Types of Research

Studies
PBL : 14
Under the Supervision of Dr Sara Elfarrash
 Table of contents

01 02 03
Definition Observational Observational
(Descriptive) (Analytical)
Study Study

04 05
Experimental Summary
Study
Definition
They are studies and experiments done to
increase or verify information about physical
or mental diseases and disabilities and their
causes, diagnosis, prevention,
treatment, or control.
 Types of studies :
Experimental
Observational studies
studies

(Intervention)
Descriptive studies Analytic studies

Study determinants (i.e.

Study distribution of
factors enhance or inhibit
diseases in human
diseases occurrence in 1. Preventive trials
populations
populations) 2. Clinical trials

3. Population trials

Case report
Case series Case control
Correlation studies Cohort study
Cross-sectional studies

 i. Observational study
A. Descriptive studies

► Systematic collection & presentation of data to describe pattern &

characteristics of a disease or health problem in a community

► Include :

Case report
Case series
Correlation (Ecological) study
Cross sectional (prevalence) study
 1) Case Report
Describe a single case with a new finding e.g.:

Un-described disease

Unexpected link between diseases

Unexpected new therapeutic effect

It describes phenomena & suggests a hypothesis.

Example :
In 1961, pulmonary embolism described in 40-years, pre-
menopausal female after 5 years of using oral
contraceptive pills.

Interesting phenomenon as pulmonary embolism usually

occurs among older & post menopausal women.
 2) Case Series
Describe a number of similar cases in one report

Values :

May indicate start of an Epidemic

Major trigger for further research

Generate a hypothesis
Example :
In 1980, Pneumocystis Carinii described among 5 young adult

homosexual men (disease known to affect only immune-

compromised).

Similarly, Kaposi sarcoma, a disease of old age has been

reported among young adult homosexual men.

 3) Correlation (Ecological) Study
Study associations between exposures and outcomes in population rather than in

individuals.  

Exposures : risk or protective factors

Outcomes : disease or health-related problem

Uses already collected data (e.g. vital statistics, censuses & national health

surveys).
Examples :
Mortality from CHD & per capita sales of cigarettes

High incidence of MI & consumption of dietary fat & fast food

Negative correlation between access to efficient ANC & maternal

mortality rate
 4) Cross-Sectional (Prevalence)
study
Observational study of a population carried out once (at a single point in

time) among a cross-section of the population.

It measures prevalence (all cases), not incidence (new cases) of disease.

Examples :
Community surveys used to assess:

Coronary heart disease in relation to physical exercises.

Obesity in relation to DM

Thrombo-phlebitis in relation to the use of OCPs.



B. Analytical
Studies

► They are conducted to establish a relationship between different

exposures to the disease condition and to obtain its measurable result.

► Include :
Case control study
Cohort study
 1) Case-control study
An observational study in which we compare a group of patients
(cases) with a match control group who are free of disease as
regards a suspected agent or factor
(i.e. exposure).
Cases : Already diseased
(retrospective)
Control :
1) Free from the diseased under the
study
2) Matched with cases
3) Cases: Controls = 1:1 to 1:4
Outcome of Case Control Study
Odds ratio
Odd of exposure to risk factor among cases (R1)

Odd of exposure to risk factor among controls (R2)

Odds ratio = R1/R2

Outcome of Case Control Study
Interpretation of Odds Ratio
OR = 1→ Exposure not associated with outcome or disease.

OR > 1→ Increased exposure accompanies increased outcome.

0 < OR < 1 → Increased exposure accompanies decreased outcome.
 2) Cohort study

An observational study in which exposed group (individuals with a

risk factor) are compared with non-exposed group (others without

the risk factor) as regards the incidence of a disease over time.

Exposed group : individuals exposed to risk
factor.
Control group : individuals not exposed to
this factor.
Both groups are followed up over a
sufficient period of time.
 Outcome of Cohort Study
Relative risk (RR) = Incidence among exposed (Ie)
Incidence among non exposed (In)
 
RR answers the question: "How many times exposed person is at risk of developing
disease compared to non-exposed?"

Attributable risk (AR) = Ie - In / Ie × 100

 
AR answers the question: "How much of the studied disease can be attributed to
exposure“.
 Outcome of Cohort Study

Interpretation of Relative Risk (RR) :

RR = 1 : No association between exposure & disease.
RR > 1 : Positive association.
RR < 1 : Negative association.
 II. Experimental studies
It is a type of research that involves the manipulation of variables to

establish cause-and-effect relationships.

Clinical trials :
Experimental studies that involve administration of preventive or curative

regimen to humans to evaluate its safety & efficacy.

Basic steps in Randomized Clinical trials (RCTs) design :

1. Selection of a study population 2. Getting "informed

after defining inclusion/exclusion consent" from
criteria. participants.

3. Matching of subjects in 4. Random allocation of

experiment & control groups subjects to the experiment
regarding baseline characteristics. & control groups.

5. Follow up for a specified 6. Measure the outcome

period of time under strict carefully.
conditions.

7. Compare outcome measures

between both groups using
appropriate statistical methods.
 Summary
To summarise the studies conducted to validate information regarding
disability across two categories of studies (observational studies and
experimental studies).

Observational studies are classified into two types (descriptive studies and
analytic investigations).

Case reports, case series, correlation studies and cross-sectional studies

are used in descriptive studies to characterise the pattern and
characteristics of a disease in a community.

Conduct case control and cohort studies for study determinants for
analytic studies.

Lastly, experimental investigations that entail the modification of factors

in order to demonstrate cause and effect linkages which are classified as
preventite trials, clinical trials and population trials.
 Test your
understanding
1) All of these includes in descriptive studies
except?

A. Correlation (ecological) study

B. Cross sectional (prevalence) study
C. Case control study
D. Case report
E. Case series
1) All of these includes in descriptive studies
except?

A. Correlation (ecological) study

B. Cross sectional (prevalence) study
C. Case control study
D. Case report
E. Case series
2) Which of the following is correct regarding
case series?

A. It measures prevalence (all cases), not

incidence (new case) of disease
B. Study associations between exposures and
outcomes in population rather than in individuals
C. Describing a single case with a new finding
D. Describing a number of similar cases in one
report
2) Which of the following is correct regarding
case series?

A. It measures prevalence (all cases), not

incidence (new case) of disease
B. Study associations between exposures and
outcomes in population rather than in individuals
C. Describing a single case with a new finding
D. Describing a number of similar cases in one
report
3) When the exposure is not associated with
outcome or disease the OR (odd ratio) will be?

A. OR > 1
B. OR = 1
C. 0 < OR <1
D. OR < 1
3) When the exposure is not associated with
outcome or disease the OR (odd ratio) will be?

A. OR > 1
B. OR = 1
C. 0 < OR <1
D. OR < 1
4) A case in 1980 which is Pneumocystis Carinii
described among 5 young adult homosexual men
(disease known to affect only immune-
compromised) is an example of...

A. Correlation (ecological) study

B. Cross sectional (prevalence) study
C. Case series
D. Case report
4) A case in 1980 which is Pneumocystis Carinii
described among 5 young adult homosexual men
(disease known to affect only immune-
compromised) is an example of...

A. Correlation (ecological) study

B. Cross sectional (prevalence) study
C. Case series
D. Case report
5) In which study design only people who are
free of the disease are included?

A. Case control study

B. Case series
C. Cross sectional (prevalence) study
D. Cohort study
5) In which study design only people who are
free of the disease are included?

A. Case control study

B. Case series
C. Cross sectional (prevalence) study
D. Cohort study
Thanks for
listening!
Prepared by:

1) Fayrouz Mohamed 8) Mohamed Enan

2) Nurul Fatihah 9) Omar Majed
3) Zainab Radhi 10) Basel Mohamed
4) Fatema Redha 11) Eslam Rifky
5) Areeg Fazwy 12) Muhaimin Aliy
6) Shahad Shaker 13) Ahmed Loay
7) Noura Aboelrayat