Rxt , .
6- 1 2 . (a) Using Granville's method, calculate the location of transition for the
following two flows
( 1) Ue =U
wing. The maximum thickness of the wing is moved towards its trailing edge in
order to have an accelerated flow in a larger percentage of the wing chord.
6- 13. Using Eq. (6.4.5), calculate Rxt, as a function of Tu on a flat plate for
values of Tu between 0.001 and 0.02.
(P6.9.2)
6- 14. Consider an airflow on a flat plate in a wind tunnel in which the turbulence
level is Tu = 0.001. Take u00 = 20 ms- 1 , T00 = 300 K, and p = 10 5 pa.
(a) Calculate the location of transition from the plate leading edge.
(b) By using turbulence grids in the settling chamber, the turbulence level in
the wind tunnel is increased to Tu = 0.01 . Calculate the new transition location.
( c) Determine the freestream velocity required to move the transition at the
same location if no turbulence grids are placed.
6- 15. Roughness is often used in a wind tunnel to trigger transition to simulate
the effects of higher Reynolds number. To study the roughness effects consider
the freestream conditions in the previous problem and neglect the freestream
turbulence effect.
(a) Using Granville's method calculate the location of transition from the plate
(P6.9.3) leading edge and determine the displacement thickness, o;r , at this location.
(b) In order to move the transition location towards the leading edge, let us
place a wire of circular cross-section with diameter d at Xw = 0.2 m. Assume
that the movement of transition due to the wire is given by
Ue 8;r 900
(P6 . 1 5 . l )
lJ d/8:V
with o;r denoting the displacement thickness a t transition location. Calculate
the displacement thickness 8:0 of the unperturbed boundary-layer at the wire
location.
(c) What is the maximum wire diameter, dmin , 1 , below which transition is not
affected by the wire? Hint : Transition is not affected if Eq. (P6 . 1 5 . 1 ) predicts a

{
oo
transition location downstream of the natural transition location.
X '.S Xe
(2) Ue = U oo -
Xe ( d) If the wire diameter is larger than drnin , 1 , the location o f transition will be
Uoo X 2: Xe closer to the wire. Calculate the transition location for d = 0.4 mm.

Take u 00 = 20 ms- 1 , Xe = 0.5 m, v = 1 . 585 x 10- 5 m2 s- 1 . ( e) Calculate the minimum wire diameter drn in,2 for which transition occurs at
the wire location. Note that if the wire diameter is larger than dmin , 2 , transition
(b) Explain why transition is delayed in (2) . Note that this principle is used on remains at the wire location but the boundary- layer is overthickened by a
sailplanes, for example, in order to achieve laminar flow on a large part of a certain amount which increases with the wire diameter.
212 6. Transition in Two-Dimensional Flows Problems 213

6- 16. The Orr-Sommerfeld equation derived in Section 6.3 can also be extended ( c) Show that, as before, Eqs. (P6.16. 7) and (P6.16.8) can also be expressed in
to include heat transfer effects in incompressible flows. In the approach used by the following form for two-dimensional flows
Wazzan et al. [26], the density of the flow is assumed constant but its dynamic
[(0:u - w)(ef/' - a 2 ¢) - au"</J] iR (P6.16.9)
viscosity JL is a function of temperature. With this restriction, the continuity
and the Navier-Stokes equations for p = const and µ = µ(T) can be written in = µ (¢iv - 2a 2 ¢" + a 4 ¢) + 2JJ, ' ( ¢"' - a 2 ¢') + µ" ( ¢" + a 2 ¢)
the following form: where µ is the dynamic viscosity with JJ,' and JJ,'' denoting its first and second
(P6.16.l) derivatives with respect to y, respectively.

(P6.16.2) 6- 17. Show from Eq. (6.3.9) that if A is the amplitude of the disturbance stream
function ·l/J at any time, then

(P6.16.3) ( a) for temporal amplification theory

The derivation of the stability equation in this case is identical to that described A it
- = exp Wi dt (P6.l 7.l)
in Section 6.3 except now the variation of µ is obtained from the relation between Ao o
viscosity and temperature and from the energy equation, which in terms of total
and
enthalpy H, can be written as
(b) for spatial amplification theory,
(P6.16.4)
A
- = exp
ix -ai x d (P6. l 7.2)
Ao o
(a) Using the procedure of Section 6.3 and noting again that the mean ve­
Here subscript O denotes the initial state where the TS waves are neutrally
locity and pressure satisfy the two-dimensional equations of motion given by
stable.
Eqs. (P6.16. l) to (P6.16.4), using the parallel-flow approximation, and the di­
mensionless variables defined by Eq. (6.3 .5), show that x- and y-momentum
equations can be written as

av'
+ U
av'
+
op'
= _!!:_ [8 v' + (J v' ]
2 2
+
� [)µ av' (P6.16.6)
at OX [)y R ox 2 oy 2 R ay ay
where µ denotes a dimensionless viscosity ratio defined by µ / µo and R is now
defined by uo£/vo . It should be noted that Eqs. (P6.16.5) and (P6.16.6) neglect
temperature fluctuations.

(b) As in Section 6.3, assuming that the small disturbance is a sinusoidal trav­
eling wave that can be represented by Eq. (6.3.9) where q is replaced by u, v,
and p; show that Eqs. (P6.16.5) and (P6. 1 6.6) can be written as

u ,
µ
iR , ., du , 1 dµ , . du
2
- a2u
d
= [ ( au - w)u - iv + ap - (av - i )] (P6.16 .7)
dy 2 dy R dy dy

v , d'fi 2i dµ dv
µ
iR .
2
d ,
dy 2
- a2v = [ ( au - w)v - i
dy
+
R dy dy
] (P6.16.8)
 Stability-Transition Program
for External Flows
and Its Applications

7 . 1 Introduction
In Section 6.6 of the previous chapter, we have discussed the numerical solution
of the Orr-Sommerfeld equation and the prediction of transition with the en­
method. In Section 7.2 of this chapter we present and describe a stability­
transition program (STP) for calculating neutral stability curves and the onset
of transition in two-dimensional external flows. In Section 7.3 we consider the
Blasius flow and use STP to calculate the eigenvalues on the lower branch of a
neutral stability curve. In Section 7.4 we use STP first to calculate the onset
of transition on a flat plate flow and follow it with airfoil, ellipse and prolate
spheroid flows.
STP assumes that velocity profiles u and u" at each x-station are calculated
as a function of TJ with the boundary-layer program (BLP2) of Section 5.2. For
convenience, the velocity uo and length l in the Orr-Sommerfeld equation are
chosen to correspond to the same velocity and length scales used in BLP2,

l- - X
1LQ = Ue , - (7. 1 . 1 )
- ./Rx
so that the same grid in BLP2 can b e used in STP. This means that u and u"
in STP are related to the output of BLP2 by
U = j' , u" = J "' (7.1.2)
and the Reynolds number i n the Orr-Sommerfeld equation i s given by

R
= uol = /"Rx (7. 1 . 3)

The parameter J"' can be obtained either by differentiating J" with respect
to TJ or from the finite-differenced momentum equation, Eq. (4.5. 15) which for
laminar flow can be written as
1
vj = U'/'t = -a1 ( Jv ) 1J + a2 (u;t - O'.n ( vr;- ff -
1
r;-
vJ ) + R7
F1
(7. 1 .4)
F1
where R7 is given by Eq. (4.5. 16a) .
216 7. Stability-Transition Program 7.2 Computer Program 217

With boundary-layer profiles known at each x-station, the stability calcula­ The calculation of the eigenvalues a and w at NX = NXO (s = so) also requires
tions can be started at any x-station where the critical Reynolds number, Rcr is the specification of their initial estimates at the Reynolds number corresponding
less than the Reynolds number used in the boundary-layer calculations. For ex­ to its value at so. For Blasius flow, they can be obtained from the already
ternal flows, an estimate of R8�r can be obtained from Fig. 6.5 with R8 • known constructed stability diagrams, such as those given by Fig. 6.4. When other
from the boundary-layer calculations and included in the output subroutine. figures are used, care should be taken to ensure that the estimated eigenvalues
The calculations for transition are first performed for a neutral stability have the same length and velocity scales as those used in STP.
curve at the specified x-location where R(= v1l{;) is known. The calculation The velocity profiles u and u" needed in the stability equation are obtained
of w and a requires initial estimates for the velocity profiles of u and u". A by calling VELPRO , and the calculations for neutral stability are performed
convenient procedure to achieve this is the continuation method discussed in [1] by calling NEWTON and for amplification rates ai and n-factor by calling
but , to retain a comparatively simple program, this is not part of the present NEWTON!.
description. The initial estimates of w and a for a given R can be obtained for
Blasius flow. C MAI N PROGRAM
To calculate the location of the onset of transition, it is usually sufficient COMPLEX ALFA, OMEGA , DELA
COMMON/BLCO/ NP, NX, NXT , NXO , I X , I X T , RL, C,
to perform neutral stability calculations at four x-locations so that four fre­ + U I N F , ETA ( lOl) , D ETA ( lOl) , A ( lO l )
quencies can be computed and amplification rates determined on four curves COMMON/BLCC/ X ( 1 0 1 ) , S ( 1 0 1 ) , UE ( 10 1 ) , R X ( 10 1 )
with constant dimensional frequencies. While STP is general and can be used COMMON/BLC5/ ALFA , OMEGA , DELA , DELR, REY ( l Ol)
for external flows with suction and injection as well as free shear flows such as COMMON/BLCB/ QSUM ( lO l ) , RLAST ( l Ol) , LAST ( lOl)
jets and wakes, changes are required to accommodate boundary conditions and COMMON/BLCP/ U ( lOl) , V ( lO l ) , UUDP ( lO l ) , UUB ( lO l ) ,UUDPB ( lO l )
COMMON/BLCD/ I END
provide better estimates of initial eigenvalues where required. STP can also be C - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
used for external flows with heat transfer as discussed in [1]. REWI ND 1
READ ( 5 ,8000) NXT , NXO , IXT
READ (5 ,8101) U I N F , C , RL
7.2 Computer Program READ (5 ,8101) ALFA , OMEGA
WRITE ( 6 , 9000 ) NXT , NXO, IXT
WRITE ( 6 , 9 100) U I N F , RL , C
STP consists of MAIN and four subroutines - VELPRO, CSAVE, NEWTON READ ( 5 , 8101) (X ( l ) , I = l , NXT)
and NEWTON! - and are described in the following subsections. READ ( 5 ,8101) ( S ( l ) , I = l , NXT )
READ ( 5 ,8101) (U E ( l } , I = l , NXT)
C CALCULAT ION OF STAB I L I TY REYNOLDS NUMBER
7.2.1 MAIN DO 400 I = l , NXT
QSUM ( l ) = 0 . 0
In MAIN the total number of x-stations (NXT) and the x-station where the RX ( l ) = UE ( l ) *S ( l ) *RL
stability calculations begin (NXO) are identified together with the requirement REY ( ! ) = SQRT ( RX ( l ) )
of neutral stability (IXT = 0) or transition. In the latter case, it is necessary to 400 CONT INUE
WRITE ( 6 , 9200) (I , X ( I ) , U E ( l ) , RX ( ! ) , REY ( ! ) , I = l , NXT)
specify the number of frequencies, and this is done by setting IXT to 1 , 2, or IX = 0
any number other than zero but less than twenty so that, for example, 1 will NX = 1

lead to transition calculations for one frequency and 2 for two frequencies, etc. I END = 0
To calculate the neutral stability curves, the dimensionless external velocity CALCU LAT ION OF VELOC ITY PROF! LE
100 CALL VELPRO
UE(I) (= u e /u00 ) is required as a function of surface distance S(I) (= s/ L) , to­
IF ( NX . LT . NXO ) GD TO 500
gether with Reynolds number R L (= u= L/v) , a reference length L and velocity IX = IX + 1
UINF (= u= ) - The stability Reynolds number REY(I) (= R) is then calculated LAST ( I X) = 0
from Eq. (6.3.25b) with Rx given by I F ( I END .GT . 0 ) LAST ( IX ) = 1
I F ( I XT . N E . O . AND . I X . GT . IXT) GO TO 350
CALCULAT ION OF NEUTRAL STAB ! L I TY CURVE
(7.2.1)
IF ( I END . EQ. 0 ) CALL N EWTON
218 7. Stability-Transition Program 7 . 2 Computer Program 219

I F ( I XT . EQ . O . OR . I X . EQ . 1 ) GO TO 500 ANG2 = ATAN2 ( DV , D ETAS)

CALCULATION OF AMPL I FICATION FACTOR DETAI = DETAS
350 CALL NEWTON! DV I = DV
500 NX = NX + 1 DETA2 = DETAS
I F ( NX . GT . NXT ) GO TO 1000 DO 10 I = 2 , NPl
GO TO 100 ANG l = ANG2
8000 FORMAT (20!3) DET Al = DETA2
8101 FORMAT (7Fl0 . 0) I1 = I+l
9000 FORMAT ( lH 0 , 5 X , lOHNXT = , ! 10 , 2X , 10HNXO = , ! 10 , 2X , DETAS = ETA ( l l ) -ETA ( l )
+ lOH I XT = , ! 10 ) DV = V ( l l) -V ( l )
9100 FORMAT ( lH0 , 5X , 10HU INF = , F10 . 3 , 2X , 10HRL = , F l5 . l , ANG2 = ATAN2 (DV, DETAS)
+ 2 X , 10HC = , Fl0. 5 , ///) OETA2 = DETAS
9200 FORMAT ( lH 0 , 6 X , 2HNX ,8X, lHX, 14X , 2HUE, 13X, 2HRX , 12X, 3HREY / ANG = ( DETA2*ANGl+DETA l*ANG2) / ( DETAl+DETA2)
+ ( lH , 5X , ! 3 , 4El5 . 6) ) UUDP ( l ) = TAN (ANG)
1000 STOP 10 CONT INUE
END DVF = DV
DETAF = DETA2
C EXTRAPOLATE FOR END VALUES
7.2.2 Subroutine VELPRO UUOP ( l ) = 2. *DVI /DETAI - UUOP (2)
UUOP (NP)= 2 . *DVF/DETAF - UUOP (NPl)
The velocity profiles for STP can be generated by any boundary-layer method 00 180 J=2, NP
or, in some cases such as that of a fully developed duct flow, can be generated UUB (J) = 0 . 5* ( U (J ) +U (J - l ) )
analytically. For external flows, we assume that they are provided by BLP2 UUOPB (J) = 0 . 5*(UUOP (J)+UUDP(J - l ) )
180 CONTINUE
of Section 5.2. The read-in values of KX and NP in this subroutine refer to 50 FORMAT ( 215 )
the NX-station and the j-points (J) where the profiles are computed. With the 60 FORMAT ( 6El4 . 6 )
specification of U(J) (= J') and V(J) (= J") as a function of ETA(J) (= nj ) , 3000 FORMAT ( lH0 ,2X , ' INCONS ISTENT DATA . NX = ' , 13 , 2X, ' KX = ' , ! 3 , 2X ,
UUDP (J) ( = u'j ) are calculated, by differentiating V ( J) with respect to T/· + ' NP = ' , 1 4 / 3X, ' PROGRAM STOPS . ' )
RETURN
END
SUBROUT I N E VE LPRO
COMMON/BLCO/ NP, NX, NXT, NXO, I X , IXT, RL, C ,
+ U I NF , ETA ( lOl) , OETA ( lO l ) , A ( lO l ) 7.2.3 Subroutine CSAVE
COMMON/BLCC/ X (lOl) , S ( lO l ) , U E ( lOl) , RX ( lO l )
COMMON/BLCP/ U ( 101) , V ( 1 01) , UUDP ( 101) , UUB ( 101) , UUDPB ( 101)
This subroutine is used to obtain the solutions of the Orr-Sommerfeld equation
COMMON/BLCD/ I END
C - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - for a given set of a and w when the neutral stability curve is required or ar
READ ( 1 , 50) KX , N P and ai for the determination of the location of the onset of transition. The
I F ( K X . EQ . NX ) G O T O 150 standard problem refers to the solution of Eq. ( 4.5.23) subject to the boundary
WRITE ( 6 , 3000 ) NX , KX , NP condition that ¢" (0) (= sa ) is equal to l. The definitions of (CI )j to (C4 ) j in
STOP 2
150 READ ( 1 , 60) ( ETA (J) , J = l , N P )
the Orr-Sommerfeld equation, as well as the edge definitions, are given by Eqs.
READ ( 1 , 60) ( U(J) ,J = l ,NP ) (6.6.4) and (6.6.6) , respectively, and the Pj terms by Eqs. (6.6.3) and (6.6.7) .
READ ( 1 , 60) ( V (J) ,J =l , NP ) All values of Pj are zero except for (r2 ) a which is equal to 1 because of the
DO 400 J=2 , N P requirement that Sa = 1 .
DETA ( J - 1 ) =ETA (J ) - ETA ( J - 1 )
This subroutine also contains the coefficients o f the variational equations o f
A (J) =O. 5*DETA (J-1)
400 CONT INUE the standard problem, Eq. (4.5.23) , with respect t o a, w and R , together with
C COMPUTE UUDP ( J ) the right-hand sides of these equations as given by Eq. (6.6.18) for those with
NPl = NP-1 respect to a, Eq. (6.6. 19) for w, and Eq. (6.6.23) for R.
DETAS = ETA(2) -ETA ( l )
DV = V(2)-V(l)
220 7. Stability-Transition Program 7 . 2 Computer Program 221

The variational equations are written with respect to a, w and R, but the BC3 = 1 . 0/ALSQ
coefficient matrix A in Eq. ( 4.5 .23 ) is the same. For this reason, it is only BC4 = SQU IG
GO TO 2000
necessary to define those ( f'_j ) terms that are not zero.
C VARIATI ONAL EQUAT I ONS
This subroutine also contains the block-elimination algorithm to solve Eq. 200 II = II + 1
(4.5 . 23 ) with the procedure described in subsection 4.5.3. Note that AA ( l , 1 , 1 ) C WRT ALFA
and AA(2 , 2 , 1 ) denote (a1 1 ) 0 and (a 22 ) 0 and correspond to the "wall" boundary AI REY = REY l*ALFA
conditions. DO 250 J = 2 , NP
WB = 0 . 5 * ( WS ( J ) +WS (J - 1 ) )
SB = 0 . 5* ( 5S (J ) +SS (J - 1 ) )
SUBROUTINE CSAVE
R ( 3 , J - l ) = -2 . 0*WB*DETA (J - l ) *ALFA
COMPLEX ALFA , OMEGA , SQM l , A LSQ , REY ! , GAMMA, GAMMAS , AI REY ,
R ( 4 , J - l ) = -SB*DETA (J - 1 ) * ( 2 . 0*ALFA+REY l*UUB(J) )+
1 SQUIG , SS I V , R , C l , C2 , C3 , C 4 , BC l , BC2 , BC3 , BC4 ,
WB*DETA ( J - 1 ) *REY I *UUDPB ( J )
2 SS , FS , WS , GS, WSAR, SSAR, WSOM, SSOM, WSR, SSR , WB, SB,
2 5 0 CONT INUE
3 DELS , DELF, DELW , DELG ,AA ,AJ , AAl , AA2 ,AA3 , AA4 , DET,
R ( 3 , NP) = SS (NP) * (ALFA/GAMMA+ALFA/SQU IG+O . 5*REYI *U ( N P ) /
4 GG , W l , W2 , W 3 , W4 , 881 , 882 , BB3 , BB4 , BB5 , BB6 , DETT , CCl , CC2 , DDl ,
1 SQUIG) / ( GAMMA+SQU IG) **2 -WS (NP) *ALFA/GAMMA
5 DD2 , DD3 , DD4 , DD5 , DD6 , DENO, UM, UMA , UMO , UMR, DELA
R ( 4 , NP) = - S S (NP) * ( 2 . O*ALFA+REY l*U (NP) ) /SQU IG*O . 5
COMMON/BLCO/ N P , NX, NXT , NXO , I X , I X T , RL, C ,
R(2, 1 ) = (0.0,0.0)
+ U I N F , ETA ( lOl) , DETA ( lOl) , A ( lO l )
GO T O 2000
COMMON/BLCC/ X ( l Ol) , 5 ( 101) , U E ( l Ol) , RX ( lOl)
400 I I = II + 1
COMMON/BLC5/ ALFA , OMEGA, DELA , DELR, REY ( 1 01)
C WRT OMEGA
COMMON/BLC3/ Cl ( 10 1 ) , C2 ( 101) , C3 ( 101) , C4 ( 101)
DO 425 J = 2 , N P
COMMON/BLC4/ UM ( 4, 1) , UMA( 4 , 1 ) , UMO ( 4, 1 ) , UMR ( 4, 1)
SB = 0 . 5 * ( 5S ( J ) +SS (J - 1 ) )
COMMON/BLCP/ U ( 101) , V ( 1 0 1 ) , UUDP ( 1 0 1 ) , UUB ( 101) , UUDPB ( 101)
R ( 3 , J - l ) = (0 . 0 , 0 . 0 )
DI MENS ION AA ( 4 , 4 , 101) , W l ( 101) , W2 ( 1 01) , W3 ( 101) , W4 ( 101) , R( 4 , 101) ,
R ( 4 , J - l ) = SB*DETA ( J - l ) *REY I
GG ( 4 , 4 , 10 1 ) , DELW ( 1 0 1) , DELS ( 101) , DELF ( 1 01) , DELG ( 1 0 1 ) ,
425 CONTI NUE
2 5 S ( 1 0 1 ) , FS ( lO l ) ,WS ( lO l ) ,GS ( lOl) , WSAR ( l Ol) ,
R ( 4 , NP) = SS (NP) *REYI /SQU IG*0 . 5
3 SSAR ( lO l ) , WSOM ( lOl) , SSOM ( lOl) , WS R ( l Ol) , SSR ( lO l )
C - - - R ( 3 , NP) = - R ( 4 , NP) / (GAMMA+SQU IG) **2
R (2 , l ) ( 0 . 0 , 0 .0)
SQMl = ( 0 . 0 , 1 . 0)
GO TO 2000
GAMMAS = ALFA**2
500 I I II + 1
GAMMA = CSQRT(GAMMAS)
C WRT REY
REY! = SQMl *REY ( NX)
DO 525 J = 2 , N P
SQU IG = CSQRT (GAMMAS+REY I* (ALFA*U (NP) -OMEGA) )
SB = 0 . 5* ( 5 S ( J ) +SS (J- 1 ) )
II = 0
WB = 0 . 5*(WS ( J ) +WS (J - l ) )
11 = II + 1
R ( 3 , J - l ) = (0 . 0 , 0 . 0)
DO 150 J = 2 , NP
R ( 4 , J - l ) = -SQMl*DETA (J- l ) * ( SB* (ALFA*UUB ( J ) -OMEGA)
C3 ( J ) = 0. 5*DETA ( J - l )
-WB*ALFA*UUDP B (J ) )
Cl ( J ) = C3 (J) *GAMMAS
525 CONT INUE
C2 ( J ) = -C3 (J) *REY l*ALFA*UUDPB (J)
SSIV = ALFA*U (NP) -OMEGA
C4 (J) = C3 ( J ) * (GAMMAS+REY l* (ALFA*UUB(J) -OMEGA) )
R ( 4 , NP) = -SS (NP) *SQMl*SS I V*0 . 5/SQUIG
C STANDARD PROBLEM
R ( 3 , NP) = - R ( 4 , NP)/ (GAMMA+SQU IG) **2
DO 150 K = 1, 4
R ( 2 , l) = ( 0 . 0 , 0 . 0)
1 50 R ( K , J) (0. 0 , 0. 0 )
C BLOCK ELIMI NATION ALGORITHM
R(2, l) ( 1 . 0 , 0 . 0)
2000 DO 2050 I = 1 , 4
R ( l , 1) (0 . 0 , 0 . 0 )
D O 2050 K = 1 , 4
R(3 , l) (0. 0 , 0 . 0 )
AA ( ] , K , 1) = ( 0 . 0 , 0 . 0 )
R(4,l) (0.0,0.0)
2050 CONT INUE
C EDGE BOUNDARY COND I T I ONS
C WAL L BOUNDARY CONDIT IONS
ALSQ = GAMMA+SQU IG
AA ( l , 1 , 1 ) ( 1 . 0 , 0 .0)
BCl = GAMMA
AA (2 , 2 , l ) = ( 1 . 0 , 0 . 0)
BC2 = (0 . 0 , 0 . 0 )
222 7. Stability-Transition Program 7.2 Computer Program 223

Wl(l) = R(l,l) DDl = AA ( l , l , J ) -AA ( l , 3 , J ) *C l (J+l ) -AA ( l , 4 , J ) *C2 {J+ l )

W2 ( 1 ) = R (2 , l ) DD2 = AA ( l , 2 , J ) -AA ( l , 3 , J ) *C3 {J + l ) - AA { l , 4 , J ) *C4 ( J + l )
W3 ( 1 ) = R(3, 1 ) DD3 = AA{2 , l , J ) -AA ( 2 , 3 , J ) *C l (J+l) -AA ( 2 , 4 , J ) *C2(J + l )
W4 ( 1 ) = R (4 , l ) DD4 = AA { 2 , 2 , J ) -AA ( 2 , 3 , J ) *C3 {J+ 1 ) -AA { 2 , 4 , J ) *C4 (J+ 1)
C FORWARD SWEEP DD5 = W l ( J ) -AA { l , 3 , J ) *CC1-AA ( l , 4 , J ) *CC2
DO 2 1 00 J = 2 , NP DD6 = W2 ( J ) -AA {2 , 3 , J ) *CC1 -AA {2 , 4 , J ) *CC2
AJ = C3(J) DENO = DDl *DD4-DD2*DD3
AAl = AA ( l , l , J - 1 ) -C l (J ) *AA ( 1 , 3 , J - l ) -C2 {J ) *AA( 1 , 4 , J - 1 ) DELW { J ) = {DD5*DD4-DD2*DD6)/DENO
AA2 = AA (2 , l , J - l ) - C l ( J ) *AA { 2 , 3 , J - 1 ) -C2 { J ) *AA ( 2 , 4, J - 1 ) DELS ( J ) = (DD l*DD6-DD3*DD5) /DENO
AA3 = AA ( l , 2 , J - l ) -C3 (J ) *AA { 1 , 3 , J - 1 ) -C4 {J ) *AA { 1 , 4, J - 1 ) D E L F { J ) = CC1-Cl (J+ l ) *DELW ( J ) - C 3 { J+ l ) * DELS { J )
AA4 = AA (2 , 2 , J - l ) -C3 (J ) *AA ( 2 , 3 , J - 1 ) -C4 ( J ) *AA ( 2 , 4 , J - 1 ) DELG ( J ) = CC2-C2 (J+l ) *DELW ( J ) -C4 {J+l) *DELS { J )
DET = AAl *AA4-AA2*AA3 I F {J . GT . 1 ) G O T O 2 1 50
GG ( l , l , J ) = (AA4* ( C l ( J ) *AJ - l . O ) -AA2*C3(J ) *AJ) /DET GO TO { 2500 , 2600 , 2800 , 2900 ) , I I
GG ( l , 2 , J ) = (AAl*C3 (J ) *AJ -AA3* ( C l (J ) *AJ - 1 . 0 ) ) /DET C SOLUTI ON OF THE STANDARD PROBLEM
GG ( 1 , 3 , J ) = -AJ-AA ( 1 , 3 , J - 1 ) *GG ( 1 , l , J ) -AA ( 2 , 3, J - 1 ) *GG ( 1, 2 , J ) 2500 DO 2 5 1 0 J = l , N P
GG ( 1 , 4 , J ) = -AA ( 1 , 4, J - 1 ) *GG ( 1 , l , J ) -AA ( 2 , 4 , J - 1 ) *GG ( 1 , 2 , J ) WS { J ) = DELW { J )
GG (2 , l , J ) = (C2 (J ) *AJ*AA4-AA2* (C4 (J ) *AJ -1 . 0) ) /DET SS{J) = DELS { J )
GG ( 2 , 2 , J ) = ( AAl* (C4 (J ) *AJ - l . O ) -AA3*C2 (J ) *AJ) /DET FS { J ) = DELF(J)
GG (2 ,3 , J ) = -AA ( l , 3 , J - l ) *GG (2 , l , J ) -AA(2 ,3 , J - 1 ) *GG (2 , 2 , J ) GS (J) = DELG ( J )
GG ( 2 , 4 , J ) = -AJ-AA ( 1 , 4 , J - 1 ) *GG ( 2 , l , J ) -AA ( 2 , 4, J - 1 ) *GG ( 2 , 2 , J ) 2 5 1 0 CONT INUE
AA ( l , l , J ) = ( 1 . 0 , 0 . 0) -C l (J ) *GG ( l , 3 , J ) -C2(J ) *GG ( l , 4 , J ) UM {3 , l ) = DELF { l )
AA ( l , 2 , J ) = -GG ( l , 3 , J ) *C3 (J ) -GG ( l , 4 , J ) *C4(J ) GO TO 200
AA ( l , 3 , J ) = -AJ+GG ( l , 3 , J ) C SOLU T I ON OF THE VARI AT I ONAL EQUATION -- WRT ALFA
AA ( l , 4 , J ) = GG ( l , 4 , J ) 2600 DO 2610 J = l , NP
AA ( 2 , l ,J ) = - C l ( J ) *GG(2 , 3 , J ) -C 2 { J ) *GG { 2 , 4 , J ) WSAR ( J ) = DELW { J )
AA{2 , 2 , J ) = { l . O , O . O ) -GG (2 , 3 , J ) *C3 (J ) -GG{2 , 4 , J ) *C4 {J SSAR ( J ) = DELS ( J )
AA{2 , 3 , J ) = GG { 2 , 3 , J ) 2 6 1 0 CONTINUE
AA ( 2 , 4, J ) = -AJ+GG ( 2 , 4 , J ) UMA (3 , 1 ) = DE L F ( l )
Wl{J) = R ( l , J ) -GG { l , l , J ) *Wl (J- l ) -GG ( l , 2 , J ) *W2 { J - l ) G O T O 400
1 -GG ( l , 3 , J ) *W3 (J - 1 ) -GG ( 1 , 4 , J ) *W4 { J - l ) C SOLU T I ON OF THE VARIATIONAL EQUATION - -WRT OMEGA
W2 ( J ) = R { 2 , J ) -GG { 2 , l , J ) *Wl ( J - l ) -GG ( 2 , 2 , J ) *W2 ( J - 1 ) 2800 DO 2810 J = 1 , NP
1 -GG ( 2 , 3 , J ) *W3 { J - 1 ) -GG ( 2 , 4, J ) *W4 ( J - 1 ) WSOM ( J ) = DELW { J )
W3 { J ) = R{3,J) SSOM { J ) = DELS {J)
W4 (J) = R (4 , J ) 2810 CONT I NUE
2 100 CONTI NU E UM0 { 3 , l ) = DEL F { l )
C BACKWARD SWEEP GO T O 500
J = NP C SOLUT I ON OF THE VARIAT I ONAL EQUAT I ON - -WRT REY
B81 = AA( l , l , J ) -AA { l , 3 , J ) *BC l -AA { l , 4 , J ) *BC2 2900 DO 2910 J=l , N P
B82 = AA ( l , 2 , J ) -AA{ l , 3 , J ) *BC3 -AA ( l , 4 , J ) *BC4 WSR (J) =DELW ( J )
B83 = AA { 2 , l , J ) -AA { 2 , 3 , J ) * BC1 -AA ( 2 , 4 , J ) *BC2 S S R { J ) =DELS { J )
B84 = AA ( 2 , 2 , J ) -AA ( 2 , 3 , J ) *BC3 -AA ( 2 , 4 , J ) *BC4 2 9 1 0 CONT INUE
8B5 = W l (J ) -AA { l , 3 , J ) *W3 { J ) -AA { l , 4 , J ) *W4{ J ) UMR ( 3 , 1) =DELF { 1 )
B86 = W2{J ) -AA ( 2 , 3 , J ) *W3 (J ) -AA ( 2 , 4 , J ) *W4 ( J ) RETURN
DETT = B81 *B84-B82*8B3 END
DELW (J) = (BB4*BB5-BB2*8B6) /DETT
DELS { J ) = {BBl *8B6-B83*8B5) /DETT
DELF { J ) = W 3 { J ) -BC1 *DELW (J ) -BC3 *DELS {J) 7.2.4 Subroutine NEWTON
DELG { J ) = W4 { J ) -BC2 *DELW ( J ) -BC4 *DELS { J )
2 1 50 J = J-1 For initial estimates of ALFA(= o:r ) and OMEGA(= w), this subroutine com­
CCl = W 3 ( J ) -Cl {J+ 1 ) *DELW (J+ 1 ) -C3 {J+ 1 ) *DELS (J+ 1 ) +DELF {J+ 1 ) putes the eigenvalues o: and w according to the procedure described in Sec­
CC2 = W4 { J ) - C 2 (J+ 1 ) *DELW ( J + 1 ) - C 4 { J + 1 ) *DELS { J + 1) +DELG {J+ 1 ) tion 6.6. The perturbation quantities DALFA(= Oar ) and DOMEGA (= Dw) are
224 7. Stability-Transition Program 7.2 Computer Program 225

computed according to Eq. (6.6.16). Upon convergence of the iterations, the di­ ! END = 1
mensional frequencies W SO (IX) (= w* ) are calculated and printed for that NX­ RETURN
114 ARl = AR + DALPHA
station, and for each corresponding frequency, IX, together with the values of a
OMl = OR + DOMEGA
and w which serve as initial estimates for the next NX-station ( or R ) , are stored. ALFA = CMPLX ( ARl , AI
Also stored are the values of UM(= f0 ) , UMA(= af0 /aa) , UMO(= af0 /aw) , OMEGA = CMPLX ( OMl , 0 1 )
UMR (= af0 /8R) , UE and REY. I F ( (ABS ( DALPHA) . LE . EPS) .AND. {ABS (DOMEGA) . LE . EPS) )
+ GO TO 1 1 5
SUBROUTINE NEWTON I F ( ! T I M E . LE . 10 ) GO T O 9 0
COMPLEX ALSAVE , OMSAVE, FSSAV E, FASAV E, FOSAVE , FRSAVE ,ALFAl , OMEGA l , W R I T E ( 6 , 50 )
1 UM, UMA, UMO , UMR, ALFA , OMEGA , FSTD , FALFA, FOMGA , DELA STOP 5
D I MENS I ON WSO ( lO l ) SAVE DATA FOR DEFAULT VALUE
COMMON/BLCO/ N P , N X , NXT , NXO , I X , I XT , RL, C , 115 WRITE ( 6, 30 ) I T IME ,ARl , OM l , DALPHA , DOMEGA
+ U I N F , ETA ( lO l ) , DETA ( lOl) , A ( lOl) WSO ( I X ) = REAL(OMEGA)*UE(NX)*UI NF* REY {NX ) /S ( NX) /C
COMMON/BLCC/ X { l Ol) , S ( lOl) , U E ( lOl) , RX { lOl) I F ( IX . GT . 20 ) GO TO 130
COMMON/BLCP/ U ( l Ol) , V ( lOl) , UUDP ( lOl) , UU B ( l O l ) , UUDPB { l Ol) ALSAVE ( l , IX) = ALFA
COMMON/BLC5/ ALFA, OMEGA , DELA, DELR, REY ( 101) OMSAVE ( l , IX) = OMEGA
COMMON/BLCB/ QSUM ( lO l ) , RLAST ( lOl) , LAST ( lOl) FSSAVE ( l , IX) = UM (3 , l )
COMMON/SAVE/ ALSAV E ( 2 , 20) , OMSAV E ( 2 , 20) , FSSAVE { 2 , 20) , FASAVE ( 1 , IX) = UMA ( 3 , 1 )
1 FASAV E { 2 , 20) , FOSAVE ( 2 , 20) , FRSAVE{ 2 , 20) , FOSAVE ( l , I X ) = UM0 ( 3 , 1 )
2 RSAV E {2 , 20) , UESAV E { 2 , 20) , QSAV E { 2 , 20) FRSAVE ( 1 , IX) = UMR ( 3 , 1 )
COMMON/BLC4/ UM {4 , 1) , UMA { 4 , 1 ) , UM0 { 4 , 1 ) , UMR{4, 1) RSAVE ( l , IX) = REY (NX)
COMMON/BLCD/ ! END UESAV E ( l , IX) = U E ( NX)
DATA EPS / l . OE - 04 / QSAVE ( l , IX) = 0 . 0
C - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - WRITE ( 6 , 6 0 ) I X , WSO ( I X)
WR ITE ( 6 , 10 ) NX, X (NX) , S ( NX) , REY ( NX) , NP 130 CONTI NUE
ALFAl = ALFA
I SOLV = 0
OMEGAl = OMEGA
! T I ME = 0
DALPHA = 0 . 10 FORMAT 1H0 , 5X , 5HNX = , 1 3 , 2X, 8HX (NX) = , F12 . 6 , 2X , 8HS (NX)
DOMEGA = 0 . + F12 . 6 , 2 X , 6HREY = , F12 . 3 , 2X, 5HNP = , 13 )
WRITE ( 6 , 2 0 ) 20 FORMAT lHO , 5X , 2H I T , 6X, 4HALFA, l l X ,
+ 5HOMEGA , 10X, 5HDALFA, lOX , 5HDOMGA / )
I F ( IX . EQ . 1 ) GO TO 90
ALFA = ALFAl
30 FORMAT ( lH , 5X , 1 2 , 6 ( 2 X , E l3 . 6 ) )
OMEGA = OMEGAl
50 FORMAT ( 1H0 , 5X , 42HI TERAT ION EXCEEDED MAX IMUM. PROGRAM STOPS .
90 AR = REAL ( ALFA )
60 FORMAT ( lHO, 5X , 9HLINE NO . , 1 3 , 2X, 2 1 HPHYSICAL FREQUENCY = ,
OR = REAL ( OMEGA )
+ 2El5 . 6 )
AI = AIMAG ( ALFA )
100 FORMAT lHO, 5X , 15H+++++ DELTAO = , E13 . 6 , 14H TOO SMALL TO ,
01 = AIMAG ( OMEGA )
+ 25HCALCULATE DALFA AND DOMGA )
WRITE ( 6 , 30 ) IT I M E , A R , O R , DALPHA, DOMEGA RETURN
CALL CSAV E END
!TIME = ! T I ME + 1

FSTD = UM (3 , 1 )
7.2.5 Subroutine NEWTON!
FALFA = UMA ( 3 , 1 )

FOMGA = UM0 ( 3 , 1 )
In the calculation of transition , the amplification factor n is computed for a
DE LTAO = REAL( FALFA) *AIMAG ( FOMGA) - REAL ( FOMGA) *AIMAG ( FALFA)
IF ( ABS (DELTAO) . LE . l . OE - 06 ) GO TO 500 dimensional frequency w* according to Eq. (6.4.8) which in terms of the dimen­
Dl = 1 . 0 / DE LTAO sionless quantities used in the solution of the Orr-Sommerfeld equation with
DALPHA = Dl * {AIMAG ( FSTD) *REAL (FOMGA) - REAL( FSTD) *AIMAG ( FOMGA) CLOGA corresponding to the exponent n in the en -method, can be written as
DOMEGA = Dl * ( REA L ( FSTD ) *AIMAG (FALFA) - AIMAG ( FSTD ) * REAL ( FALFA)
GO TO 114
(7.2.2 )
500 WRITE ( 6 , 100) DELTAO
226 7. Stability-Transition Program 7.2 Computer Program 227

SUBROUT INE NEWTON! FSTD = UM ( 3 , 1 )

COMPLEX ALFA , OMEGA , DELA , U M , UMA , UMO, UMR , FSTD, FALFA , FOMGA , FALFA = UMA (3 , l )
FREY , DODR, DADR ,ALSAV E , OMSAV E , FSSAV E , FASAVE, FOSAV E , FOMGA = UM0 ( 3 , 1 )
2 FRSAVE FREY = UMR ( 3 , 1)
CDMMON/BLCO/ NP, NX, NXT , NXO , I X , IXT, RL, C, DELA = - FSTD / FALFA
+ U I N F , ETA (10 1 ) , DETA ( 10 1 ) , A ( 101) IF ( (ABS (REA L ( DELA) ) . L E . EPS) . AND. (ABS (A IMAG ( DELA) ) . LE . EPS) )
CDMMON/BLCP / U ( 101) , V ( 1D 1 ) , UUDP ( 1 D 1 ) , UUB ( 1 0 1 ) , UUDPB ( 101) + GO TO 700
COMMON/SAVE/ ALSAVE (2, 20) , DMSAVE ( 2 , 20) , FSSAVE (2, 20) , AR l = REA L ( ALFA ) + REAL ( DELA )
1 FASAVE ( 2 , 20) , FOSAVE ( 2 , 20) , FRSAVE ( 2 , 20) , AI 1 = AIMAG ( ALFA ) + AIMAG ( DELA )
2 RSAV E { 2 , 20) , UESAV E { 2 , 20) ,QSAV E { 2 , 20) IT = IT + l
CDMMON/BLCC/ X ( lOl) , S ( lOl) , U E ( lOl) , RX ( lOl) I F ( IT . LE. 10 ) GO TO 520
CDMMON/BLC4/ UM ( 4 , 1) , UMA { 4 , 1 ) , UMO ( 4 , 1 ) , UMR ( 4 , 1) WRITE ( 6, 70 )
COMMON/BLC5/ ALFA ,OMEGA, DELA, DELR, REY ( 1 0 1 ) STOP 7
COMMON/BLC8/ QSUM ( lO l ) , RLAST { 101) , LAST ( 10 1 ) 700 I T = IT + 1
DATA E P S / l . O E-04 / ALFA = ALFA +DELA
C - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - WRITE ( 6 , 85) IT ,ALFA , OMEGA ,D ELA
WRITE ( 6 , 10 ) NX, X ( NX) , S ( NX) , REY (NX) , NP ALSAV E ( 2 , K) = ALFA
I XM = I X- 1 OMSAV E ( 2 , K) = OMEGA
DO 1 000 I = 1 , I XM FSSAV E ( 2 , K) = UM ( 3 , 1 )
DELAR = 0. FASAV E ( 2 , K) = UMA ( 3 , l )
DELAI = 0. FOSAV E ( 2 , K) = UM0 ( 3 , l )
IT = 0 FRSAV E ( 2 , K) = UMR (3 , l )
K = I X- I RSAVE ( 2 , K) = REY ( NX)
I F ( K . G T . IXT ) GO TO 1000 UESAVE (2 , K) = U E ( NX)
J = I+l QSAVE ( 2 , K) = { REY ( NX) * AIMAG ( ALFA ) ) / S (NX)
I F ( LAST (K) . G T . 0 ) GO TO 1000 QSUM( K) = QSUM {K) + { (QSAVE (2, K) +QSAVE ( 1 , K) ) /2 . 0) * (S (NX) - S {NX- 1 ) )
WRITE ( 6, 83 ) K, J CLOGA = - QSUM ( K)
AR = REAL ( ALSAVE { l , K) WRITE ( 6 , 50 ) QSAV E ( 2 , K) ,CLOGA
AI = AIMAG ( ALSAVE { l , K) PROD = QSAV E ( 2 , K) *QSAVE ( l , K)
OR = REAL ( OMSAVE { l , K) I F ( PROD . G E . 0 . 0 ) GO TO 960
or = A I MAG ( OMSAVE { l , K) LAST ( K) = 1
FSTD = FSSAVE ( l , K ) WRITE { 6 , 88) K, J
FALFA = FASAVE ( 1 , K ) GO TO 1000
FOMGA = FOSAVE ( 1 , K ) 960 IF { ABS (QSAVE (2 , K) ) . GT . l . OE-05 ) GO TO 1000
FREY = FRSAVE ( 1 , K ) LAS T ( K) = 1
UEO = UESAVE ( l , K ) WRITE (6 ,87) K, J
RO = RSA VE ( 1 , K ) 1000 CONTINUE
DR = REY (NX) - RO DO 1400 I = 1 , I XM
OMEGA = OMSAVE ( 1 , K) * ( REY (NX) /RO) * {U E0**2/U E (NX) **2) K = I X- I
CC = OR*UE0**2 / RO I F ( K . GT . IXT ) GO TO 1400
DODR = (OMEGA-OMSAVE ( 1 , K) ) /DR ALSAV E ( l , K) = ALSAV E ( 2 , K)
DADR = - ( 1 . 0/FALFA) * { FOMGA*DODR+FREY ) OMSAV E ( l , K) = OMSAVE ( 2 , K)
DELAR = REAL ( DADR ) * DR FSSAV E ( l , K) = FSSAV E ( 2 , K)
DELA I = AI MAG ( DADR ) * DR FASAVE ( l , K) = FASAV E (2 , K)
DELA = CMPLX { DELAR , DELAI FOSAVE ( l , K) = FOSAV E ( 2 , K)
ARl = AR + DELAR FRSAVE ( l , K) = FRSAV E ( Z , K)
Al l = AI + DELA! RSAVE ( l , K) = RSAVE ( 2 , K)
WRI T E ( 6 , 84) UESAVE ( l , K) = UESAVE { 2 , K)
520 ALFA = CMPLX ( ARl ,Ai l ) QSAVE ( l , K) = QSAVE (2 , K)
WRITE ( 6 , 85) IT ,ALFA , OMEGA , DELA 1400 CONTI NUE
CALL CSAVE 10 FORMAT ( 1H0 , 5X, 5HNX = , 1 3 , 2 X , 8HX (NX) , Fl2 . 6 , 2X,8HS (NX)
228 7. Stability-Transition Program 7.4 Transition Prediction 229

+ Fl2 . 6 , 2 X , 6HREY = , Fl2 . 3 , 2 X , 5HNP = , 13 )

50 FORMAT lHO, 5 X , 8HQSAVE = , F1 5 . 6 ,8HCLOGA = , F15 . 6 ) 0.16
70 FORMAT
+
1 H0 , 5X , 39 H I TERAT I ON EXCEEDS 10 ( FOR AR AND AI ) , 2 X ,
13HPROGRAM STOPS ) 0. 14 1
:: :: I \ -O OM
83 FORMAT lHO, 5X , 9HLINE NO . , 1 3 , 2X, lOHPO I NT NO . , 13 / / -0.004 /

OJ �
/ ------------
+ lH , 5X, 27 ( 1 H - ) / )
0. 1 2 I
84 FORMAT lHO, 5X, 2 H I T , 6X, 5HALFAR, lOX, 5HALFAI , lOX , 5HOMGAR, ro
Ur I
+ lOX , 5HOMGAI , lOX , 5HDELAR, lOX , 5HDELAI / }
85 FORMAT lH , 5X, 1 2 , 6( 2 X , El 3 . 6 } ) 0.10

I
87 FORMAT lHO, 5X, 43H***** ALFA ( I MAG) IS LE l . OE - 05 AT LINE NO . , i 0 02o I

+ 1 2 , 16H AND POINT NO . , 12 / ) 0.08 a, = 0.0 _________

88 FORMAT lHO , 5X, 36H***** ALFA! IS POS I T I V E AT L I N E NO . , 1 2 , a; = 0.0 r

+ 1 6 H AND POINT NO . , 1 2 / ) 0.06 i 0.010 I
0.0 0.5 1 .0 1.5 2.0 0.0 0.5 1 .0 1.5 2.0
RETURN
X ( ft) X ( ft)
END
(a) (b)
Fig. 7. 1 . Computed eigenvalues for Blasius flow, (a) a,. and ( b ) w ,. .
7.3 Stability Diagrams for Blasius Flow

The stability diagrams for Falkner-Skan flows, similar to those given in Fig.
6.4, can be constructed by using BLP2 and STP. For a given external velocity
distribution ( constant for Blasius flow), BLP2 generates the laminar velocity
profiles so that ETA(J ) , U(J,2) and V(J ,2), J = 1 , . . . , NP , can be printed from
the MAIN program in a format compatible with the READ statement of sub­
routine VELPRO.
For the neutral stability diagrams, the calculations can be performed at a
sufficiently high Reynolds number by specifying initial estimates of O:r and w.
Once a solution is obtained at one Reynolds number, the calculations for other
Reynolds numbers can be obtained with the procedure of subsection 6.6. 1 . The
same proced ur e can also be used for lower Reynolds numbers provided do: r /dR
is small. When this is not the case, O:r is incremented by small specified values
and w and R are computed to satisfy Eq. (6.6. 13) . The program of Section 7.2
is written for the case of small do: r /dR and needs to be changed when do: r /dR
becomes large.
To demonstrate the use of STP, in this section we consider the Blasius
flow and calculate the eigenvalues O:r and w at four x-locations. We take Ue =
160 ft/sec, R L = 5 x 106 , L = 5 ft and initiate the calculations at x 0 = 0.54 ft
for o:i = 0. This corresponds to a Reynolds number of R(= .JI[;;) = 735 which
is sufficiently high for do: r / dR to be small, see Fig. 6.4a. Initial estimates of O:r
and w follow from Fig. 6.4, and are 0.084 and 0.025 respectively, on the lower
branch of the neutral stability curve at R = 800.
Figure 7 .1 shows the computed eigenvalues O:r and w along the surface dis­
tance x for values of ni equal to O and -0.004. The calculations for ai = -0.004
are essentially the same as those for the neutral stability c urve, Cti = 0. The ini­
tial estimates of O'.r and w can be obtained from those corresponding to o:i = 0
provided that �ni is small. If this is not the case, then it is best to divide the
increment in �O'. i to small values and perform the stability calculations for each
value of O:i until the desired value of ai is reached.
7.4 Transition Prediction
To demonstrate the prediction of the onset of transition location with the en ­
method, we first apply STP to a zero-pressure gradient flow and follow it with
the airfoil, ellipse and prolate spheroid flows discussed in Section 5.4.
7.4 . 1 Flat-Plate Flow
The zero-pressure gradient flow is identical to the one in the previous section
except that now the stability calculations are performed to compute a. With
dimensional frequencies known at four x-locations, the amplification rate calcu­
lations are performed for frequencies of 902, 753, 641 and 58 1 Hz, Fig. 7.2a. The
n-values are obtained from Eq. (6.4.8) with x0 corresponding to each value of
x in the neutral stability curve. Fig. 7.2b, which is the same as Fig. 6.9, shows
the envelope of the amplification rates ( dashed line) and indicates that for a
value of n = 8, the onset of transition takes place at x = 2.8 ft, or at a Reynolds
number of Rx = 2.8 x 10 6 .
7.4.2 Airfoil Flow
The procedur e for determining the onset of transition location on an airfo? is
similar to the procedure used for the flat plate flow discussed in the prevwus
230 7. Stability-Transition Program 7.4 Transition Prediction 231

0.050 1 2.0 · · 7.4.3 Ellipse Flow

10.0
[ The determination of the onset of transition location on the ellipse flow discussed
0.040 l
8.0 in subsection 5.4.2, is similar to the previous two examples discussed above.
Again, the laminar boundary-layer calculations are performed for R2a = 1 06
(J) 0.030 l n 6.0 : and 107 using the BLP2D program for the specified external velocity distribu­
4.0 c- tion and these are followed by the stability /transition calculations with STP.
0.020 For R2a = 106 , the maximum n-factor that can be computed before reaching
2.0 the laminar separation point is less than 8. This suggests that the transition
0.010 -- " 0.0 location occurs very close to laminar separation (x/2a = 0.85). For R2a = 1 0 7,
0.0 0.5 l .O 1.5 2.0 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 5.0 the transition location is computed at x /2a = 0.455 or s /2a = 0.49.
Figure 7.3 shows the variation of the wall shear J::i with axial distance x/2a
X (ft) X (ft)
(a) (b )
for two Reynolds numbers computed with BLP2D for both laminar and turbu­
Fig. 7.2. Transition calculation for a flat plate flow, ( a) origin of the disturbances on
lent flows.
neutral curve and (b) integrated amplification rates.

5.0
subsection. To demonstrate this, we consider an N ACA 00 1 2 airfoil at two chord
Reynolds numbers, Re = 106 and 3 x 106 . For the external velocity distribution
obtained from the HSPM computer program discussed in subsection 5.3.1, the 4.0
laminar velocity profiles are computed with BLP2D for o: = 0° , 2 ° and 4° . The
neutral stability calculations are then performed for each Reynolds number 3.0 -
and angle of attack. These calculations were then followed by amplification r:
rate calculations for each frequency computed on the neutral stability curve. 2.0
For each calculation, the transition location is determined with respect to the
surface distance along the perimeter of the airfoil measured from the stagnation
1.0
point and the corresponding x / c location is calculated.
Table 7.1 presents a summary of the calculated transition locations at three
angles of attack and two chord Reynolds numbers for n = 8. The results show 0.0 � Fig. 7.3. Wall shear parameter,
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 J:: = (c1 / 2 ) ../l[;,, variation on the
that with increasing angle of attack , since the adverse pressure gradient becomes
x/2a ellipse with axial distance x/2a.
stronger, the transition location moves upstream. The results also show that
with increasing Reynolds number, the transition location moves upstream.

Table 7.1. Onset of transition locations on the upper surface of an 7.4.4 Prolate Spheroid Flow
NACA 0012 airfoil at two Reynolds numbers and three angles of
attack.
STP can also be used to determine the transition on a prolate spheroid dis­
cussed in subsection 5.4.3. At first the laminar velocity profiles are computed
Re (s/c)tr-(x/c)tr (s/c)tr -(x/c)tr (s/c)tr-(x/c)tr in Falkner-Skan-Mangler variables and are then expressed in Falkner-Skan vari­
1 X 106 0.505-0.49 0.33-0.31 0.16-0.13 ables. Assuming that ro » 8 so that r = ro , f' and f" are written as
3 x 106 0.355-0.34 0.21 -0.19 0 . 1 0-0.075
!'(77) = !' (ii ) (7.4. la)

!"(77) = V�ro ( 7.4. lb)

i f" (fi)
 232 7. Stability-Transition Program Problems 233

where the quantities without bars are the Falkner-Skan variables used in the 7-2 . Repeat Problem 7. 1 for two wedge flows for which m = -0.01 and -0.05.
stability calculations and the quantities with bars are the Falkner-Skan-Mangler
variables used in the boundary layer calculations. The dimensionless 7/ and rj 7-3. Calculate the location of transition for n = 9 for the above two problems
are related to each other by and discuss the effect of pressure gradient on the results.
r1 = {x �fj (7.4.2)
y -;; ro 7-4. Investigate the effect of suction on the location of transition for Problem
The stability calculations with f' and f" given by Eqs. (7.4. 1 ) and the 7/ 7 . 1 . Let the suction rates vary with � in order to have similarity in velocity
grid by (7.4.2) are performed for Ra = 106 and 10 7 and the amplification rates profiles. Note that depending on the choice of suction rates, the value of c may
are determined. As in the ellipse flow, for Ra = 106 , the maximum n-factor that need to be increased.
can be computed before reaching the laminar separation point is less than 8,
suggesting that the transition location occurs very close to laminar separation 7-5. Repeat the transition calculations for the
(x/a = 1 .68) . For Ra = 10 7 , the transition location is computed at x/a = 0.49,
(a) airfoil flow
s/a = 0.56, or x = 0.0135.
(b) ellipse flow
Figure 7.4 shows the variation of the local skin-friction coefficient c1 and
( c) prolate spheroid flow
dimensionless displacement thickness 8* / a for two Reynolds numbers computed
with modified BLP2D. discussed in Section 7.4.

0.005 ',1
0.004 7-6. The procedure used to construct the stability diagrams for Blasius flow
o 004 l \
can be extended to other Falkner-Skan flows. Figure P 7 . 1 shows the stability
diagrams for seven values of ai and for the value of m = -0.0707 corresponding
1'
0.003
0 003 1 \ Ra = 106 o'/a Ra = 1 06
I to the lower-branch solution of the Falkner-Skan equation discussed in Problem

�::- >S-�//
Cr 0.002 -

✓�
O 002 I, \/Ra = 10·
Ra = 10 � / 5.5. As can be seen from Fig. P5.3, the velocity profile for m = -0.707 is signif­
0.001 icantly different from the one for a flat-plate flow (m = 0 ) . In this case, initial
0 00 1
estimates of a r and w to start the stability calculations become very important
� '\
0 000
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
0.000 .. · · · since Newton's method is being used to compute the subsequent estimates.
0.0 0.5 1.0 1 .5 2.0
x/a x/a
A convenient procedure, sometimes referred to as the homotopy continuation
method [1] , can be used for this purpose. This procedure is general and can
(a) (b)
Fi g . 7.4. Variation of (a) skin friction coefficient and (b) dimensionless displacement
thickness, 15* /a, on a prolate spheroid at 0° incidence for Ra = 1 06 and Ra = 1 07 .
0
0.40 10
co CXr
0.30
1 0·
1

�
��
0.20
2 ��c

L:
References 1 0·
0. 1 0 �
[l] Cebeci, T. , An Engineering Approach to the Calculation of Aerodynamic Flows, to be
10·
3
published, 1 998. 0.00 -0.0 1 0 -0 020 -0 .040

Problems 10
0
10
1
10
2
10
3 1
10
1 0·4
10
0
10
1
to2 · - ·-·- . -

(a) ( b)
7-1. For Blasius velocity profiles computed for a uniform grid with !1r7 = 0 . 1 0
and 7/e = 8 , calculate the lower and upper branches o f the neutral stability curves Fi g . P7. 1 . Stability diagrams for the lower branch solutions of the Falkner-Skan equation
for 600 :S: R :s; 3000. Take 7loc = 160 ft/sec, v = 1.6 x 10- 4 ft 2 /sec, c = 4 ft . for m = -0.0707, (a) a vs. R, and (b ) w vs. R.
234 7. Stability-Transition Program Problems 235

also be used for three-dimensional flows, as well as flows in which the velocity <t> = <t>' = 0 . (P7.7.3)
profiles from one x-station to another change rapidly as discussed in [1] . Use STP to compute the neutral stability curve of a plane Poiseuille flow for
We define a Reynolds number range of 104 < R < 5 x 1 04 and for a velocity profile given
(P7.6. la) by
(P7.7.4)
(P7.6. lb)
with Umax and h as reference velocity and length scales. Note that the velocity
and profile implies wall boundary conditions at y / h = - l and 1 and the centerline
R = Rref + r (Rf - Rref ) (P7.6. lc) at y/h = 0.
Here ur corresponds to the velocity profile of the flow under consideration at a Hint : For convenience and for minimum changes in the stability code, use the
given Reynolds number Rf and Uref denotes a reference profile with a Reynolds velocity profile so that y / h = l corresponds to the wall boundary conditions
number Rref and with eigenvalues of ao and wo . The parameter r is a sequence and thus requires no changes in the stability /transition computer program. The
of specified numbers ranging from O to 1 . Eqs. (P7.6 . 1 ) show that the profiles "edge" conditions are different and the code needs to be changed. This can be
u and u" correspond to the reference profiles for r = 0 at R = Rref , as well as done by incorporating the conditions given in Eq. (P7. 7.2) into the relations
to those for which eigenvalues a and w are to be determined at the specified Rr defined by boundary conditions, for
for r = 1 .
<I> s f g
(a) Obtain the lower branch solutions of the Falkner-Skan equation for m = Cl C3 1 0
-0. 0707. 0 C4 0 1
(b) Compute ar and w for the lower branch stability diagrams for ai = 0,
-0.006 and -0.01 at R = 20. with c1 = c3 = C4 = 0.
Take the initial estimates of a and w as ar = 0.9, w = 0.02 for R = 6000.
Hint: Assume ar = -0.050, w = 0.00543 for ai = 0. Once a solution is obtained, Note also that the grid is
use the values of ar and w from the previous value of ai to be initial guesses
for the specified O'.i . NP - j
(P7.7.5)
NP - l
7-7. Many internal flows are symmetric about some plane y = y1 and the most and the velocity profile, is
unstable disturbance is usually asymmetric. The appropriate boundary condi­ (P7. 7.6)
tions on the disturbance at y / h = (y i / h 1 ) = 0 are
du'
- = v' =0 (P7.7. la)
dy
for the symmetric disturbance and

(P7.7. lb)

for the asymmetric disturbance. Thus, in terms of the perturbation stream func­
tion, </>, the appropriate centerline boundary conditions, given by Eq. (P7.7. lb)
can be written as
</>(0) = </>111 ( 0) = 0 . (P7. 7.2)
The wall boundary conditions at y/h = - 1 or 1 are the usual ones; that is, the
perturbation velocities u' and v' are zero. In terms of the disturbance stream
function this implies