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Effect of sodium citrate, carboxymethyl cellulose and carrageenan levels on

quality characteristics of low-salt and low-fat bologna type sausages

Article  in  Meat Science · August 2003

DOI: 10.1016/S0309-1740(02)00178-X · Source: PubMed

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 Meat Science 64 (2003) 371–381
www.elsevier.com/locate/meatsci

Effect of sodium citrate, carboxymethyl cellulose and carrageenan

levels on quality characteristics of low-salt and low-fat
bologna type sausages
Marita Ruusunena,*, Jukka Vainionpääb, Eero Puolannea, Marika Lylyb,
Liisa Lähteenmäkib, Markku Niemistöc, Raija Ahvenainenb
a
Department of Food Technology, PO Box 27 (Viikki E), FIN 00014 University of Helsinki, Finland
b
VTT Biotechnology, PO Box 1500 (Tietotie 2), FIN-02044 VTT, Finland
c
Meat Research Centre, PO Box 56 (Luukkaankatu 8), FIN-13101 Hämeenlinna, Finland

Received 12 May 2002; received in revised form 28 June 2002; accepted 28 June 2002

Abstract
Quality characteristics of low-salt bologna-type sausage manufactured with sodium citrate (NAC), carboxymethyl cellulose
(CMC) and carrageenan (CAR) were examined. Three levels of salt, NAC, CMC and CAR, and two levels of fat were used. Batter
and sausage pH values were measured and the frying loss of sausages was analysed by frying slices in an electric grill. Firmness,
juiciness, saltiness and flavour intensity of the sausages were sensorically evaluated. Altogether 20 separate sausage batches were
prepared. In low-salt sausages containing less than 1.4% NaCl, the use of NAC, CAR and CMC decreased frying loss and
increased saltiness. NAC and CAR also increased flavour intensity, but CMC did not. Furthermore, NAC, CAR and CMC
increased the firmness of the low-salt sausage, while only NAC increased juiciness when the NaCl content was below 1.4%. NAC
increases, however, the sodium content of the product. Therefore, it can be concluded that in low-salt sausages no additive alone is
suitable. A mixture of NAC and CAR appears to be the best combination.
# 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Low-salt sausage; Citrate; Carboxymethyl cellulose; Carrageenan

1. Introduction influence the calcium, iron and magnesium balance in

Sodium intake exceeds the nutritional recommenda-
tions in many countries (Law, Frost, & Wald, 1991).
The main source of sodium in meat products is salt,
NaCl. Thus, sodium chloride reduction in meat pro-
ducts is one important goal for an overall decrease in
dietary sodium. Because salt contributes to water and
fat binding in meat products (Hamm, 1972), salt reduc-
tion has an adverse effect on water and fat binding by
increasing cooking loss and weakening texture.
Phosphate enhances the effect of salt (Knipe, Olson, &
Rust, 1985), and with its addition, good water and fat
binding can be reached at a salt content of about 1.5%
NaCl (Puolanne & Ruusunen, 1983). The presence of
excessive amounts of phosphates in the diet may, however,
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: marita.ruusunen@helsinki.fi (M. Ruusunen).
0309-1740/03/$ - see front matter # 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/S0309-1740(02)00178-X
the human body, and consequently, can increase the
risk of bone diseases (Kärkkäinen, 1998; Shahidi &
Synowiecki, 1997).
A high fat content is known to increase water binding
in meat products (Giese, 1992; Puolanne & Ruusunen,
1980). One of the major problems in lowering fat con-
tent in finely chopped meat products is an increase in
toughness, and therefore, a decrease in acceptability
(Sofos & Allen, 1977).
When formulations replace fat with water on an equal
weight basis, the texture becomes soft. Claus, Hunt, and
Kastner (1989) reported that bologna with 10% or less
fat and 40% added water was softer and more juicy
than higher fat, lower water bologna. In addition, they
reported problems with purge accumulation in retail
packages of higher water content bolognas.
Water binding and gelation characteristics are impor-
tant in determining the stability of comminuted meat
372 M. Ruusunen et al. / Meat Science 64 (2003) 371–381

products. When fat and salt contents decrease, other varying the amount of lean pork (fat content 12%) and
ingredients must be added to improve textural char- pork back fat (fat content 89%) in the formulations.
acteristics and to compensate for the decrease in water Formulations with 12% fat contained 50% lean pork
binding. Potato flour and soy protein have been shown and no pork back fat. Formulations with 16% fat con-
to decrease cooking loss and to produce a firm sausage tained 40% lean pork and 10% pork back fat. All for-
when cooked at 72  C (Skrede, 1989; Yang, Trout, & mulations contained 6.8% pork skin, 6% potato flour,
Shay, 1995). Potato flour gelatinizes during heating in a 2% protein (sodium caseinate+soya isolate 1:1),
water-containing medium, thereby binding relatively 0.012% NaNO2, 0.06% ascorbic acid, 0.62% spices and
large amounts of water. Carbohydrate gums and a 34% added water.
number of starches are commonly used as texture-mod- The endpoint temperature of the sausage batter
ifying agents in many different types of products. Car- was 12  C. Batters were stuffed into a casing (80
rageenan (Bloukas, Paneras, & Papadima, 1997) and mm diameter) and cooked at 76  C to achieve an
modified starches (Giese, 1992), for instance, have been endpoint product temperature of 72  C. After cook-
used as binders to maintain juiciness and tenderness in ing, the sausages were placed in a 3  C cooler
low-fat meat products. Pappa, Bloukas, & Arvani- overnight.
toyannis (2000) were able to produce acceptable low- The response surface method was used to study the
salt (1.3%) and low-fat (9.0%) frankfurters by using effect of five compositional variables (Table 1). The
pectin to improve the texture. In addition, sodium sausages were prepared according to the recipes con-
citrate is often used in phosphate-free meat products to trolled by a statistical experimental design. Three levels
improve texture by raising the pH value, thus increasing of salt, NAC (E 331), CMC (E 466) and CAR (E 407),
water-binding capacity. and two levels of fat were analysed in 20 combinations
In meat products, carrageenans increase yield, con- (Table 1).
sistency, sliceability and cohesiveness, while simulta-
neously decreasing purge (Foegeding & Ramsey, 1986;
Lin & Mei, 2000; Xiong, Noel, & Moody, 1999). Kappa 3. Methods
carrageenans are used to increase yield, control purge
and enhance product texture (Bater, Descaps, & The pH values of the sausage batters and the sausages
Maurer, 1992). Carrageenans have also been used in were measured directly with a Xerolyte electrode
comminuted meat products to improve stability and (Ingold Xerolyt LoT406-M6, Inlab 427, Mettler Toledo
texture, especially in low-fat products (Trius, Sebranek,
& Carr, 1994). According to Foegeding and Ramsey
Table 1
(1986), iota carrageenan may reduce the toughness that Levels of test ingredients (%) added to formulations
frequently occurs in low-fat (12%) frankfurters. Carra-
geenans also act effectively in low-salt products (Matu- Sausage batter Salt Fat NACa CARb CMCc
lis, McKeith, Sutherland, & Brewer, 1995; Trius, number (%) (%) (%) (%) (%)
Sebranek, & Carr, 1994; Xiong, Noel, & Moody, 1999). 1 1.1 12 0.5 0.0 0.0
Moreover, methylcellulose results in lower yields in 2 1.6 12 0.0 0.0 0.0
emulsions cooked at 70  C (Foegeding & Ramsey, 3 1.1 16 0.0 0.0 0.0
4 1.6 16 0.5 0.0 0.0
1986).
5 1.1 12 0.0 0.5 0.0
The purpose of this study was to investigate the use of 6 1.6 12 0.5 0.5 0.0
three additives [sodium citrate (NAC), carboxymethyl 7 1.1 16 0.5 0.5 0.0
cellulose (CMC) and carrageenan (CAR)] in improving 8 1.6 16 0.0 0.5 0.0
physical properties and sensory characteristics of low- 9 1.1 12 0.0 0.0 0.5
10 1.6 12 0.5 0.0 0.5
salt sausages. These additives were chosen because they
11 1.1 16 0.5 0.0 0.5
have all been shown to improve the texture of meat 12 1.6 16 0.0 0.0 0.5
products, they are approved additives and amounts 13 1.1 12 0.5 0.5 0.5
normally used are similar so that their use does not 14 1.6 12 0.0 0.5 0.5
affect the composition of the formulation. This study is 15 1.1 16 0.0 0.5 0.5
16 1.6 16 0.5 0.5 0.5
part of a project aimed at sodium reduction in meat
* * * * * *
products. 17 1.35 12 0.25 0.25 0.25
18 1.35 16 0.25 0.25 0.25
19 1.35 12 0.25 0.25 0.25
2. Materials and preparation of sausages 20 1.35 16 0.25 0.25 0.25
a
NAC, sodium citrate.
Twenty bologna-type phosphate-free sausages were b
CAR, carrageenan.
c
prepared. Fat contents of the sausages were changed by CMC, carboxylmethyl cellulose.
 M. Ruusunen et al. / Meat Science 64 (2003) 371–381
GmbH, Germany). Frying loss of the sausages was
measured by frying four 1.5-cm-thick sausage slices at
the same time in an electric grill (Bistro Fix, Turku,
Finland) for 2 min 30 s at 150  C. Three replications of
each sausage were made. Sausage slices were weighed
before heating and 5 min after heating. Frying loss was
calculated as a weight difference between the heated and
unheated weight (%). Moisture content was determined
by drying the sample at 104  C for 16 h. Protein con-
tent was determined by the Kjeldahl method (NMKL,
1976). Moisture, protein and fat content were analysed
from frankfurter numbers 1, 2, 3 and 4. The NaCl
concentration of all sausages was determined by ana-
lysing their chloride-ion content (Corning 926 Chloride
Analyser, Corning Medical and Scientific Corning
Limited, England). Sodium content was analysed with
an Na-selective electrode (RossTM sodium electrode,
Orion Research, Inc., Helsinki, Finland; Kivikari,
1996).
Firmness, saltiness, juiciness and flavour intensity of
cold sausages were evaluated by a trained panel (N=10)
with proven skills using descriptive analysis (Lawless &
Heymann, 1998). Attribute intensities were rated on 10-
unit graphical intensity scales, which were anchored
from their ends as follows: firmness, 0=not at all
cohesive, 10=cohesive; saltiness, 0=not at all,
10=extremely salty; juiciness, 0=dry, 10=juicy; fla-
vour intensity, 0=weak flavour, 10=strong flavour.
The samples were presented to the panelists with
three-digit codes and in random order, and water was
provided for rinsing the mouth between samples. The
samples were analysed in two sensory replicates, pro-
ducing 20 evaluations for each trial. Only the mean
of these 20 evaluations was used in the final data of
each trial in the calculations of the experimental
block.
3.1. Statistical analyses and modelling
The sausages were prepared according to formula-
tions controlled by a statistical experimental design.
The experimental plan was a half replicate of a 25
factorial design with four repetitions in the centre,
comprising 20 trials in total. The compositional
model variables were salt, NAC, CMC, CAR and fat
content. The experimental levels selected are shown in
Table 1. Fat content was a categorical variable with
only two experimental levels. The response variables
were batter pH, sausage pH, frying loss, sodium
content, firmness, juiciness, saltiness and flavour
intensity.
All computational work, including the graphical pre-
sentations of the response surface models, was per-
formed using the Statistica for Windows software
package (version 5.5, edition 99, Statsoft, Inc., Tulsa,
OK, USA).
373
4. Results and discussion
4.1. Chemical composition
Two sausages with low-salt (sausage nos. 1 and 3) and
low-fat (sausage nos. 1 and 2) as well as two sausages with
high-salt (sausage nos. 2 and 4) and high-fat (sausage nos.
3 and 4) contents were included in moisture, fat and pro-
tein analyses. The moisture content of sausage nos. 1, 2, 3
and 4 was 68.5, 68.2, 65.3 and 65%, the fat content 11.9,
12.2, 16.4 and 16.5%, and the protein content 12.5, 11.9,
11.2 and 10.8%, respectively. The target fat contents were
10 and 18%. To ensure that all meat batters were stable,
potato flour, soy protein and caseinate were added to
each formulation to improve water and fat binding.
Salt and sodium contents were analysed in all sausages.
In this study, the added salt contents were 1.10, 1.35 and
1.60%, while the analysed salt content based on chloride
analyses ranged from 1.17% in sausage no. 1 to 1.75% in
sausage no. 14. Sodium content ranged from 0.54 g Na/
100 g in sausage no. 3 to 0.85 g Na/100 g in sausage no.
10. NAC contains 23.5% sodium; thus, when 0.5% NAC
was added to the formulation, the sodium content
increased by 0.12 g Na/100 g, equaling 0.3% NaCl.
4.2. Physical analysis
The pH value of the batters ranged from 5.72 in sau-
sage no. 14 to 5.93 in sausage no. 11. The highest pH
values were in batters containing NAC. In sausages, pH
values varied from 6.00 in sausage no. 12 to 6.14 in
sausage no. 7. A positive correlation was observed
between NAC content and sausage pH (r=0.594,
P=0.006), and a negative correlation between CMC
content and sausage pH (r= 0.560, P=0.010; Table 2).
However, in response surface modelling, where all vari-
ables were included, the effect of NAC and CMC con-
tent on sausage pH was not significant (P > 0.05;
Table 3). None of the experimental variables had an
effect on sausage pH (P > 0.05; Table 3).
Increasing the added salt content from 1.1 to 1.6%
decreased the frying loss of the sausages (Fig. 1a–c).
While NAC and CAR decreased frying loss within the
studied range of NaCl content, CMC did so only at salt
contents of less than 1.4% NaCl (Fig. 1a–c). In an ear-
lier study, Ruusunen et al. (2002) have shown that in
frankfurters containing 15% fat, NAC also decreased
frying loss at a salt content of less than 1.5%, whereas
in frankfurters containing 20% fat, NAC also decreased
frying loss at higher salt contents. Foegeding and Ram-
sey (1986) have shown that in sausage batters (2.35%
NaCl) cooked at 70  C, carboxylmethyl cellulose addi-
tion resulted in lower yields. Moreover, Xiong, Noel,
and Moody (1999) have reported that carrageenan
increased cooking yield, hardness and binding strength
for 1% salt but had little effect on 2.5% salt sausages.
374 M. Ruusunen et al. / Meat Science 64 (2003) 371–381

Table 2 Keeton, Gilchrist, & Cross, 1988; Mittal & Barbut 1993,
Correlation coefficients between compositional variables and chemical, 1994). Keeton (1994) has shown that low-fat products
physical and sensory properties of sausages, N=20
easily become firm, rubbery and dry. Claus, Hunt, and
Salt Fat NACa CARb CMCc Kastner (1989) have further demonstrated that bologna
with 10% fat requires 24.3% added water to resemble the
Batter pH 0.081 0.207 0.885 0.060 0.101
P=0.736 P=0.381 P=0.000 P=0.800 P=0.673
sensory firmness of bologna with 30% fat and 10% added
water. Although the difference in fat content between the
Sausage pH 0.254 0.091 0.594 0.017 0.560 sausages in this study was small, our findings indicate that
P=0.279 P=0.703 P=0.006 P=0.943 P=0.010 fat did slightly increase the juiciness of sausages (Table 3).
Since the difference between the two fat contents was
Frying Loss 0.447 0.102 0.484 0.318 0.096
P=0.048 P=0.669 P=0.031 P=0.172 P=0.688
only four percentage units, the results in Figs. 1–5 are
given only at 16% fat.
Na (mg/100 g) 0.797 0.012 0.499 0.007 0.100 As expected, salt increased the firmness and juiciness
P=0.000 P=0.961 P=0.025 P=0.976 P=0.675 of the sausages (Figs. 2 and 3). However, at low-salt
levels, some weakened texture properties may be par-
Firmness 0.457 0.086 0.343 0.225 0.545
P=0.043 P=0.719 P=0.138 P=0.341 P=0.013
tially compensated for by adding other ingredients.
According to Matulis, McKeith, Sutherland, and
Saltiness 0.879 0.060 0.263 0.031 0.067 Brewer (1995), carrageenans increased hardness at low-
P=0.000 P=0.803 P=0.263 P=0.898 P=0.778 salt levels (below 1.7%) and decreased juiciness at fat
contents of more than 15%, which was also seen in our
Juiciness 0.425 0.256 0.109 0.469 0.323
P=0.062 P=0.277 P=0.647 P=0.037 P=0.165
study, where the fat content was 16% (Fig. 3b).
NAC increased the juiciness of low-salt sausages but
Flavour 0.830 0.192 0.253 0.091 0.301 not high-salt ones (Fig. 3a). CMC decreased the juici-
intensity P=0.000 P=0.416 P=0.281 P=0.702 P=0.197 ness of sausages at all studied salt contents (Fig. 3c).
a
NAC, sodium citrate.
According to Lin, Keeton, Gilchrist, and Cross (1988),
b
CAR, carrageenan. low-fat frankfurters containing carboxymethyl cellulose
c
CMC, carboxylmethyl cellulose. had lower hardness values than controls. Bologna-type
sausages are usually sold sliced. Sliceability is thus a
4.3. Sensory analysis very important property of bologna-type sausages, and
firm texture is an asset in the slicing.
4.3.1. Firmness and juiciness
The fat content of our sausages was quite low. The sau- 4.3.2. Saltiness and flavour intensity
sages correspond with low-fat products in several other Sodium chloride increased saltiness and flavour intensity
studies (Crehan, Hughes, Troy, & Buckley, 2000; Lin, of the sausages as expected (Figs. 4 and 5). NAC, CAR

Table 3
Statistical significance of individual variables (P) in the response surface models

Batter pH Sausage pH Frying loss Na mg/100 g Firmness Saltiness Juiciness Flavour intensity

R2 0.981 0.88 0.971 0.905 0.924 0.994 0.982 0.982

Fat 0.284 0.740 0.451 0.928 0.951 0.353 0.047 0.763
Salt 0.185 0.650 0.005 0.045 0.015 0.000 0.011 0.001
NACa 0.029 0.555 0.060 0.625 0.054 0.005 0.110 0.061
CARb 0.923 0.984 0.103 0.755 0.208 0.009 0.358 0.098
CMCc 0.045 0.486 0.004 0.670 0.212 0.023 0.014 0.162
Fat*salt 0.309 0.428 0.417 0.954 0.902 0.403 0.026 0.438
Fat*NACa 0.080 0.428 0.274 0.971 0.872 0.039 0.078 0.671
Salt*NACa 0.219 0.783 0.572 0.966 0.135 0.008 0.016 0.184
Fat *CARb 0.785 0.272 0.164 0.733 0.979 0.831 0.461 0.574
Salt *CARb 1.000 0.783 0.530 0.781 0.363 0.009 0.446 0.242
NACa *CARb 0.309 0.342 0.195 0.898 0.306 0.777 0.059 0.054
Fat*CMCc 0.219 0.927 0.616 0.915 0.541 0.034 0.109 0.936
Salt *CMCc 0.044 0.927 0.009 0.744 0.120 0.010 0.086 0.061
NACa *CMCc 0.592 0.783 0.014 0.903 0.191 0.075 0.004 0.671
CARb *CMCc 0.059 0.783 0.043 0.853 0.881 1.000 0.432 0.520
a
NAC, sodium citrate.
b
CAR, carrageenan.
c
CMC, carboxylmethyl cellulose.
 M. Ruusunen et al. / Meat Science 64 (2003) 371–381 375

Fig. 1. Frying loss of the sausages with (a) sodium citrate, (b) carrageenan, (c) CMC (carboxylmethyl cellulose).
376 M. Ruusunen et al. / Meat Science 64 (2003) 371–381

Fig. 2. Firmness of the sausages with (a) sodium citrate, (b) carrageenan, (c) CMC (carboxylmethyl cellulose).
 M. Ruusunen et al. / Meat Science 64 (2003) 371–381 377

Fig. 3. Juiciness of the sausages with (a) sodium citrate, (b) carrageenan, (c) CMC (carboxylmethyl cellulose).
378 M. Ruusunen et al. / Meat Science 64 (2003) 371–381

Fig. 4. Saltiness of the sausages with (a) sodium citrate, (b) carrageenan, (c) CMC (carboxylmethyl cellulose).
 M. Ruusunen et al. / Meat Science 64 (2003) 371–381 379

Fig. 5. Flavour intensity of the sausages with (a) sodium citrate, (b) carrageenan, (c) CMC (carboxylmethyl cellulose).
380 M. Ruusunen et al. / Meat Science 64 (2003) 371–381
and CMC also increased saltiness, especially at NaCl con-
tents of less than 1.4%. When lowering the sodium content
of meat products, sodium content of ingredients other
than salt must also be taken into consideration. In this
study, NAC was found to be the most effective additive for
increasing perceived saltiness presumably because it
increased the sodium content of the sausage more than the
other two additives. Thus, large amounts of NAC alone
cannot be recommended when sodium content of the pro-
duct must be lowered. A better choice would be a mixture
of additives where NAC is only one component.
When the saltiness of the sausage increases, the fla-
vour intensity tends to increase as well. While NAC and
CAR increased perceived flavour intensity at all salt
contents, CMC did not (Fig. 5a–c). Matulis et al. (1995)
have also shown that flavour intensity increases as car-
rageenan and fat levels increase at 1.3% salt. Considering
flavour intensity as the most important sensory attribute,
the following conclusions can be drawn from Fig. 5. The
highest flavour intensity score 6.6 is obtained in high-salt
sausages containing about 1.5–1.6% salt and 0.35–0.5%
NAC or 0.0–0.2% CMC. However, an acceptable flavour
intensity score of 6.0 can be obtained with low-salt sau-
sages containing about 1.2–1.3% salt and 0.22–0.35%
NAC, or 0.2–0.5% CAR or 0.0–0.25% CMC.
In summary, in low-salt sausages containing less than
1.4% NaCl, the use of NAC, CAR and CMC decreased
frying loss and increased saltiness. NAC and CAR also
increased the flavour intensity whereas CMC did not. Fur-
thermore, NAC, CAR and CMC increased firmness of the
low-salt sausage, but only NAC increased juiciness when
the NaCl content was below 1.4%. NAC also increased the
sodium content of the product. Therefore, it can be con-
cluded that in low-salt sausages no additive alone is
recommended. A mixture of NAC and CAR appears to be
the best combination. Further research is needed to study
the microbiological stability and safety of these products.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the laboratory per-
sonnel of the Department of Food Technology, Uni-
versity of Helsinki, VTT Biotechnology and the Meat
Research Centre for technical assistance in chemical and
physical analyses and for organizing sensory evaluations.
The members of the sensory panels are also acknowledged
for their contribution. This study has been supported by
the National Technology Agency (Tekes) in Finland.
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