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Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Russell, Sage.
The Architecture of Light / by Sage Russell.
p. cm.
Includes index.
ISBN-13: 978-0-9800617-1-0
ISBN-10: 0-9800617-1-7
eBook ISBN: 978-0-9800617-4-1
Library of Congress Control Number: 2012907632
1. Electric lighting. 2. Lighting, Architectural and decorative. I. Title

ARC007010

2.1
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
WELCOME TO THE SECOND EDITION.

Wow!
It is hard to believe it has been four years since the first copies of this book hit
the shelves. I can’t express enough gratitude to all of the instructors, students,
designers and just plain “light aficionados” out there who have joined The
Architecture of Light family. I love your feedback and am thrilled to have such
an enthusiastic audience.

What’s new in the second edition?

Besides new diagrams, design process ideas, sample projects and an expanded
“basic luminaire” family, this second edition addresses the rapid changes that
have affected the lighting design practice.

Lighting design has been moving at a blistering pace over the last few years,
primarily in the realms of code compliance, sustainable design, and of course
light emitting diode (LED) technology.

Energy codes and compliance

The rolling wave of national and local energy compliance regulations has vastly
expanded the responsibilities of the Lighting Designer. Expertise in these
constantly changing codes is absolutely critical not only for outstanding design,
but for efficiency in dealing with the documentation and third party software that
demonstrate compliance. Whether it’s ASHRAE, DOE or your local codes,
expertise is absolutely expected of the serious Lighting Designer.

Sustainability incentives
Projects of all scale and scope are pursuing the benefits that come from
sustainable design. Between government sponsored incentives, life-cycle
economic benefits and just plain pride of good design, there is no shortage of
programs - well-known and obscure - to guide design direction. The EPA, DOE,
Energy Star and the USGBC’s LEED programs provide resources and assistance
for all manner of efficient design. Sustainability is a broad, fast-changing area of
expertise that a good designer must stay on top of.
Resources for researching code compliance and sustainability incentives can be
found in Appendix B at the back of this book.

Light source and Luminaire technologies

The ways we convert electricity to visible light, and deliver that light to the
designed environment have changed dramatically since the first printing of this
text. Back then, LED’s were a work in progress; more useful for color changing
effects than anything task related. HID luminaires were just beginning to make
in-roads in color critical interior environments, and the incandescent source was
not being pushed towards phased extinction.

My how things have changed! Throughout this volume, you will see evidence
of these ever-evolving technologies and best practices for implementing the
latest generation of electric light sources and daylight technologies.

So let’s get on with it…

This second edition is designed to efficiently and enjoyably deliver a lighting

design education that is immediately useful for the reader. It includes knowledge
that eluded me until well into my professional career. I believe this text will
make you a better designer, regardless of your design focus.

But first…

My heartfelt thanks to the exceptional people that made The Architecture of

Light possible and assisted in creating this second edition:

David DiLaura, for inspiring an unfailing interest in the science of

illumination.
Patrick Quigley, the inspiration behind all things choreography related.
Greg Gorman, who taught me that light is responsible for beauty.
Nancy Clanton, a driving force in spreading the word about light and the
environment.
Cynthia Burke, my longtime design colleague who gave me every
opportunity to shine.
Jennifer Luce, who shaped my idea of the design process.
Chad Watters, Diane Borys, and Jenn Doran… The studio crew that kept
lighting design fun.
I would also like to extend special thanks to my editors. Without these dedicated
souls, there is no doubt that the content and legibility of this text would have
suffered greatly. In the same breath, I would like to absolve them of any
responsibility for the information provided here. Any errors or erroneous content
is solely the fault of the author.

Lastly,
This book is still dedicated to anyone who sits through my lectures or design
presentations indulging my discussions about design, art, culture, food, travel
and everything else.

Thanks for being part of the Family,

Sage Russell 2012

More teaching and learning resources can be found online

at:
WWW.LIGHTINGTEXTBOOK.COM
Contents
Part I:_The Fundamentals of Light
Chapter 1 The Design Mentality
Chapter 2 The Power and Purpose of Light
Chapter 3 More Impact with Less Light
Chapter 4 Adding Light in Layers
Chapter 5 Physical Basics of Light
Chapter 6 Physiology of Vision
Chapter 7 The Color Science of Light Sources
Chapter 8 Electric Light Sources

Part II: Designing Light

Chapter 9 Textures of Light
Chapter 10 Shapes of Light
Chapter 11 Location of the Light Source
Chapter 12 Building Light from Darkness
Chapter 13 Developing Lighting Ideas
Chapter 14 A Shortcut to Concepts in Light
Chapter 15 Lighting That Works
Chapter 16 Designing with Daylight
Chapter 17 Graphic Tools: Rendering and Light Maps
Chapter 18 Lighting Units and Measurements
Chapter 19 Understanding Illuminance Levels
 Chapter 20 Lighting Calculations

Part III: Deliverables

Chapter 21 Deciphering Manufacturers’ Literature_and Luminaire Cut
Sheets
Chapter 22 Selecting Luminaires: A Basic Family
Chapter 23 Switching, Dimming and Control Systems
Chapter 24 The Preliminary Lighting Layout “Redline”
Chapter 25 Luminaire Schedules and Cut Sheets
Chapter 26 The Lighting Plan
Chapter 27 Lighting Layouts for Residential Spaces
Chapter 28 Lighting Layouts for Commercial Spaces
Chapter 29 Common Lighting Details
Chapter 30 Daylight and Electric Light Integration Details

Part IV: Final Thoughts on Design

The Fundamental Lighting Design Process
Green Design and Sustainability
Designing with New Eyes

Appendices
Appendix A Glossary of Lighting Terms
Appendix B Professional Organizations and Agencies
Appendix C Descriptive Words for Lighting
Appendix D Directory of Contributors and Other Manufacturers
The Pitch
Light is truly a designer’s medium. It is among the most powerful tools we have
to affect change in how we perceive and experience the environment around us.
Light belongs as a controllable tool of space design, just as form, scale, and
material do. Light translates vision and it is vision that gives us a substantial
portion of our experiences.
This book delivers a unique training that makes designing with light an
intuitive visual process that can deliver a whole new appreciation for the
capabilities of architecture and design. Here, one will find a procedure for
developing design ideas and the visual tools for translating those ideas. A
designer armed with this type of understanding will be inspired and well-
equipped to enrich the designed environment through the creative application of
lighting design.
This knowledge is for architects, landscape architects, interior designers,
planners and lighting designers aspiring to develop intuition and confidence in
designing with light. It is these people who are responsible for bringing
organization and emotional experience to the environments we interact with
every day. The concepts and processes put forth in this book are intended to be
immediately useful to any designer who wants to include light as an ally in
design.
My goal in assembling this book is to provide information to the people
who are poised to make the most of it. Often times, those who have the best
chance of applying designed light to maximum effect are deprived of the
necessary knowledge. Consequently, lighting decisions often fall by the wayside,
and powerful design opportunities are missed.
Regardless of the reader’s current familiarity with lighting design, this
book will provide a more meaningful understanding of the role of light in the
designed environment. Within these pages, one will find creative procedures and
graphic techniques for generating and communicating lighting design concepts.
The resulting intuition and tool set will help the reader make lighting design
decisions with confidence and joy. My intention is not to create technical
“lighting-super-experts”, but rather to provide creative confidence and a working
familiarity of the power and effect of light that will prove useful with any
amount of supporting technical knowledge.

I hope to empower those with the opportunity to design with light to go

forward with confidence, lay claim to light as a design tool, and use it to add
impact and meaning to their design.

∼Sage Russell,
2012
Part I
The Fundamentals of Light
Chapter 1
The Design Mentality
“By our very nature, we are all designers”
Before we go on to discuss how to apply light in the designed environment, we
must look at how we consider design and how we come up with ideas. We must
solidify our creative process. As designers, we are idea people. That is our
nature; it is what people expect of us and what our clients ask of us. We are in
the business of generating ideas. This task seems easy enough as humans are
naturally blessed with creative spirit. There is an unfortunate tendency, however,
for that spirit to be stifled in some people and nurtured in others. At some point,
often childhood, a person is told that perhaps he/she is “just not artistic” or “not
a creative person.” In all cases, this claim is false. Creativity is human nature.
When we call ourselves designers, we are telling the world that we have decided
to nurture creativity and dedicate ourselves to the cultivation of ideas.
There are two procedures that are invaluable to anyone pursuing the
creative capabilities of his/her mind: the common “brainstorm” and the process
of reverse engineering design.

THE BRAINSTORM
Brainstorming is one of the most valuable processes in which an “idea person”
can engage. It is the simple process of writing down any and all ideas that come
to mind when thinking on a specific topic or challenge. There is one and only
one fundamental rule to a brainstorm: there are no wrong answers in a
brainstorm. This simple rule translates well to creativity and design because
there are no wrong answers in design, simply ideas and possibilities that are
more appropriate than others. The designer cannot afford to become too attached
to one seemingly good idea. In the process of design, ideas are shot down for a
number of reasons, and the designer must possess a head full of other ideas
waiting to be expressed.
For a designer, the brainstorm is the freedom to conjure and cultivate any
and all ideas that come to mind regarding a specific design challenge. These
ideas are a product of that particular designer’s background, education, past
experiences, values, sources of inspiration, and beliefs about design. These ideas
are as individual as the designer, and it is this uniqueness that compels people to
seek out designers for ideas and solutions.
The necessary first step of the brainstorm is the process of writing all of
these ideas down. Creating a list or diagram of ideas gets them out of one’s head
and onto paper. Emptying the head creates room for more ideas to germinate and
keeps the same ideas from circulating and cluttering the mind. Jotting down
these ideas also results in a permanent record of them, so that none will be lost in
the dark corridors of the brain.

Figure 1.1 A simple written list of themes and words that come to mind when visualizing a specific topic.
In this example, prominent “big ideas” have been circled.
 Figure 1.2 A bubble diagram shows the relationship between ideas as they progress.

The products of a brainstorm are proof that we all have great ideas. The
dedicated designer is simply more diligent in cultivating ideas, writing them
down, communicating them, and keeping track of them. If we don’t allow
ourselves free reign to conjure ideas, and get them down on paper, the ideas are
lost forever, victims of the powerful forces of self-censorship and self-criticism.
Let it be said that in the land of design, there is no shortage of skeptics and
critics to tell us that our ideas are too whimsical, too expensive, too time-
consuming, or unrealistic. If we expect that this refining of ideas will come from
outside forces, it becomes very clear that we don’t need to critique them
internally. Thus, we go forward, writing down ideas, concepts and solutions as
fast as we can think of them, knowing that through the process of developing
design, the best ideas will rise to the top.
The reward of this process is the confidence to propose ideas without fear
of rejection. When we know that we have a long written list of great ideas, and a
brain that can conjure new ones at will, then we are much more productive when
engaged with others in the process of refining them. We are neither dismayed
nor dejected when our ideas are deemed unsuitable. We see criticism as a
challenge, rather than a threat. This welcoming of feedback and “thick skin” is
one of the most valuable traits of a skilled designer.
Making a regular habit of brainstorming develops the creative
productivity and flexibility that are the foundation of a designer’s confidence and
skill.

REVERSE ENGINEERING FROM DESIGN

The process of reverse engineering is exactly as its name indicates. It is a tool of
dissecting something to discover what makes it work. Take, for example, a guitar
maker who takes apart a beautiful acoustic guitar to identify exactly how that
guitar gets its woody, slightly hollow sound. Upon dissection, it is discovered
that the sound is the product of a veneer of rare Sumatran teak wood bonded to
the inside. The guitar maker can now incorporate this simple feature in
constructing guitars in the future whenever the same sound is desired. How, you
may ask, does this anecdote apply to the design mentality? The answer lies in the
belief that as designers dealing in the realm of the built environment, we are
responsible for designing spaces that compel interaction and elicit emotion.
Besides the basic function of the spaces we design, we care most about how
people feel and consequently, how they behave and interact with our design.
We experience designed environments and the natural world around us
every day and thus have the opportunity to reverse engineer design every day.
What we, as designers, can do to make use of this skill is to take the time to
identify how we feel in our environment and what is at work to make us feel that
way. Dissecting our experiences in this way has three distinct steps:
Step 1: Experience life
Go places, meet people, and put ourselves in as many engaging situations
as possible. This act is really a byproduct of life, and it is safe to say that
nearly everyone does this simply by leaving the house each day.
Step 2: Assess the emotional effect
This step takes a little more dedication. It is the exercise of taking stock of
your feelings or emotional state in a given situation or environment. This
skill is the sort we credit poets, artists and philosophers as possessing.
Assessing how one feels is not automatic, and there are certainly people
who go about their daily lives never stopping to realize how an
environment affects them.
Step 3: Identify the mechanisms responsible for the emotional effect
This step requires taking the time to identify what about the situation or
environment is causing the emotional response we are experiencing. It is a
 mental step in which only a few engage.
An example of this thought process might occur as follows:
Anyone can stand at the edge of a slow moving creek in the woods.
An enlightened person might take the time to realize the sense of peace,
calm, tranquility and connection to nature that is present.
It is the designer who takes the time to recognize that these feelings are
the product of the shifting breeze rustling in the reeds; the glint and flicker
of sunlight on the water surface; and the earthy hues of green, brown and
yellows.

With this awareness, when the designer is called upon to create an

environment that delivers a feeling of calm, tranquility and peace, he or she
knows that earthy tones, natural materials, and a specific quality of light and
shade will provide the desired emotional response.
These ingredients do not need to be translated literally, but knowledge of
them will bring us one step closer to a design solution possessing depth, context
and permanence.
To practice this procedure, we can take any piece of imagery, song, or
film and dissect it to figure out why it works. In music, art and film, nothing is
done by accident, and each ingredient contributes to a specific effect.
Watch a favorite film or listen to a favorite song. Study these things with
the intent of identifying the emotions induced and then identifying the
mechanisms responsible for the emotion. What becomes immediately apparent is
that light quantity and quality play a dominant role in how we visualize an
environment.
Try This:
After you experiences a piece of art or design with this goal in mind,
make a chart on a piece of paper. On the left side of the paper, start a column
titled “Emotion and Feeling.” Fill this column with the many identifiable
feelings associated with the design. On the right side of this paper, start a column
titled “Mechanism Responsible.” Take the time to identify what specific
ingredients were responsible for the emotions and feeling. Is it a perspective or a
point of view? Is it a tone or tempo or beat? Is it a specific color, texture, or
quality of light? Identifying these ingredients puts the designer on a path to call
on the min the future to create a predictable effect in his/her own design.
 Figure 1.4 Dissecting an environment gives one specific ingredients for use later to create a similar
emotional experience.

If we can adopt the habit of reverse engineering the world around us, we
can quickly hone our skills as creative thinkers and designers. Once we have
taken the time to identify the mechanisms that work in an environment to create
certain feelings, we can use those mechanisms to create the same effect in our
own design. In this manner, the designer builds an ever-growing toolbox of
techniques and ingredients that can be put to use to elicit a predictable effect.
The designer gains the ability to translate the feelings of an environment into
tangible, tactile ingredients that can be injected into any setting.
As we move forward and discuss the specific nuances and effects we can
encourage with light, let us keep these two tools as part of our everyday design
process. Our techniques for cultivating and expressing lighting design ideas are
quite specific, but let us always make use of these fundamental skills. Design
starts with the ability to conjure ideas without self-censure and a constant
dedication to figuring out why our favorite environments work the way they do.
If we can incorporate these tools as habits, we will be much better prepared to
provide the constant flow of ideas and concepts that people expect of us.
Chapter 2
The Power and Purpose of Light
Because our journey is one of enriching and enhancing our designs with light,
we will first take some time to establish why light is such a useful tool in
creating emotion and altering our perception of the world around us. There is an
indoctrination required so that we move forward with an unfailing faith in the
power of light to affect design.

WHY WE STUDY LIGHT

In the built environment, it is reasonable to say that the majority of our
experiences are visual. Sound, smell, and touch certainly play various roles, but
most people rely on vision to deliver a very large quantity of information.
Vision, by its very nature, is a product of light. It is the result of the
creation of light, the reflection of light, and, ultimately, the absorption and
translation of light by our visual system. Logic dictates then that if we want to
have maximum control of the designed environment, we must become intimate
with light and learn to make it our ally in translating design.
Light can quickly and powerfully alter the appearance and emotional
effect of our designed spaces. A designer can spend any amount of time refining
the layout of a space, the scale of a space, the materials and finishes of a space.
However with a few simple strokes, lighting can be applied to truly enhance or
utterly destroy the desired effect. A designer may envision a meditation lodge
fashioned from bamboo sheathing with a natural river rock floor. The lodge may
have heavy dark wood furniture and oiled, bronze hardware and accents. Despite
the effort and attention to detail, we can change the emotional effect in a
heartbeat by installing red strobe lights and a disco ball. An extreme example, to
be sure, but the point is valid: If one wants to change the mood of a space,
change the lighting. If one wants to change the scale of a space, change the
lighting. If one wants to change the color of a space, change the lighting. Once
you recognize how many aspects there are to light, you start to understand that it
serves as an efficient, effective, and powerful way to accomplish a design goal.
With just a basic understanding of the colors, intensities, and textures of light, a
designer gains an understanding of which types of light will support, and which
will detract from a project’s design goals.

BEYOND ON AND OFF: THREE FUNDAMENTAL

ASPECTS OF LIGHT
Light is much more than we give it credit for, and it deserves to be treated with
the care of any design medium. Just as a designer takes care in making decisions
about the nuances and subtleties of color and material, so too, must he/she take
care in making decisions about light. Light can be controlled to a much higher
degree than is commonly considered. To make the most of light, we must define
what we can control about our light. There are a handful of properties that must
be addressed in order to make a well-thought-out lighting decision. Every piece
of light added to an environment should be considered in terms of three basic
properties: Intensity, Color, and Texture.

Light Intensity: Bright vs. Dark.

Intensity is the most obvious and well understood aspect of light. It is one step
beyond simply on or off: is this light dim, or is it bright? We tend to associate
low light levels with more relaxed, intimate, personal environments. We translate
higher light levels to be more sterile, public, active, and kinetic. Low light
situations often encourage lingering and relaxing. higher light levels can
stimulate activity and movement.

Figure 2.1 Higher light levels (left) translate an exposed, public feeling. Low light levels (right) translate
calm and privacy.
Light Color: Warm vs. Cool.
There are a number of ways to alter the color of our light sources, both subtly
and overtly. Lighting sources can exhibit all manner of different color
temperatures, warm or cool, as slight variations of neutral. Our light sources can
also be modified to exhibit very saturated, vivid colors. These colors have
varying effect on mood, depending on a person’s experiences, culture and
conditioning. Color and color temperature can determine whether a person feels
comfortable enough to linger in an environment or whether he/she is driven
away. Color can immediately affect mood and state of mind. Warm lighting
colors; yellows and reds, tend to elicit calm, relaxation and a slower pace of
action. Cool colors; blues and greens, tend to elicit activity and alertness.
Distinctly saturated colors get used in high-design, themed environments to
create visual interest and a unique emotional experience.

Figure 2.2 Warm Light (left ) and cool light (right) should be chosen for the way they reveal the colors and
materials in a space, and the mood desired.

Light Texture: Directional vs. Diffuse.

Texture is perhaps the least understood or considered aspect of light. The texture
of the light we introduce into a space has a dramatic effect on the overall feeling
and function. When we speak of light texture, we are talking about the physical
manner in which light is delivered from a source. On one end of the spectrum we
have soft, even, diffuse light that is often the product of luminaires that
incorporate diffusing materials. On the other end of the spectrum we have the
harsh, directional light that is the product of luminaires that utilize precision
reflectors and lenses that deliver light in a specific direction. Think of an average
glowing globe (diffuse) versus a directed spot light (directional).
The significant differences between the two textures manifest in the
shadows and the shapes of
light created by these sources.
Diffuse sources produce
light that overlaps to fill in
shadows and has ill-defined
borders as the light sprawls
from the source. Directional
sources create distinct shapes
of light with clear boundaries.
Use of directional light
generally results in harsh
shadows and contrast as that
light is either delivered or Figure 2.3 Strongly colored light grabs our attention and
blocked completely by objects transports us away from the ordinary, neutral environments we
are used to.
and material textures.

Figure 2.4 Diffuse light (left) reduces shadows and encourages long term visual comfort. Directional light
(right) creates contrast and visual interest.

Once we expand our thinking to recognize these three properties, we start

to get a glimpse of the depth of decision-making that is required to ensure that
the light we are adding to a space is working toward our design goals.
When we refer back to the notion that designers are in charge of
encouraging emotion, we can begin to see that for every emotion that can be
described, there is a corresponding light intensity, light color, and light texture
that successfully encourages that emotion. When we want to create relaxed,
calm, soothing environments, we implement lower light levels, warmer light
colors, and more diffuse sources. When we are designing more kinetic, active,
productive spaces, we apply higher light levels, cooler light, and more
directional sources. Much of what we will be adding to our knowledge of light
revolves around articulating lighting decisions like these to encourage deeper
thought about the light we add. In this manner, we utilize light to its fullest
potential in our design.

MAKING LIGHTING DECISIONS THROUGHOUT

THE DESIGN PROCESS
An articulated approach to making lighting decisions is most effective when
applied within the framework of one of our favorite maxims: “Make lighting
design decisions at every step of the design process”. Far too often, architects
and designers “design in the dark”. They often embark on a path of “design,
design, design”, and once the space is completely “designed,” it is then “lit up.”
The thought process that is implemented in this text is nearly the opposite.
A designer should look for every opportunity to think about how light should be
used in a design. Light can certainly be “applied” to an already-designed space,
but the result will never reach the level of greatness that is possible when light is
integrated into a project every step of the way. For design to transition to
greatness, lighting has to be considered at each significant design juncture. The
great design projects that we admire come from all realms of taste and style, but
the one thing they share is thoughtful lighting integration.

For every design decision, there is a lighting decision to be made that

can either support or erode the design.
The more comfortable a designer becomes with light, the more likely that
designer is to automatically consider light in the decision-making process. For
every form decision, scale decision, material decision and color decision, there is
a complimentary lighting decision. If these lighting decisions are made through
the design process, the result is a depth of design that cannot be obtained by
simply pouring light onto a completely designed project.

HOW HUMANS USE LIGHT

To warm ourselves up to the notion of the importance of light, it is useful to
account for some of the ways human beings react and respond to light. Once we
recognize how we use light in our daily lives, we can start to produce very
sophisticated effects through our lighting decisions. Because of our long-
standing relationship with light, it has the power to affect our subconscious in
ways that no other medium can. It this subconscious relationship that provides
our most powerful lighting tools. When we consider how long humankind has
spent experiencing light, we can begin to appreciate all of the ways that light is
utilized beyond simply “seeing.”
It is important to recognize that for the vast majority of our history here
on earth we, as humans, have grown accustomed to the sun as our primary
source of light. In all of its incarnations - sunrise, sunset, high-noon, shaded and
diffused - the sun is responsible for most of our responses to light. This
relationship explains why we rely on the light quality in our environment to
inform so many of our behavioral cues.

Light as Mood
We rely on light both consciously and subconsciously to tell us the level of
activity and the type of mood we should carry into a space. These effects likely
relate back to light qualities that we associate with different times of day, as well
as light qualities of different seasons. As discussed earlier, we all have an innate
understanding of the types of light conducive to activity and excitement, as well
as light that encourages calm and relaxation. These light qualities can be
extended to encourage moods of sadness and melancholy or happiness and joy.
Humans rely on light to inform them of the time of day and consequently, the
mood and activities that should follow. Light quality may remind us of seasons
that call for celebration or seasons that call for work and diligence. There is
extensive study of how specific wavelengths (colors) of light affect our well-
being and how light deficiencies negatively affect our physiology. All of these
topics become critical when implementing modern electric light sources and
making use of daylight.

Light as Instruction
Through experience and conditioning, humans have also developed movement
and location responses that we derive directly from light. We use light to instruct
us where to go, what areas to move toward and what paths to follow. We read the
angle and intensity of sunlight to tell us where we are geographically. Designers
can increase light levels to define areas that people belong in and subsequently
leave dark those areas in which people do not belong. Colors of light can be used
as cues to stop or proceed. Flashing light can be used to grab attention or warn
people away. These effects all rely on the controllable aspects of light discussed
earlier. To make use of these powerful responses, the designer must also consider
specific shapes, specific patterns, and specific movements of light.
ATTRACTION TO LIGHT: PHOTOTROPISM
The most powerful human response to light is the most simple: it is the
fundamental attraction that humans have toward light and lighted spaces. Just
like moths to a flame, we drift towards areas of brightness. This unconscious
desire is significant because it is instinctual. It differs from our response to many
other elements of design that are a product of taste, trend or favor. We are told
that the human affinity for light is a mechanism of survival. This instinct has a
name: we call it Phototropism (Latin for light-attracted). This primal response
means that at the most fundamental level of design, by simply putting light in the
right place, we can help direct people’s path of experience and encourage their
interaction with the space. Many of the lighting effects we will employ rely on
this one simple premise of human behavior.

Figure 2.5 When put to use correctly, lighted surfaces serve to make way-finding intuitive.

In order to appreciate the effectiveness of using light to attract people and

guide their experience, it is helpful to investigate why humans may have
developed this type of response. On a very basic level, it is about vision. The
human visual system is very finely tuned for translating light. As the saying
goes, a picture is worth a thousand words. It is safe to say that seeing is one of
the fastest ways to learn about the world around us. It is because of this
dependency that our brains are always encouraging us to pursue areas that have
more visual information, that is, lighted areas. The brain believes that the more
we see, the better our life experience will be. No doubt, there is also the residual
belief that the more we can see, the more likely we are to find food, shelter,
companionship, and the less likely we are to be eaten by predators.
When we investigate all of these emotional and behavioral effects that are
unique to light, we see that there is much more to light than just sufficient
quantity. In the realm of architecture and design, we can do much more than
simply add light to a space so that people can function and perform visual tasks.

Throughout this text, the knowledge that we will be exploring is based on

making decisions about what we want light to do in a space.

Anything we introduce as a design ingredient has to have justification for

being, so we justify light by identifying the many benefits it serves in an
environment. We then study the different types of light over which we have
control. Lighting design then becomes the process of conceptualizing what light
should be accomplishing in a space and how and where that light should be
delivered.
Chapter 3
More Impact with Less Light
“It’s all about placement.”
The most important awareness for effective lighting design is the focus on where
light is delivered. As we deepen our understanding of how humans translate light
to vision and ultimately experience, we become acutely aware of how to
maximize the desired experience of our design through careful placement of
light.
Sustainable design and a concern for resources are increasing priorities
for architecture and construction. This trend has already led to significant
legislation and implementation of codes that control how much electricity we
dedicate to electric light. This concern for consumption usually takes the form of
recommendations for light levels applied to tasks and environments. These
studies and guidelines for how much light is appropriate for specific visual tasks
are useful, but designers of complex spaces are likely to deal with far more than
simply visual task performance. Some spaces can be effectively addressed by
studying a visual task - like performing surgery or reading work materials - and
determining the exact amount of light appropriate for that task. A designer
concerned with the overall experience - mood, interaction, and visual impact of a
space - must take a much more holistic approach that involves putting the right
intensity, color and texture of light onto the right surfaces to create maximum
effect.

When we place light with care, the result is a more profound statement
likely created with less total light.

This focused application of “specific light on specific surfaces” has its

foundation in four important relationships between light and human color vision:
1. Adaptation: adapting to bright or dark situations;
2. Brightness: contrast between surfaces and their surroundings;
3. Phototropism: attraction to lighted surfaces and objects;
4. Vertical Vision: tendency to look around us rather than above or
 below.

Relying on Adaptation
Adaptation refers to the ability of the human vision system to perform well
under different light levels. All of us have experienced the phenomena of waiting
for our visual system to adjust from one lighting scenario to another. When we
walk from a sunlit parking lot to a darkened movie theater, our eyes and brains
work together to maximize the quantity of light entering our visual system.
When we transition from the dark theater back to the bright parking lot, our eyes
and brains work to limit the amount of light being translated. Although in both
cases, this process takes time, eventually, our eyes and brains adjust so that we
are able to function in both situations. The light levels that we are dealing with in
the two extremes are drastically different. The variation between light levels
under a high noon sky and a moonlit night are on the order of tens of thousands.
It is truly a feat of physiology that we are capable of reading a book in both of
these situations.
The design implications of this adaptation work tremendously in our
favor. Because our visual system is constantly at work adjust to the surrounding
light levels, we can deduce that excess light introduced into a space loses
effectiveness as our visual system works to adapt and “even-out” our experience.
Thus, we can likely get away with far less light in many spaces as our visual
system will change to make the most of what light is available.
These effects are most noticeable in evenly-lighted enclosed spaces. A
room filled with flat, evenly distributed light will appear very similar, no matter
the actual light level, as the visual system adapts.
Adaptation also tells us that a space full of surfaces receiving different
amounts of light will always exhibit contrast, no matter what the actual light
levels are.

Brightness through Contrast

Brightness is a common term used to describe the perceived lighted effect of the
surfaces in our day to day environments. Brightness is not, however, an absolute
property of a surface. Because the human visual system adapts to each lighted
situation, brightness is a subjective judgment made by an individual in a specific
lighting situation. It is valuable to understand that contrast between objects is
what defines vision and drives our brightness judgments. Our eyes tell us where
one object begins, and another ends because the objects reflect light differently.
When we read a book, the dark ink reflects less light than the white paper, and
we can distinguish the shapes of the letters on the page, even though both
materials are receiving the same quantity of light. As we apply more light to the
pages of the book, the white paper reflects more light and appears brighter, while
the dark text continues to reflect very little light. Another simple example is the
corner of any room: Inevitably, we can tell where one wall meets the other
because of the contrast between the two surfaces. If two intersecting walls
exhibited the same brightness, our perception would be of one continuous
surface. When we apply higher light levels to visual tasks or accented objects, it
is an attempt to improve visibility by increasing the contrast between the objects
or materials. Objects are not visible simply because they have light cast onto
them; they are “visible” because they reflect light differently than the their
surroundings.

Using Phototropism to draw attention

As discussed in Chapter 2, phototropism is the understanding that human beings
are attracted to light as a matter of instinct. This simple instinct can be relied
upon to draw attention to the surfaces and spaces with which we want people to
interact. Phototropism suggests that despite conditioning and expectation, in a
room full of detailed furniture, intricate flooring, wall coverings and tile
mosaics, the object that the casual observer will notice first is the shaded table
lamp glowing in the corner. With this understanding, we realize that we have
predictable control over where a viewer’s attention is drawn in our designed
spaces. Phototropism dictates that the eye of the observer will move from the
brightest surface to the next brightest surface. It means that we can often
convince an observer that a space is bright by simply drawing his/her attention to
a few large, bright surfaces.

Lighting Vertical Surfaces

The third tool of human perception on which we rely is the premise that the
human visual system is designed to translate the light reflecting off of the
surfaces in an environment. The eyes aren’t able to do much with the high levels
of light that come directly from a light source. Thus, the perception of the
brightness of a space has more to do with the light detected from the surrounding
surfaces than the brightness of the light sources. This concept is exemplified by a
stage performer under a spot light. This person has a large amount of light cast
onto him/her, but he/she still feels like they are in the dark. Another example is a
simple room with a glowing chandelier in the middle. The chandelier may attract
attention, but it does not necessarily make a space feel bright.
 Because we are upright, standing creatures, we rely on the light reflecting
from the vertical surfaces that make up our surroundings and define our
peripheral vision. In most of our day to day activities, our field of vision is
focused directly in front of us. Even when we look around us, we are using the
upright, vertical surfaces of our surroundings to define our environment. The
feelings of confinement or freedom and overall light quality are defined by the
conditions of the walls, horizons ceilings, and sky conditions around us. The
only time we look down is to assess the safety of the path in front of us, so the
only time we really need to apply light downward and immediately around us is
to illuminate such paths.
Humans do not define brightness by the light level on the ground around
them, nor do they define brightness by the light focused directly onto them. As
upright, mobile creatures geared to learn from reflected light, humans naturally
focus on upright, reflective surfaces around them to define their impression of an
environment. If the goal is to create an impression of brightness, light applied to
vertical surroundings is much more effective than light directed on the viewer.

Figure 3.1 Light applied to vertical surfaces (left) increases the perception of brightness compared to the
same amount of light applied to horizontal surfaces (right).

A Summary of Our Lighting Tactics

The vision system will adapt to make the most of low light levels and to
mitigate excessive light.
Brightness is a subjective judgment based on contrast between
neighboring surfaces.
Human beings are instinctively attracted to bright surfaces, areas and
objects.
 Humans gain their definition of brightness from the vertical surfaces
around them.
These four elements of human perception work together to form the foundation
of how we purposefully place light into our environments.
With this basis, our design approach becomes a study of how to create
maximum effect by directing light onto a few specific surfaces. This approach
starts with identifying the surfaces that will best respond to light. Where can we
create lighted goals to draw people through spaces? Where can we enhance the
perception of brightness by lighting vertical surfaces and objects? Where can we
rely on contrast of light levels to create visual interest? By answering these
questions, we will create dynamic, visually-interesting spaces by painting
specific pieces of light onto specific surfaces to accomplish the lighting design
goals of a space. This lighting approach is the very opposite of providing even
washes of light to define a space.
To accommodate the specific placement of light, many of the lighting
tools available to the designer are discreet, architecturally-integrated luminaires
that deliver a focused pool or plane of light onto a specific surface. By
employing these hidden, directional light sources, we define our environment as
a collection of lighted surfaces, rather than a collection of overly-bright light
sources or a flat field of generic even brightness.
Because we spend so much time in offices and classrooms that typically
employ an even level of light throughout, we come to think that this design is the
correct or safe way to light a space. However, as we learn to articulate our
lighting goals, it becomes clear that the only reason spaces are treated with these
even light levels is so that a person may conceivably sit down anywhere and
perform a visual task for an extended period of time. Because of this, we launch
into our practice with the understanding that light is our medium or more
accurately that lighted surfaces are our medium. This simple building method of
designing specific pieces of light will guide all of our designs.

THE FUNDAMENTAL TWO-STEP PROCEDURE

FOR LIGHTING DESIGN
This improvement in lighting understanding can be defined by a 2-step
procedure of lighting design that we will adopt: Lighting specifics first and
augmenting the ambience second.

Step 1: Light Specifics First

This step relies on taking time to recognize where we want to put light. We first
identify the tasks, accents and local visual effects that are integral to our design.
We visualize ourselves with the ability to “paint” light onto these surfaces as if
with a paintbrush or spray can.

Figure 3.2 An unlighted space (left) with light mentally “painted” onto its surfaces (right).

Figure 3.3 How the lighted effect might look (left), How it might look with an added ambient ingredient
(right).

After lighting these specific surfaces, we step back and look at the overall
lighted effect of our designed space; we assess the effect against our project or
space specific design goals, such as comfort, uniformity, contrast and visual
interest. Every piece of light we direct onto a specific surface lights not only the
intended surface, but goes on to inter-reflect – that is: bounce from one surface
to another – to add a secondary “glow” of uniformity. Understanding this “inter-
reflectance” is crucial to visualizing how we are building light into our space one
ingredient at a time.
Step 2: Augment the Ambience or Perceived
Brightness
It is only after we have assessed the overall effect of lighting our specific
surfaces that we can determine whether our space needs supplemental lighting to
introduce a different spatial ambience. If we do determine a need for a greater
overall perception of brightness, we now know that light onto the most visible
and appreciated surface; the vertical surfaces will most efficiently achieve this
goal.

YOU CANNOT LIGHT AIR

This two-step procedure is in stark contrast to the idea of first “filling up” a
space with uniform light only to go back attempting to create elements of visual
interest through additional accenting. Our discussion of adaptation reminds us
that vision is based on contrast, not absolute brightness. We discern detail, not by
how much light is on an object, but from contrast between one object or surface
and another. A statue that is twice as bright as the wall behind it will grab our
attention, regardless of the actual measured light level. Therefore, if we flood
our spaces with light first, we will end up wasting that much more light trying to
draw out surfaces and objects within the already bright space. If we instead
identify and paint light onto specific surfaces and objects first, we succeed in
creating the contrast and therefore “visual interest” and brightness that we
intend. This contrast will remain intact as we augment our design with additional
“fill” or “ambient” light.

Figure 3.5 The 2-to-1 accent ratio (left) - and thus the perceived brightness - remains the same when light is
added uniformly (right). Visual interest is only enhanced when the contrast difference in increased (below).
 When this 2-step
procedure is implemented, the
result is a designed space
filled with emotional impact,
engaging visual interest, and
logic. We create design that
truly encourages interaction.
This logic can prove useful
even for our open office
spaces and classrooms, but is
exceptionally effective in our
high-design interactive environments where visual impact and emotional effect
are the primary programs.
The magic of this procedure and understanding is that it requires no
knowledge of lighting products and technologies. It uses no calculations or light
level measurement. Lighting in this manner is simply a change in perspective
and understanding that will allow one to assess lighted effect better and to better
define the lighting needs of a space.
We will build off of this procedure by introducing a system of
determining where light belongs and articulating lighting goals. This simple,
two-step process of lighting specifics first and then augmenting ambience will
remain as the foundation.
Chapter 4
Adding Light in Layers
As with designing anything, lighting design is not nearly as spontaneous a craft
as one would want to believe. Like all good art forms, design is much less an
explosion of sudden creativity and much more a product of procedure and
understanding. As designers concerned with light, we look to enrich our craft by
expanding our possibilities to create room for great ideas. The maxim “form
follows function” is as true in lighting design as in any design discipline. To
truly master lighting is to establish justification for why we add light to a space.
Design must have a reason for being, and to create opportunity for good design,
we elaborate on the reasons for lighting to “be.”
We touched before on the important mental practice of making lighting
decisions throughout the architectural and interior design processes. To facilitate
this goal, we will give ourselves as many opportunities as possible to stop and
look at our design with fresh eyes. If we break up the lighting design process and
focus on one aspect of light at a time, we have more opportunity to ponder the
specific pieces of light that can be used to support our design goals.
One of the beauties of design is that there are no “wrong” answers, simply
ideas that are not well thought through. If we study our ideas over a long enough
period of time, the great ideas are sure to rise to the top. Great lighting is a
product of assessing design needs at numerous steps of the design process. Poor
lighting is often the product of lighting design ideas applied all at once, at the
end of a project.
To truly get a feel for the importance of light integration, we need only
visualize how powerful light is at changing the effect of a space. The moods of
architecture are often subtle, and light can have a swift and potent effect on
design. We must be keenly aware of what design goals are best fulfilled by light
and what light is responsible for in our designed environment.
To these ends, the lighting procedure that we will implement is a method
of articulating the reasons we add light to a space, and addressing each reason
individually. This procedure has been refined and laid out here as a system of
adding light in five distinct layers

THE FIVE LAYER APPROACH TO LAYERING

LIGHT
Layer 1: Lighting to choreograph an experience
Use light to create goals, paths and destinations to encourage flow and
movement
Layer 2: Lighting to define mood and ambience
Add intensity, color and texture to elicit emotion and encourage a specific
use in a space
Layer 3: Lighting to accent objects
Create light that draws attention and encourages interaction by making
interesting objects stand out even more.
Layer 4: Lighting to reveal architecture and shape space
Apply light to the features and details of a space to enhance spatial effects
and reveal the mechanics of structure and form
Layer 5: Lighting for tasks.
Apply light to task areas to accommodate the basic functions of space

“Focus attention and thought on one layer at a time”

In a perfect world, the designer has the opportunity to look at each of these
layers individually, with a mental pause in-between. For a lighting designer, the
ideal situation is to become absorbed in the program or “brief” of a project
before even thinking about lighting solutions. The next step is to surround
oneself with the plans, elevations, diagrams and renderings that define the
project. The designer then sets out to generate ideas for added light that might
choreograph an experience through the space (layer 1). After exhausting those
ideas, the designer takes a break. The designer then returns to the design and
thinks of additions of light that contribute to mood and environment (layer 2).
And so the process goes, designing with a specific purpose in mind, looking at
the project each time with fresh eyes. This ideal is not always realistic, but to
make the most of a layering system of design, each step should be addressed
individually.
If we stare at a designed space and think merely of “lighting it up” in one
fell swoop, we are bound to come up with generic lighting solutions based on
utility, habit and fear. Function is the primary objective of any design project,
and lighting can make or break the functionality of a project.
Just like a chef adds specific ingredients and seasonings throughout the
preparation of a meal, applying our designed light in layers gives us a depth of
design that is not immediately obvious, and certainly not possible if we try to
apply all of these ideas in one pass towards the end of the design process.
These layers will be outlined here to give an impression of just how much
can be accomplished with each of them. The power of each layer will become
evident as we go on to study the nuances of light and how humans interact with
it. With the layer system to guide our thought process, lighting ideas come easily
and with purpose. Our design process is more comfortable, and results are much
more certain.
This system is the single best tool I know of for empowering a designer of
any expertise level to take command of how light is added to the designed
environment.

LAYER 1: LIGHTING TO CHOREOGRAPH AN

EXPERIENCE
To choreograph is to direct movement. In architecture, we find ourselves
responsible for encouraging people to flow through space and interact in a
specific order. Thus, the application of choreography is simply determining how
we want a viewer to move through and interact with our design. Humans are
phototropic. We are instinctively drawn to bright surfaces and objects. With this
knowledge, we use the power of light to subconsciously convince a person to
move toward a specific area just by placing light in that area. When we want to
encourage movement or flow, we can resort to blunt methods like signage and
directional cues, or we can rely on the subtle, but powerful, human attraction to
light.
The practice is as simple as lighting what we want people to move
towards and leaving dark what we want them to move away from. In this
manner, we use lighted end-points or goals to move people through a space. We
place light at the ends of halls or onto the entrance of a building. We light the far
end of a room and we light the coffee table in a gathering area. We find ways to
use a single, lighted surface to attract attention where we might previously have
illuminated an entire path. In this manner, choreographing attention and flow is
one of the ways we reduce how much light we introduce into a space. For every
directed movement that we want, we identify the one surface that when lighted,
will encourage that movement. When we want to draw attention and create
visual hierarchy, we identify the specific objects that we can light to accomplish
this goal. When we combine this specific light placement strategy with our
knowledge of the upright nature of human vision, we find that vertical surfaces -
walls, partitions, furniture, and art features - are the most effective surfaces for
our choreography purposes. Suddenly, we find our space already taking form
with visual interest created through identifying which specific vertical surfaces
and central elements serve our choreography goals. Although choreography
planning is but one layer of five, once applied, we already have a space that is
intuitively self-guiding and has a logical flow.

Figure 4.1 Lightin vertical surfaces and objects is an effective means of encouraging people to move
towards a specific goal.

LAYER 2: LIGHTING TO DEFINE MOOD AND

AMBIENCE
The second layer we study is the application of light into our space for the sole
purpose of altering the emotional state of the viewer. It is easy to visualize how
easily light can change the overall color, scale, or texture of a space. We first
identify the mood we want to create in an area, and then identify lighting
ingredients that will support that mood. Adding light to affect mood is a study in
the controllable aspects of light and requires deliberate decision making. An easy
way to create lighting that successfully affects mood is to define each lighting
effect in terms of the three controllable attributes of light that we identified
previously:
Intensity: Dim vs. Bright.
Color: Warm vs. Cool (Or an obvious color).
Texture: Directional vs. Diffuse.
When we use this awareness to make an intensity decision, color decision and
texture decision for each piece of light we add to a space, we can be sure that the
light is sympathetic to the mood we want to create.
The goal of this layer of thought is to define the project on a room-by-
room or area-by-area basis and describe the mood and emotional effect we desire
for each of these spaces. A good practice is to create a “Mood Map” that labels
the intended mood in each area, space or room of a project. This map might
describe spaces with emotional descriptors such as “cozy”, “harsh” or
“dazzling”. These descriptors serve to inform our decisions about the three
controllable attributes of the light that we apply to the space.
These subtle characteristics must be thought of for every piece of light
that we introduce to avoid applying light that is accidentally in conflict with the
desired mood. When we notice that “cool” sources aren’t conducive to intimate
residential settings, we are simply addressing one aspect (in this case the color
temperature) that has not been considered carefully. When we come across
examples of light that work against the desired emotion in a space, it is very
often only one of these three controllable aspects (intensity, color, or texture) that
has been neglected. Therefore, with only a minor change, the light could be
remedied to contribute positively to the desired feeling.
This second layer will give you the opportunity to make meaningful
decisions about the core qualities of light. It will also encourage you to articulate
the specific intent of each designed area.
Figure 4.2.1 Intensity, color, and texture of light can greatly affect the mood of a space.

Figure 4.2.2 Intensity, color, and texture of light can greatly affect the mood of a space.
LAYER 3: LIGHTING TO ACCENT OBJECTS
The third layer we tackle is
arguably the most intuitive
and readily-recognized. We
are simply applying light to
already-interesting objects and
surfaces solely for the purpose
of making those things more
noticeable. The phototropic
nature of humans can be used
to draw human movement, but
it is also effective on a small
scale by drawing visual
attention. By placing discreet
shapes of light onto the
objects in our space, we are
creating a logic that will
dictate how a viewer’s eye travels over the visual landscape of a single space.
We can dictate a subconscious visual path from an accented wall mural, to a
crystal chandelier, to a perfectly-appointed dining table. This organization of
visual interest encourages a visitor to experience the environment in a specific
order, taking time to interact with the design; a sort of choreography on a small
scale.
When we accent the objects in our space, we are also making decisions
about what type of light is appropriate for that object. This requires an
understanding of the materials used in our design and whether they respond
better to particular intensities, colors and textures of accenting light. If we are
interested in revealing texture, we want to use more directional light at steeper
angles. If we want to conceal texture, we use more diffuse sources that scatter
light in many directions. We should even be thinking of the shape of the light
that we are casting onto an object.
When we speak of accenting objects to create visual interest and logic, we
are also speaking about the decorative light sources that we use to add focus and
sparkle to a space. Decorative pendants and wall sconces can serve as points of
interest on their own.
The placement of light to accent objects is another way we focus light
onto specific surfaces and reduce the amount of light needed to create visual
clarity and function in our design.
 Figure 4.3 Distinct pieces and shapes of light add to the interest of existing objects and materials.

LAYER 4: LIGHTING TO REVEAL

ARCHITECTURE
The fourth layer of lighting in our system addresses light which defines,
accentuates, and articulates the architectural forms and details that we have taken
the time to design into our space. Vision is entirely dependent on light, so it is
reasonable to say that the greatest of architectural concepts and spatial effects
can be rendered meaningless without the proper application of light. With an
understanding of the power of light to expand and contract spaces; to make
objects appear closer or farther away, we are equipped to make very impacting
decisions. Revealing architecture also requires us to think about the shape of the
light we are creating. It is also an opportunity to think about where the light
appears to be coming from. Using light to accentuate architectural decisions
takes the form of two disciplines: lighting to define the architectural character
and lighting to accent architectural details.

Lighting to define spatial character

The first step to affecting architectural perception is to decide on a room-by-
room basis just how we want a
space to be considered. We
must decide whether we want
a space to feel tall and
expansive, confining and
intimate, wide and sweeping,
etcetera. After we go to
lengths to place our
boundaries and objects in a
manner that delivers a
particular feeling of space, we
can apply light to appropriate
surfaces to enhance the
desired effect.
We can wash light onto
ceilings to define the height of
a space. We can light the walls
of a space to reveal the
boundaries, or we can leave
them dark to eliminate the perception of confinement. The application of light
onto a specific set of architectural boundaries and surfaces carries a distinct
spatial impact. We must take care and put purpose into our decision of how we
treat each area. It is important to recognize that where light originates from has a
significant impact on how people perceive a space and how they feel in a space.
Humans are comfortably conditioned to the idea of light streaming down onto
the world from the sky above. The advent of architectural lighting tools means
that we can trump expectation and create light that emanates from the ground,
wall, furniture; any object or surface we choose.

Lighting to accent architectural details and features

The second element of revealing architecture is to identify the nuances and
architectural features that help define the structure and logic of a space. We are
looking for the expressions of structure; the columns and soffits that define a
space or the coves, coffers and vertices that define shape. Most of these
architectural features will jump out at us from our plans and sketches. We treat
them much the same as we treat other “accentable” objects. The only difference
is that in addition to lighting them just to draw attention, we are helping to
express the forms and structural logic of a space and how the space is supported.
 Figure 4.4 A few well-placed pieces of light add dimension and depth to architecture.

LAYER 5: LIGHTING FOR TASKS

The last layer that we discuss
in our course of five layers is
the light that we introduce to a
space strictly for the sake of
performing visual tasks. These
tasks can be as specific as
reading paperwork or as subtle
as navigating a lobby. We save
this thought process for last
because as we apply light to
address all of the previous
layers, it is likely that the light
will interact with our space to
deliver the light necessary for
our visual tasks as well. If we
design with consideration to
all of our other layers of light, we will have a rich, dynamic emotional
experience. If our design has failed to accommodate for our tasks, we can
augment by adding additional luminaires or localized task lighting. However, if
we neglect the more ethereal layers, like choreography and mood, it is unlikely
that we will ever be able to regain those subtle aspects of functionality.
Lighting for tasks also happens to have an enormous wealth of precedent
and information available to help a designer determine what light levels are
appropriate for specific tasks. There are reference books full of charts and tables
that can be used by anyone for solving task lighting problems.
What should be avoided is task lighting serving as the only type of light
considered for a space. In a good design approach, it is merely one of five layers,
and the last one at that.
We will investigate the specifics of providing light for tasks as it is a
critical component of the functionality of a space. But it must never overshadow
the thought and design of the other layers that truly infuse unique experience
into our environments.

Figure 4.5 Task illuminance should consider visual comfort and performance.

To become comfortable and confident with the layer system, we must remind
ourselves that none of the layers are complete solutions on their own. Knowing
this, we can free ourselves to address light how and where we want it. If we
isolate each of these layers as a unique thought process, we can stand back and
watch our space nearly build itself as a collection of well thought-out
applications of light onto specific surfaces.
Our success with this method relies on reminding ourselves, once again,
that lighted surfaces are our medium. All of the light ingredients we add through
this layered approach are pieces of light painted onto specific objects and
architectural elements
Additionally, our understanding of perception tells us that the most
efficient use of our lighting resources is light applied to vertical surfaces and the
upright accented objects that we place throughout our designed spaces.
If we spend our efforts designing the right light on the right surface, the
more technical task of choosing how to deliver that light will be easier and can
be executed with confidence.
Chapter 5
Physical Basics of Light
When we dedicate ourselves to incorporating light into our spaces, and claim it
as a familiar medium, we also dedicate ourselves to understanding how light
works. For our purposes, we will sail through a relatively succinct definition of
what light is, how it interacts with the surfaces of our environment and how this
affects our use of it. An understanding of light from a physical perspective will
empower us to make good design decisions and avoid the perils and pitfalls of
misapplied light.
Light is a member of a much larger family of physical phenomenon called
Electromagnetic Radiation. In our discussion, we will simply call it “radiation.”
Radiation is responsible for many phenomena we encounter in our daily lives. It
is all around us all of the time. X-Rays, Microwaves, Radio Transmission waves
and even heat are all forms of radiation. “Light” is merely a name we have
decided to give to the types of radiation that we are able to detect with our eyes.

LIGHT AS RADIATION
Radiation is essentially power and, as such, has no mass, no color, no taste, and
no smell. All of the different types of radiation travel around our planet, and the
universe, at the very same speed. We call this speed “the speed of light,” but it is,
in fact, the speed of every type of radiation. Light just happens to be our favorite
type.
The only difference between one form of radiation and another is how fast
that radiation vibrates as it travels. Thus the light we use to see differs from the
microwaves used to for cooking only in how fast it is vibrating as it travels
through space. Because this rate of vibration is the only discernible property of
radiation, we symbolize radiation as little, squiggly lines flying around us. This
allows us to describe radiation by the distance between peaks and troughs in our
squiggly lines. The length from peak to peak or trough to trough is called the
“wavelength” of the radiation, and it is the only sure way to distinguish one type
of radiation from another. In the case of visible light, these lengths are very, very
small, so they are often described in Nanometers. A nanometer is so short that it
takes one billion of them make a meter.

Figure 5.1 Radiation, including light, is best imagined as squiggly lines vibrating at different rates as they
travel through space.

We don’t need to visualize these units. We need only to know that in

scientific circles, wavelength, often expressed in Nanometers, is a perfectly
appropriate way to describe radiation, including visible light. Figure 5.2 shows
the entire known spectrum of radiation and the corresponding range of
wavelengths for the different types. You can see that “light” is a family of
radiation at the “short” end of the spectrum, that is to say radiation which has
shorter wavelengths and vibrates relatively fast.
Figure 5.2 The complete spectrum of electro-magnetic radiation including the portion we call visible light.

Generally, we say that human color vision can detect radiation with
wavelengths as short as 380 Nanometers and wavelengths as long as 770
Nanometers. So it is within this range that we have the “visible spectrum” or
radiation we call “light.” Anything vibrating faster, or vibrating slower, we no
longer “see.” The radiation is still there; we simply can no longer detect it with
our eyes.
Humans do have mechanisms for detecting other types of radiation, but
certainly not with the acuity of the “visible spectrum.” Infra-red radiation, which
lies just beyond the visible spectrum, is a good example. Humans don’t detect it
with their eyes, but they do detect it with their nerves as various levels of radiant
heat. We are commonly told that heat rises, but, more accurately, heated air
rises. Heat, itself, can be directed with reflectors just like other forms of
radiation.

Figure 5.3 An articulation of the wavelengths of radiation that constitute the visible spectrum.

Most humans have an amazing ability to distinguish between different

types and combinations of visible light. The articulation of our visual system is
evident in the plethora of names that we have given to all of these light
experiences. We name them as colors, and there is no shortage of subtle variation
in our color experiences. It is important, however, to remind ourselves that
“color” is simply a name for an experience. Light itself has no color. It is only
when different wavelengths of radiation reflect off of surfaces in our
environment and enter our eye that we have an experience that we can name as a
“color.” Hence every wavelength of radiation in the visible spectrum will cause a
fairly predictable color experience. And so, rather than argue about whether an
object is perceived as yellowish-orange or “canary yellow”, we could simply
describe the radiation by its wavelength in Nanometers to end the debate. It is
also worth noting that the acuity of color vision varies from person to person
depending on his / her physiological make-up. Various forms of color deficiency
can drastically reduce the number of unique color experiences of which a person
is capable. Studies show that about eight percent of males and less than one
percent of females suffer some form of color deficiency.

EVOLUTION OF COLOR VISION

Describing radiation, light and color in this manner begs an explanation of why
humans have come to “see” this radiation in the first place and why we are so
good at discerning one type from the next. The explanation lies in the logic of
life on earth. Historically, the sun has been the primary source of radiation here
on earth. The sun exhibits a seemingly endless cycle of nuclear fusion, which
emits a very elaborate spectrum of radiation: essentially, the complete spectrum
as we know it, from x-rays to radio waves. The atmosphere that blankets our
earth, however, blocks the vast majority of this radiation. Some of this radiation
slips through, and as far as we can guess, has always slipped through. This band
of sneaky radiation that actually makes it to earth’s surface is a band that
includes our visible spectrum and some of the ultra-violet and infra-red radiation
just beyond the end of the “visible spectrum”. Color vision is an adaptation that
humans have developed in response to radiation that has always been here. We
have had a long time on earth’s surface to refine our ability to not only detect
this radiation, but to articulate very minute differences, just as we can with
smells and tastes.
This logic also explains why we do not readily detect or use all of the
other forms of radiation; they were simply never on the earth’s surface for us to
care about. It is only the advent of modern science that has introduced many of
these other forms of radiation – microwaves, x-rays, and radio waves - to our
lives.
Figure 5.4 Humans have evolved to detect and use the small band of radiation that slips through the earth’s
atmosphere: visible light, ultra-violet, and infra-red.

Radiation that reaches the earth interacts with the surfaces around us in three
ways:
Radiation can be “reflected” or bounce off of a surface.
Radiation can be absorbed by a surface.
Radiation can “transmit” or pass through a surface.

It is through these reactions that the complex spectrums from sunlight and
electric light sources become different combinations of visible radiation that we
translate into different color experiences.
Despite the complexity that can be attributed to the physics of radiation
plays, the lessons are fairly basic:
“Light” is the name for a group of specific wavelengths of radiation that
happen to be detected by our eyes.
Color is not a property of an object. Color is our brain’s translation of
the radiation being reflected from an object to our eyes.

BASIC LIGHTING INTERACTION

TERMINOLOGY
To move forward and speak with clarity about the ways light interacts with our
environment and our visual system, it is important to point out that in all cases of
light, we are talking about the fundamental piece of light: The Lumen. Lighting
science makes the task of talking about light a little bit tricky by lending
different names to the phenomena of lumens of light interacting in different
ways. The specifics of measuring lumens of light will be discussed later in
chapter 18. For now, the critical knowledge is merely a bit of vocabulary.
Illuminance is an expression of the quantity of light falling onto or
“striking” an object. The Illuminance onto a surface does not necessarily
tell us what that surface will look like, as it does not define the amount of
light that will reflect off of that surface. Knowing the illuminance level
onto an object does, however, allow us to predict the contrast that will be
created between materials of different reflectances.
Exitance is an expression of the total quantity of light leaving a surface.
Exitance is easy to understand because it is simply a matter of counting
up the number of lumens of light that leave a source or surface. This
simplicity is also what limits the usefulness of exitance as a description.
Exitance tells us how much light is leaving a source or surface, but it
doesn’t tell us in what direction or where that light ends up.
Luminance is the phenomena of light leaving a surface at a specific
density in a specific direction. Although luminance is difficult to measure,
it is extremely useful because it describes light coming off of a surface just
as a viewer would experience it. Describing the luminance levels of a
particular situation allows us to visualize the lighted effect of the space.
The safest way to use these terms properly is to get used to the prepositions
related to each. It is appropriate to talk about Illuminance “on to” a surface. We
generally speak of the Exitance “off of” a surface. We generally talk about the
luminance “coming from” a surface.
Figure 5.5 The interactions of light are always about the basic unit of light: The Lumen.
Chapter 6
Physiology of Vision
The human eye, with all of its mechanics, deserves a heavy book of its own. But,
for our purposes we will focus on the components of the eye that detect and
translate light. These components initiate the chemical process that transmits
information to our brain, where it is processed into visual experience. To study
these mechanics as designers, we must understand what the eye and brain need
to perform and feel comfortable in an environment.
To better understand the needs of our visual system, we start by studying
some mechanical basics that we touched on earlier.

Adaptation
This term is the name we give
to the mechanics of the eye
and brain working to control
the amount of light that enters
the eye and is translated by the
brain. We “dark adapt” when
we walk into a dark room, as
the mechanics of our eyes and
brains work to make the most
of what little light is available.
“Bright adaptation” occurs
when we transition into a
brighter space and our eyes
and brains work to limit the
Figure 6.1 The major components of the human
amount of light entering the
visual system. Adaptation
occurs unconsciously. It is worth knowing that bright adaptation happens rather
quickly. Dark adaptation can take a few minutes to occur completely. For this
reason, we give extra thought to light levels when we transition people from
bright spaces to dark spaces.

Accommodation
This is a fancy name for the ability of the eye to focus on objects at different
distances. The eye has flexible refracting components that change shape to bend
light differently when we shift focus from a close object to an object far away.

STRUCTURE OF THE EYE

The human eye consists of a number of impressive components that perform all
of these complex tasks. Nearly all of these functions can be understood by
finding analogy with a camera.
The outermost
component of the eyeball is
the cornea, a fluid-filled bulge
at the front of our eye that
does a fair amount of
gathering and focusing of light
towards the back of the
eyeball. The cornea also does
a wonderful job of protecting
the other components of the
eye and filtering out harmful
radiation.
Behind the cornea is Figure 6.2 The flexible “crystalline lens” changes shape to
the iris. The iris is the refract light differently as the eye focuses on objects that are far
component of the eye that away (left) or near (right).
carries “eye color” and acts as
a shutter device, opening and closing to control the quantity of light that enters
the eyeball. It is the iris that is first to act when the visual system “adapts” to
different light levels. The pupil is the name for the aperture that the iris creates.
So we see our pupil change in size to admit more or less light as conditions
change.
Behind the pupil is the flexible, shape-changing lens that is responsible
for a small, but critical, portion of our accommodation (focusing). This lens is
attached to muscles that contract and relax to optimize the shape of the lens to
refract light from far away or from nearby as we focus on objects at different
distances.
All of these components are working in harmony at all times to deliver the
ideal quantity of light to the elements at the back of our eyeball. These elements
make up the retina. The retina is home to all of our light-detecting
photoreceptors called rods and cones. The different types of photoreceptors are
distributed in a very purposeful way that can be broken down into three areas of
interest.
The periphery of our retina is home to photoreceptors called “rods” that
detect low levels of light.
The central area of our retina is called the macula and is home to a mix of
rods and our more detail oriented photoreceptors called “cones.”
The very center of our retina is called the fovea, and it is home exclusively
to cones. Because cones are so critical for translating detail and color, the
fovea is slightly concave to maximize the surface area available. The
density of cones at the fovea allows for greater detail and color
perception at the center of the field of vision. It is this center most area of
the retina towards which all of the other mechanics of the eyeball are
working to direct light.

The cones and rods are the critical light detecting components of the eye.
To understand how the two different systems work to contribute to vision in
different light situations, we will expand on them here.

Rods
Rods are the photoreceptors that populate the outer perimeter of the retina and
are responsible for our so-called “peripheral vision”
Rods are very large and very sensitive to subtle light changes and
motion.
Rods are active in low light levels. We call these “scotopic” situations.
Rods populate the periphery of the retina and parts of the macula. The
Fovea (center area) of the retina contains no Rods.
There is only one class of rods, and they all contain the same
photopigment. This photopigment is called Rhodopsin and is most sensitive to
radiation with a wavelength of 504 Nanometers. This wavelength of radiation
would translate to the color experience “blue-green” to normal color vision.
Because all of our rods have the same sensitivity and respond to light the same,
they only translate value information. Thus in low light level, “scotopic”
situations, our rods translate only a judgment of bright or dark to the brain.
Scotopic vision situations, therefore, appear monochromatic (one-colored).

Cones
Cones are the photoreceptors that populate the central areas of our eye and are
responsible for all of our high detail and color vision functions. Cones are
organized into three distinct classes, and each class contains a different chemical
photopigment. The different peak sensitivities of the different classes of cones
make color distinction possible. Understanding how light is detected by the
different types of cones and translated to the brain is necessary to understanding
color science and making appropriate light source decisions.
Cones are active in high light levels. We call these “photopic” situations.
Cones populate the central parts of the retina. The macula is primarily
made up of cones, and the fovea at the center of our retina is exclusively
made up of cones.
Cones are responsible for our color vision and are small in size in order
to translate detail.

There are three different classes of cones, each named for the
photopigment chemical that it contains. These three photopigments each have a
peak sensitivity to a different wavelength of light and are named for the
wavelength to which they are most sensitive. These unique sensitivities are what
make discerning color possible.
Our “R” or Red Cones contain the photopigment “erythrolabe,” which is
most sensitive to radiation of wavelength 580 Nanometers. Not
surprisingly, this wavelength on its own would elicit the color experience
we call “red.”
Our “G” or Green Cones contain “chlorolabe,” which is most sensitive
to radiation of wavelength 540 Nanometers.
Our “B” or Blue Cones contain the photopigment “cyanolabe,” which is
most sensitive to radiation of wavelength 450 nanometers.

Photopic Color Vision from our Cones

The key to understanding cones and rods is in visualizing how these
photoreceptors work together to transmit information to our brain, where it is
then translated into vision.

Figure 6.3 Approximate sensitivities of the three classes of cones.

Figure 6.3 shows the entire spectrum of visible radiation (on its side). You
may remember that on the short end of the spectrum (380 Nanometers in
wavelength), we have radiation that elicits the color experience “violet.” On the
right side of the diagram is the long end of the visible spectrum (radiation of
wavelength 780 Nanometers) which is radiation that translates we perceive as
the color experience “red.” On the left-hand axis of the chart is a simple
measurement of quantity or intensity. The three sensitivity spectrums of the three
types of cones are overlaid onto the diagram. As expected, the peak sensitivities
of each class coincide with radiation types that deliver the color experience we
would expect. The most effective way to visualize the workings of the cones is
to picture each class of cones as an individual person or group that casts a vote
of intensity based on how much of their favorite radiation they detect.
As an example, if we could isolate a specific wavelength of radiation, in
this case 520 nanometers, we could predict how each class of cones would vote
based on where the line of the wavelength intersects each of the three sensitivity
curves (see figure 6.4). We see that the Red cones vote 4, the Green cones vote 7,
and the Blue cones vote 1. These three votes form the three digit number that is
transmitted to the brain for processing; in this case “4-7-1”. The brain translates
each unique 3 digit code as a unique experience. To keep them straight, we name
the experiences as colors. In the event that our classes of cones all detect the
same quantity of their favorite light, they all vote the same, and the number sent
to the brain looks like “3-3-3” or “5-5-5”. In this case, the brain’s translation is a
neutral value, some shade of gray or black or white.

Figure 6.4 The effect of an isolated wavelength of visible light can be determined by identifying where it
intersects the sensitivity curves.

Far more likely than a few isolated wavelengths of light is a group of

many different wavelengths that may be reflecting off of an object or coming
from a light source. In the case of a broad spectrum like this, we find the
intersections of all of the different wavelengths and consider an average value
that represents them (see figure 6.5). In this fashion, every imaginable
combination of light can be boiled down to a vote from each of the classes of
photoreceptors and transmitted as a three-digit number to the brain. The three
digits are what make color space a three-dimensional place with so many
possible color experiences.
 Figure 6.5 Even a very complex spectrum is translated by the photoreceptors as a single 3-digit number.

Although the wavelength characteristics of light are absolute, the

detection of light and translation of color are far more subjective. Every person’s
visual system has slightly different peak sensitivities and different ranges of
detection. There are individuals who detect certain wavelengths of light that
other people do not. They, therefore, have color experiences that some people
may never have.
This model of color vision leads to the understanding that the sensation of
“color” is merely the brains translation of the retina’s detection of different
quantities of different wavelengths of light. This has important ramifications in
that we can artificially create any color experience we want through an
engineered combination of many different wavelengths of light.

Scotopic Vision from our Rods

If we can visualize the interaction of our cones, understanding how rods work is
very simple. In the case of our rods, there is only one class, one photopigment,
and, therefore, only one vote. The information that is transmitted to the brain is a
single number. Because of this, low-level “Scotopic” vision is a monochromatic
experience. The brain is being furnished with only enough information to make a
value judgment: simply dark or light.
 Figure 6.6 All rods are sensitive to light in the same manner. Thus, they translate only a value judgment.

THE TROUBLE WITH WHITE LIGHT

This science needs to be most thoroughly considered as it relates to so-called
“white light.” With the advent of modern, highly-engineered electric light
sources, we have harnessed technology that allows us to create light sources that
can appear as a pleasing version of neutral when viewed directly, yet render
colors very poorly.
Figure 6.7 shows that if we create a light source that emits just the right
wavelength of “blue” light and just the right wavelength of “orange” light, our
cones will send a three-digit number to our brain that will be translated as
neutral.
Figure 6.7 The perception of neutral from a light source can be created through a combination of as few as
two wavelengths of light.

Figure 6.8 The perception of neutral light is more commonly the product of a wide variety of visible
wavelengths.

What is inherently dangerous is that when our brain detects a “neutral” light
source, we are tempted to believe that this light source will accurately render all
of the potential colors in the environment around us. But if we created the light
source illustrated in figure 6.7, it would accurately render only two colors; the
rest would be muddled and gray. We would successfully have created a source
that appears perfectly neutral to the eye, but renders only oranges and blues. For
this reason, a designer should avoid describing light as simply “white.” To speak
accurately of light sources, we must discuss two distinct properties:
1. The completeness of the spectrum of a light source or “Color
Rendering Index,”
2. The balance of spectrum of light source or “Color Temperature.”
Chapter 7
The Color Science of Light Sources
Like all color experiences, “white” or neutral, is relatively subjective, and people
may experience it slightly differently. In addition to the variation in individual
color sense, there are two other factors that contribute to “white” being a
dangerous term to label a light source.
The first of these factors is a simple physical shortcoming of
photoreceptors. Our cones rely on chemical photo-pigments to cause the
chemical reaction that translates vision. When we exhaust the supply of photo-
pigments the cones can no longer “vote.” This temporary exhaustion is called
“bleaching” of the photoreceptors and is the reason that after staring at a
saturated color for a long period of time, we see the “inverse” of a color when
we look away.
The second shortcoming is based on our brains’ habit of ignoring
repetitive information that it deems of little use. Your brain is a device of
efficiency, and if it feels that a repetitive signal is being ignored, it will stop
sending it. In this manner, as you stare at an object, your brain grows bored of
telling you that the object is colored. The brain starts to ignore the signals sent
by your eye, and your perception of the object’s color begins to shift towards
neutral. More appropriately, your brain is deciding that the color of that object is
the “new white,” and, thus, every other color is judged from it.
These factors together mean that an object appears to be most saturated
with color the instant we look at it, and fades as our cones run out of photo-
pigment. This subjectivity also means that we can do much arguing about the
color of an object or light source. We have already pointed out that we can
eliminate argument about color by labeling individual colors by their
corresponding wavelength. Here we are interested in applying this simplicity to
light sources. We specifically care about the light sources that we rely on to
reveal the colors of the world around us. In an attempt to limit confusion and
argument, we insist on describing two unique properties of every light source:
Color Rendering Index and Color Temperature.
 Color Rendering Index:
This term describes the complexity or completeness of the spectral output
of a light source.
Color Temperature:
This term describes the color that a light source appears to the eye due to
an imbalanced spectral output.

COLOR RENDERING INDEX

Color rendering index is rather simple in principle and expression. The color
rendering index, or CRI, of a light source is expressed as a number ranging from
0 to 100, where 100 is a spectral output that contains the entire visible spectrum
and, therefore, renders all colors accurately. If a light source emits every
wavelength in the visible spectrum, then the materials in an environment have
the opportunity to reflect all of those wavelengths to the eye, and, thus, express
all of the potential color in the environment.
The lower the CRI value, the fewer distinct wavelengths the source emits.
Therefore, fewer potential color expressions can be reflected from materials in
the environment. When we go on to investigate various electrical light sources,
we will see that color rendering capabilities (and corresponding CRI values)
vary greatly from source to source. This variety is of huge significance to the
designer. Since designers are responsible for making many critical material and
color decisions, it is imperative that they are aware of the possible shortcomings
of the light source under which they are making their decisions. Many a person
has been shocked to find that two materials that look to be the same color under
a specific electric light source look utterly different under daylight. Daylight
represents a complete spectrum and, therefore, has a Color Rendering Index
(CRI) of 100.
Incandescing sources like the common “light bulb” and halogen sources
are engineered to also emit the entire visible spectrum, so they also have a CRI
of 100. A bad fluorescent source may have a CRI of 60. We will discuss the
specific CRI values of various electric light sources in chapter eight when we
investigate each source individually. Suffice it to say for general understanding
that the following guidelines can get us through the system:
Color Rendering Indices (CRI) in the 60’s and 70’s are relatively
incomplete and are unacceptable for making critical color decisions.
 CRI values in the 80’s
do a reasonable job of
revealing colors
CRI values in the 90’s
render colors very
accurately and are
appropriate for color
critical environments.

CORRELATED
COLOR
TEMPERATURE
This is a method of describing
the apparent color of a light
source that is very nearly
neutral. When a light source
appears colored to our eye, it
is due to an unbalanced
spectral output. If a source
emits little or no green light, it
may appear reddish or
“warm.” A source may also
appear “warm” or reddish if it
Figure 7.1 Color Rendering Index (CRI) of different light
emits every color, but emits a sources expressed from 0 to 100.
higher proportion of red.
Color Temperatures are expressed in Degrees Kelvin or simply Kelvins
(because The Kelvin scale is absolute, it needs no units).
The reason that we express this color appearance as a temperature is a
result of the experimenting that led to the scale. The color temperature scale is
expressed as the colors that a black body radiator exhibits as it is heated to
extreme temperatures. A black body radiator is akin to a fancy block of iron that
won’t melt. As this fancy block of iron is heated to high temperatures, it begins
to glow. The first color that the iron block will glow is a dull, deep red. If heated
further, the same block of iron will begin to glow orange and then yellow.
Experiments show that if heated even higher, the color exhibited by this block of
iron will travel all the way through the color spectrum. Thus, the next stop is
green, onward to blue. The path that this color transition makes is not linear, so
the green happens to be very, very pale and is, for our purposes, considered a
colorless neutral.
The glowing red color of the iron occurs at a temperature of about 1800
Kelvins. With this logic, when a light source exhibits this reddish color, rather
than call it reddish, we describe the light source as having a Color Temperature
of 1800 Kelvins. In this system, orange occurs at about 2500 Kelvins, followed
by yellow at about 2800 Kelvins. Following the progression of temperature and
the color spectrum, keeping in mind that we use the pale green as our neutral, the
Color Temperature translations follow the table in Figure 7.2.

We most often use this

system of color description for
our engineered light sources
like fluorescent lamps, Light
Emitting Diodes, and High
Intensity Discharge lamps.
These color associations are
only approximations and
differ in meaning from source
to source and even brand to
brand. This leaves plenty of
room for discrepancy, but the
basics of Color Temperature
to describe the slight color of
engineered sources like
fluorescent remains useful.
2500 Kelvins: warm
3000 Kelvins: neutral
4100 Kelvins: cool

It is worth noting that

with these engineered sources,
the color temperature Figure 7.2 The range of color temperatures used to describe
description has no relationship common electric light sources
to the operating temperature
of the source itself. However, when we discuss incandescent or halogen
incandescent sources, color temperature has more meaning. Because these light
sources are the product of heating a metal filament, the color temperature
exhibited is related to the temperature of the filament. When we heat an
incandescent filament to 2800 degrees Kelvin, we get light that we would
describe as the “color” 2800 Kelvins (warm).
Where our engineered sources cause difficulty is when they are not
labeled nor described by their Color Rendering Index, or numeric Color
Temperature. Unfortunately, many consumer grade fluorescent light sources and
LED’s are labeled with marketable names like “daylight white” or “designer
white.” These names give no real hint as to the color temperature to expect and
certainly tell nothing of the color rendering index. Thus, these products should
be avoided when color rendering and source color are critical.
Knowing the Color Rendering Index and Color Temperature properties of
a light source is necessary for gaining a full understanding of a light source’s
capability. It is reasonable to say Color Rendering Index is the more impacting
of the two. If a source emits a complete spectrum of visible light and reveals
every color accurately, it is really a matter of preference as to whether that
source needs to appear warm or cool. This is just like daylight which changes
color drastically from pale sunrise to deep sunset, but is always useful for
revealing color. Conversely, if a light source reveals colors poorly, it is of little
significance whether the source itself appears warm or cool to the eye. Many
unsatisfactory lighting situations can be remedied by implementing light sources
with a better color rendering index. Very few lighting problems can be solved
just by addressing color temperature.
To make complete lighting decisions, it is necessary to understand and
specify both the Color Temperature and Color Rendering Index of a light
source.
Chapter 8
Electric Light Sources
At the core of every electric luminaire is the lamp that actually converts
electricity into radiant light energy. Since the commercial success of the standard
Incandescent lamp in 1879, modern science has developed a number of ways to
electrically create light. Each technology has pros and cons that should be
understood by the designer interested in making lighting decisions. Just as it is
important to understand the priorities and program of the design job, it is
necessary to know which light sources are going to serve those priorities. The
topic of light source technology has become more complex as technologies have
progressed. When we consider how long humans have relied on the sun as the
primary source of illumination, it is easy to understand why electric light source
selection is so critical and why our visual system struggles with the color
rendering, color temperature and glare issues presented by many of our newer,
technologically advanced sources.
We will discuss each of these technologies with the intent of
understanding how each performs, and where each should be used or not used.
“Lamp” is the proper name for what most people call a “light bulb.” In our
discussion we care about vocabulary as much as anything else, so we will refer
to our sources as lamps.
Let’s summarize our working knowledge of the different light source
technologies by identifying and discussing the properties that define their
suitability for a specific lighting challenge:
Initial Cost: How expensive is this type of source to purchase?
Operating Cost: The expense of providing electricity, maintaining and
replacing the source.
Color Rendering Index: CRI (on our scale of 1 to 100.) A representation
of “completeness” of visible spectrum provided by the source, and thus
how well is will render colors in the designed environment.
Color Temperature: Expressed in degrees Kelvin or Kelvins; indicates the
perceived color of the source itself as a product of an imbalanced spectral
output. Roughly categorized as warm, neutral or cool
Ballast, Transformer and Driver Requirements: Many sources rely on
specialized electronic or magnetic equipment to convert standard line
voltage electricity to something more suitable for the source. These
devices are often built integral to the lamp, integral to the luminaire, or
are remotely mounted within a specific distance of the source. Often they
must be installed such that they are accessible for maintenance or
replacement.
Dimming: Many sources can be simply dimmed. Others require a careful
matching of dimming controllers specific to the source type. Some electric
light sources cannot be dimmed at all.
Instant on / off: Many sources require time to “warm-up” to present full
light output. Some sources, when turned off, must be left off for a “re-
strike” time period before they can again be switched on.
“Directability”: An indication of how focused the light leaves the source.
Some lamps have optical reflectors built into them. Other sources rely on
luminaires to optically control and direct light. The ability to focus light
from a source is related to the size of the source. The smaller the light
source, the easier to harness, control and direct it.
Efficacy: A fancy word for efficiency; this is an indication of how well the
technology converts electricity to visible light. Most electricity “wasted”
in an electric light source is converted to heat, which must be considered
in its own right. Efficacy is expressed as lumens of light “out” for watts of
electricity “in” or simply “lumens per watt”
Lamp Life: indicates how long a light source provides a working
percentage of its initial light output. This is helpful for selecting and
planning as the labor to replace a lamp is often more costly than the lamp
itself. It is good practice to replace lamps in bulk before they actually fail.
Lamp life is commonly expressed in thousands of hours. A common
assumption is that 1000 hours translates to roughly 1 year of typical use
residentially and 3000 hours translates to a year of commercial use.
These assumptions assume about three hours or nine hours of use per day
(respectively). Adjustments should be made accordingly.
 Temperature requirement: Some electric light sources have particular
temperature concerns. Many fluorescent sources function poorly in cold
environments and more efficiently in warm environments.
Heat Generated: Electricity in a light source not converted to visible light
is often converted to heat, which must be considered for safety concerns
and for additional cooling load needs.
Noise Generated: Beware that many electric light sources and their
accompanying equipment (drivers, ballast, transformer) can generate
unwanted noise. This awareness and consideration is crucial for interior
environments.

STANDARD INCANDESCENT SOURCES

Cheap, hot and inefficient;
standard incandescent lamps
are used for soft, diffuse
blobs of warm light that
render colors well.
Standard Incandescent
sources represent a very basic
technology that has changed
little in the 100-plus years
since its refinement. Figure
8.1 illustrates the basic
working components that
enable these sources to
Figure 8.1 The working components of standard incandescent function. Very simply,
light sources
electricity is passed through
an engineered metal filament.
As with many materials, the metal filament “resists” the flow of electricity. This
resistance causes friction, which, in turn, becomes heat. Once this resistance and
subsequent heat become great enough, the metal filament “incandesces”; it gives
off radiant energy in a broad spectrum that includes the visible spectrum.
Understanding that the radiant energy given off also includes a huge quantity of
heat (infra-red radiation) explains many of the undesirable properties and
inefficiencies of incandescent sources. It is worth noting that many countries
have introduced legislation to phase out the use of incandescent light sources:
The European Union in 2009, Russia and Canada in 2012, The US and China in
2014. Check with local and national regulations before considering these sources
for use on your project.

The Properties of Incandescent Sources:

Initial Cost: cheap!
…Dirt cheap. This is the primary reason incandescent sources are so
common. The small price tag compels us to reach for incandescent
lamps despite our knowledge or their inefficiency and short lamp
life.
Operating Cost: Expensive;
Incandescent sources are inefficient and short-lived. They convert
only about 1/3rd of the quantity of input electricity into visible light.
The remaining 2/3rds leaves as heat. Incandescent sources are
expensive to electrify and require frequent, costly, labor-intensive
relamping.
Color Rendering Index: 100 (great);
The filament of the incandescent source is engineered to incandesce
in a manner that delivers every wavelength of visible radiation. This
complete output spectrum can reveal all of the colors that the
surfaces in an environment have to offer. This desirable color-
rendering ability is another reason we are so reluctant to move away
from these sources.
Color Temperature: warm;
Incandescent sources actually operate at the temperature that
corresponds to their color temperature. Standard incandescent
filaments are heated to about 2800 degrees Kelvin, so the warm,
yellow-orange light given off by the source can be described as 2800
Kelvins. This warmth is another reason we seem to be attracted to
these sources. The warm color temperature translates well in
intimate, relaxed environments.
Ballast and Transformer requirements: None;
Incandescent sources require no special components to operate. Line
voltage electricity is simply driven through the filament, which heats
to a point of incandescing.
Dimming: Cheap and Easy;
 Incandescent sources can be dimmed simply by lowering the
amperage (quantity) of electricity that is pushed through them. This
can be accomplished with a simple wall box dimmer that can be
installed in place of most common light switches.
Instant on / off: Yes;
Incandescent filaments heat up to incandescence very rapidly as
electricity is applied to them. For our purposes, we will consider it
as instant.
Directability: Poor;
Incandescent sources are very large to accommodate the relatively
large filament within. Generally, the larger the source, the more
inefficient it is to gather up the light and drive it out in a specific
direction through the use of optical control. Think of building a
reflector around a common “light bulb” to accent a sculpture, and
you begin to get the picture.
Efficacy: Very Poor (10 Lumens per Watt);
Incandescent sources do much more to deliver heat than they do
light. This results in a large quantity of wasted electricity.
Incandescent sources create about 10 lumens of light for every watt
of electricity put into them.
Lamp Life: Poor;
Another significant drawback of standard incandescent sources is
the frequency with which we replace them. Incandescent sources are
expected to have a lamp life of about 1000 hours. Using our
estimates, this translates to anywhere from three months to one year
of regular use before the source “burns out.” As incandescent lamps
operate, the metal filament is heated so that is literally boils away.
As the filament boils away, it becomes thin and brittle and,
ultimately breaks, causing failure.
Temperature requirements: None;
Incandescent sources operate equally well in any reasonable
temperature condition.
Heat Generated: Lots;
Incandescent sources emit more infra-red radiation than visible light.
They are truly heat lamps by nature. They can be exceptionally hot
 to the touch and must be considered for the heat damage thy can do
to neighboring materials as well as the additional heating load they
represent in the designed space.
Noise Generated: Some;
Incandescent sources have a tendency to “buzz” when they are
dimmed down. This generally comes from the filament buzzing due
to vibration as electricity flows through. Incandescent sources are
fairly silent under full-power operation.
Incandescent lamps are inexpensive to purchase, render colors well, have a
pleasing warm color cast, and are easy to dim. They are, however, wildly
inefficient, produce a tremendous amount of heat, and are short-lived.
We use incandescent
sources when we are trying to
create soft, diffuse, warm
floods of light. Incandescent
sources are good for
distributing an even quantity
of warm light in all directions.
Occasionally, we build
reflectors around incandescent
lamps to create downlights
and accent luminaires, but the
large nature of the source
makes them ill-suited for this
task. Incandescent lamps are
Figure 8.2 Common shapes of standard incandescent light
often the heart of diffusing sources.
luminaires like floor lamps,
table lamps, and decorative sconces. The limit in size and wattage of
incandescent sources also limits the size of application. These lamps are usually
suited to smaller environments and low (10’-0” and under) ceilings. Considering
the scheduled phasing out of incandescent sources and the emergence of suitable
alternatives in the form of compact fluorescent and LED technology, there is
dwindling justification for specifying incandescent sources on a project.

HALOGEN INCANDESCENT SOURCES

Small and hot, Halogen sources deliver clean, crisp, easily-directed light that is useful for creating
focused shapes of light, accent surfaces and objects or for twinkling use as bare lamps for visual interest.
Called by many names, Halogen, Quartz Halogen, Tungsten Halogen, we are talking about a light source
that is essentially a refined version of the basic incandescent lamp. Halogen incandescent sources are named
for the halogen gas that they contain and the quartz outer bulb that surrounds their filament. Both of these
advancements allow the filament in these sources to operate at a higher temperature. This has the surprising
benefit of allowing the source to run more efficiently and also extends the life of the lamp. The other benefit
these advancements provide to the designer is a smaller source package which can more easily be focused
and directed via optics and reflectors. Figure 8.3 shows the working components with the expected
similarities to standard incandescent sources.
Halogen Incandescent
sources are basically a refined
version of standard
incandescent; they offer
higher color temperatures
described as nearly neutral
pale yellow. These lamps offer
longer lamp life, greater
efficacy, and a smaller
package that can be better
directed to accent and light
specific objects. Halogen
incandescent sources are still
relatively inefficient. It is
Figure 8.3 The working components of halogen incandescent
worth investigating light sources.
contemporary ceramic metal
halide (CMH) and LED sources, which have been fashioned into similar lamp
shapes to provide similar, “directable” effects at much greater efficacy.

The Properties of Halogen Incandescent Sources:

Initial Cost: Moderate;
Halogen sources are moderately expensive to purchase. This
expense comes from the cost of the technology and because they are
less common than the standard “light bulb.”
Operating Cost: Expensive;
Although more efficient than standard incandescent, Halogen
sources are still wasteful and still short-lived when compared to
sources like fluorescent, LED and High Intensity Discharge (HID).
Color Rendering Index: 100 (great);
Halogen sources also rely on heating filaments to a point of
incandescing. These filaments are designed to emit a spectrum that
 includes all of the visible wavelengths that objects in our
environment may reflect to our eye.
Color Temperature: warm to neutral;
The higher operating temperature of halogen incandescent sources
creates light that exhibits a higher color temperature. The filament is
heated to about 3000 degrees Kelvin and, therefore, creates a pale
yellowish light that we can describe as 3000 Kelvins.
Ballast and Transformer requirements: Some;
Many halogen incandescent sources are engineered to operate at a
lower voltage than is commonly delivered to electrical circuits.
These “low voltage” sources require a transformer to “transform”
the electricity from standard line voltage (120 volts in the U.S., 220
volts in much of Europe) to a lower voltage (commonly 12 volts or
24 volts). These transformers can be as small as a candy bar, but
must always be considered as they must be installed nearby and
must be accessible.
Dimming: Cheap and Easy;
Just like standard incandescent sources, halogen incandescent
sources can be dimmed with simple wall box dimmers, which
regulate the quantity of electricity delivered through the filament. It
is important however to match the dimming equipment to the
specific transformer type (electronic or magnetic) if a transformer is
in use
Instant on / off: Yes;
Halogen Incandescent filaments heat up to incandescence, and thus
give off light nearly instantaneously.
Directability: good to excellent;
One of the most notable by-products of Halogen technology is the
ability to build a smaller lamp around a smaller filament. These
small lamps are ideal for building into precision reflectors that drive
out light in a single direction. The small size is the reason halogen
incandescent lamps are so commonly used for accenting, stage
lighting, and precision flood lighting. Many halogen incandescent
lamps are built with integral optics and reflectors.
Efficacy: Poor (15 Lumens per Watt);
 When first developed, Halogen incandescent sources were heralded
for being fifty percent more efficient than standard incandescent.
Compared to sources like LED and ceramic metal halide, which both
offer similar lamp shapes, this number is now less than impressive.
Lamp Life: medium to good;
The higher temperature of Halogen Incandescent lamps creates a
situation in which the metal of the filament recycles within the lamp,
thus, extending lamp life significantly. Halogen sources generally
last about 3000 hours, but can be engineered to last as long as
10,000 hours (as long as 10 years by our residential assumption of
1000 hours per year)
Temperature requirements: None;
Halogen incandescent sources will operate well in any reasonable
temperature condition.
Heat Generated: Lots;
Halogen incandescent sources create a significant amount of heat
that must be considered for safety as well as added heat load to a
space.
Noise Generated: Some;
Halogen incandescent sources “buzz” when they are dimmed down.
In addition to the buzz of the filament, some halogen sources rely on
magnetic transformers which can also create noise.
Halogen incandescent lamps are moderately expensive lamps that, like
incandescent, are rather inefficient and create excess heat. We use halogen
sources where we want the excellent color-rendering capabilities and the nearly
neutral color. Halogen sources are very small, so they can be incorporated into
smaller luminaires and into precision accenting luminaires that drive out a
directional beam of light for accenting specific surfaces and objects.
Advancements in LED and ceramic metal halide technology have resulted in
lamp shapes that provide the same directable light as halogen incandescent
sources with much greater efficacies, increased lamp life and suitable color
rendering indices (CRI).

FLUORESCENT LAMPS
Efficient and versatile, fluorescent lamps create diffuse light that can
have many different color temperatures and different color-rendering
 capabilities.
Fluorescent technology has
come a long way since the
days of flickering, humming,
blue light. The most
significant aspect of
fluorescent lamp technology is
the vast range of color
temperatures and color
rendering capabilities.
Consequently, care must be
taken in specifying them. If a
designer does not specify the
particular color temperature
and desired color-rendering
index of a fluorescent source, Figure 8.4 Common shapes of halogen incandescent lamps.
the product delivered can be
very surprising and less than desirable.
Fluorescent lamps work through a very novel management of technology
based on phosphorescence. Figure 8.5 shows the components that are at work in
all fluorescent lamps. Long, linear fluorescent lamps and twisty, compact
fluorescent lamps are all basically hollow glass tubes filled with vaporized
metal. When this “cloud” of metal vapor is excited by a bombardment of free
electrons, it gives off a limited spectrum of mostly ultra-violet radiation. The
magic of the technology is the white powdery coating of mineral phosphors that
line the inside of the glass tube. These phosphors glow by translating the limited-
spectrum, ultra-violet radiation into a much broader spectrum of visible light.
The quality and make-up of the phosphor coating is what determines the color-
rendering properties and color temperature of the lamp. This phosphor coating
can be engineered to deliver light that exhibits any version of cool or warm:
bluish, violet, pinkish, orange-ish, yellowish, etc. Using electricity to excite the
metal vapor and the translation made by the phosphor coating are efficient
processes that create very little heat.
Fluorescent lamps also require a device called a ballast that starts the
lamp and stabilizes the electricity delivered to the lamp. These electronic or
magnetic devices range in size and must be located in or near the fluorescent
luminaire.
 Figure 8.5 The working components of fluorescent light sources.

The Properties of Fluorescent Light Sources:

Initial Cost: Moderate;
Fluorescent lamps get less expensive to purchase as they become
more commonplace. There are also many government funded
programs that subsidize fluorescent lamps to encourage their use.
Commodity lamps like the T-8 can be quite inexpensive. Though
desirable color temperatures and color rendering properties will
drive the cost up.
Operating Cost: Cheap;
Between the high efficiency and long time between relamping, these
sources are among the most economical to operate.
Color Rendering Index: 70 - 95 (moderate to good);
The variations in phosphor technology allow fluorescent lamps to be
engineered to render colors well. Unfortunately, far more common
are versions that don’t. Generally, better color rendering index (CRI)
will mean a more costly lamp. It is always advisable to see a
working sample of a specific fluorescent lamp when considering it
for use on a project.
Color Temperature: Variable. Warm to cool and everything in between;
Fluorescent lamps can be engineered to exhibit any color desired.
What is critical to understand is that the color a lamp appears to our
eye does necessarily indicate how well that lamp will render colors.
Fluorescent sources generally have a slight color cast that may look
odd when compared to incandescent and halogen sources. It is
 always advisable to see a sample prior to consideration on a project.
Ballast and Transformer requirements: Yes;
All fluorescent lamps require a ballast to operate. The ballast can be
built into the luminaire or mounted remotely. Some fluorescent
lamps, like those intended to replace screw-in incandescent lamps,
have the ballast built in to them. Ballasts operate either magnetically
or electronically, and it is worthwhile to specify electronic ballasts
for most uses. Magnetic ballasts are responsible for the flickering,
humming, and buzzing that are associated with fluorescent lamps.
Electronic ballasts are small, light, quiet, start nearly instantly, and
are more efficient.
Dimming: yes …but costly;
Many fluorescent sources can be dimmed, but this requires a lamp-
specific dimming ballast and, often times, a specific type of
dimming switch. It is advisable to get a controls specialist or lamp
manufacturer’s representative involved when designing dimmable
fluorescent lighting.
Instant on / off: Yes (with an electronic ballast);
An electronic ballast will allow a fluorescent lamp to start nearly
instantly. Magnetically ballasted lamps tend to flicker and stutter
when turned on.
Directability: Poor;
Because of their large size, fluorescent lamps are best used for a
diffuse glow of light and are hard to direct as accents. Fluorescent
luminaires tend to be quite large to accommodate the larger
reflectors and optics.
Efficacy: Excellent (70 Lumens per watt average);
Fluorescent lamps have been refined to be exceptionally efficient.
Ranging from 50 to 100 lumens per watt, these lamps consume as
little as 1/10th the electricity of incandescent lamps while providing
the same quantity of light. Beware that high-efficacy lamps may
compromise other features such as color rendering index (CRI) or
lamp life.
Lamp Life: Excellent;
Fluorescent lamps are designed to last anywhere from 10,000 to
 hours to 30,000 hours - anywhere from 10 to 30 years - between
relamping. It is worth noting that a luminaire may fail due to ballasts
failure rather than lamp failure; Check both.
Temperature requirements: Prefer warmth;
Fluorescent lamps operate better in warm environments and actually
get brighter as they warm themselves up. Fluorescent lamps often
don’t work in cold environments, so care should be taken when
specifying them for such.
Heat Generated: Very little;
Efficient technology means that very little electricity is converted to
heat, but these lamps still become warm to the touch.
Noise Generated: Some;
Lamps with magnetic ballasts can click and buzz. Electronic ballasts
can also hum slightly. Lamps labeled as “high-output” can also give
off a significant amount of noise.

Figure 8.6 Common shapes of compact fluorescent lamps.

 Figure 8.6.5 Common shapes of linear fluorescent lamps. T-12’s are older technology, T-8’s are the most
common, and T-5’s are newer technology.

Fluorescent sources represent an efficient way to produce soft, glowing light

akin to the diffuse texture we would get from an incandescent source. They are
good for the same diffuse blobs of light and “general” area illuminance. These
lamps last an exceptionally long time. Fluorescent lamps require care in
specifying because of the variety of color temperatures and color-rendering
index values available. It is necessary to specify both CRI and color temperature
when using fluorescent lamps.
We most commonly use fluorescent lamps for large, open areas like
classrooms and open office workspaces that need a consistent level of diffuse
light throughout. We use fluorescent light to wash up onto ceilings or in slots and
coves to wash down walls. Like incandescent lamps, it is difficult to harness the
light of these large lamps and focus it as accent light. With the increasing
popularity of fluorescent sources, their disposal is coming under scrutiny.
Fluorescent lamps contain a very small amount of liquid mercury. Check with
your local agencies for any special regulations governing purchase, specification
or disposal of fluorescent lamps.
HIGH INTENSITY DISCHARGE (HID) LAMPS
This high wattage, high output, efficient source ranges in use from streetlights
to retail accent. Most notably, they all require some warm-up time and are not
easily dimmable.
High intensity discharge
lamps represent a large family
that includes sources like High
Pressure Sodium, Metal
Halide, and Ceramic Metal
Halide. We will focus our
discussion on the Ceramic
Metal Halide family, as this
technology produces relatively
complete color spectrums that
are suitable for color critical
environments. The technology
behind HID sources relies on
creating an arc of electricity in
an environment of metal Figure 8.7 The working components of high-intensity discharge
vapor. It is fair to consider (HID) light sources.
HID sources as a compressed
version of fluorescent technology just as halogen sources are a compressed
version of standard incandescent. Light from HID sources does not rely on
phosphors to translate light, so the light color and rendering capability are
products of the blend of metals that make up the vapor in the lamp. All of this
occurs in the arc tube of the lamp, as electricity is passed between electrodes.
Figure 8.7 shows the components.

The Properties of Metal Halide, Ceramic Metal

Halide (CMH) and other High Intensity Discharge
(HID) lamps:
Initial Cost: High;
These lamps represent a lot of technology packed into a small
package. They are also fairly uncommon and therefore are relatively
expensive.
Operating Cost: Cheap;
Like fluorescent, these lamps are efficient so they consume
relatively little electricity and have long lamp lives requiring less-
frequent maintenance and relamping.
Color Rendering Index: 70 - 90 (moderate to good);
Standard metal halide lamps have CRI values in the 70’s or 80’s.
Ceramic metal halide can have CRI values in the 90’s and can
provide pleasing color rendering properties. Other HID sources, like
high pressure sodium and mercury vapor, have notoriously poor
color rendering properties represented by CRI values of 30 to 50.
Color Temperature: warm to cool (pink to green);
Metal halide lamps tend to have a greenish or bluish cast regardless
of the color temperature rating. Ceramic metal Halide lamps tend to
have a pinkish or violet cast. All HID sources should be sampled
prior to specification on a project, especially where color rendering
is critical.
Ballast and Transformer requirements: Yes;
HID sources all require an electronic or magnetic ballast to operate.
Electronic ballasts have desirable features like improved efficiency
and less noise.
Dimming: seldom;
The dimming of HID sources is available, but can be quite costly. A
lamp manufacturer’s representative should be consulted if dimming
of HID sources is being considered for a project.
Instant on / off: No!
The most notable downside of HID sources is that they all require
time to warm up. This time is shrinking as technology advances, but
can be anywhere from 30 seconds to five minutes. For this reason,
these lamps are primarily used where they will be left on for long
time periods. When specifying HID sources, they should generally
not be relied upon for instant-on operation.
Directability: Good to great;
HID sources are compact by nature (relative to their light output).
Many of these sources are put into lamp shapes similar to halogen
sources. The HID arc tube core - where the light is actually
 generated - is
quite small and so
can be effectively
focused and
directed.
Efficacy: Excellent
(70-100 Lumens per
watt);
HID covers a
broad array of
source types, but
all of them have
very good
efficacies. Sources
with good color
rendering
capabilities like
ceramic metal Figure 8.8 Common shapes of high-intensity discharge (HID)
halide have lamps
efficacies on the
lower end (70 lumens per watt), but less color-considerate sources
like high-pressure sodium have efficacies as high as 120 lumens per
watt.
Lamp Life: Good;
HID sources are rated to last anywhere from 10,000 hours to 30,000
hours; anywhere from 10 to 30 years between relamping.
Temperature requirements: none;
HID sources will work equally well in most any temperature
condition.
Heat Generated: Relatively little;
HID sources are efficient and don’t create much infra-red radiation,
but the large wattages available mean that the little bit can add up to
be quite hot. HID lamps also produce a fair amount of UV radiation.
HID lamps implement an outer shield to contain this, but lamps
should be discarded if this outer glass is ever compromised. HID
sources should also be scrutinized if they are to be used to illuminate
 UV-sensitive materials or products.
Noise Generated: Some;
Larger HID lamps have ballasts that can click and buzz. Even newer,
smaller HID sources that use electronic ballasts can have a slight
hum. It is safest not to consider HID sources in spaces where
extreme quiet is required.

HID sources are undergoing constant refinement. The current generation of HID
sources is focused on ceramic metal halide technology, which offers great color-
rendering capabilities. These sources are engineered to come in small packages
like the PAR lamps, MR lamps, and “T” lamps, usually associated with halogen
sources. HID sources are finding their way into hotels, casinos, and retail
operations. They still, however, require warm-up time and are rarely ever silent.
A working sample of any HID source should be sampled or mocked-up prior to
inclusion on a project.

LED SOURCES
LED’s, or Light Emitting
Diodes, have truly come of
age and are rapidly being
refined to replace many
previously popular electric
light sources. Applications
formally the territory of
halogen and incandescent
sources can now be solved
with LED’s. What was once
used as the indicator light on
home appliances has evolved Figure 8.9 The working components of light emitting diode
into a nearly full spectrum (LED) light sources
source used for Red-Green-
Blue Color mixing capabilities and as a neutral source - both directable and
diffuse - for tasks and accents. LED technology is based on electrifying a diode
that emits a single wavelength (color) of radiation depending on the compound
of the diode. To gain a broader spectral output, these diodes are mated with
phosphor technology in the same manner as fluorescent lamps. These diodes are
tiny so that in a cluster of many diodes, each diode can have unique optical and
color properties. LED source advancements are leading to LED sources that are
larger, more efficient and possess more desirable color rendering properties.
LED sources are very heat sensitive and commonly fail due to heat buildup.
LED source applications should always be considered for their ability to
dissipate heat.

The General Properties of Light Emitting Diode

Sources:
Initial Cost: Very High;
LED sources are the cutting edge of technology, and, as such, they
are expensive to buy. Like all things economic, prices have dropped
and will grow. continue to do so as volume and popularity
Operating Cost: Cheap
/ moderate;
LED sources are
gaining ground as
very efficacious
means of creating
electric light. Pair
this with amazing
lamp life, and you
have a very low
operating cost.
The catch is still
the cost of
replacement when
the product does
fail. Because
many LED
sources are
integrated into
lamp modules,
arrays or nearly
complete
luminaires,
replacement cost
and effort are
often similar to
 replacing an entire Figure 8.10 Common shapes and configurations of light
emitting diodes (LED’s).
luminaire.
Color Rendering Index: 70 - 90 (moderate to good);
LED’s have now made the leap to usefulness as neutral sources with
good color rendering properties. Generally, costs increase with
increased color rendering indices (CRI), but suitable commodity
products are increasingly available. LED sources are also commonly
used for saturated colors and color mixing applications. LED
sources do require careful scrutiny when intended for color critical
situations. It is advisable to view a working sample of a particular
product before specifying it for a project.
Color Temperature: Variable (Cool to neutral to warm)
LED products claim to provide color temperature from 2800K up to
5000K. To have faith in the color temperature, it is important to
actually see samples of LED products before specifying them.
Ballast and Transformer requirements: Yes;
LED sources run at odd voltages, and most require a proprietary
transformer (often referred to as a driver) that may be built integral
to the source or may need to be remotely mounted in an accessible
location.
Dimming: Yes;
LED’s can be dimmed. The dimming properties are generally a
product of the driver or transformer technology and must be
specified as such from the manufacturer.
Instant on / off: Yes;
LED sources are truly on or off, with no warming up time.
Directability: Great;
LED sources are directional by nature, so they can be controlled
with lenses and small scale optics. A trickier task is getting LED
sources to diffuse evenly, but this too can be accomplished via lenses
and diffusing materials.
Efficacy: Good (50-90 Lumens per watt as of this printing);
LED’s undergo so much development that their true efficacy is a
moving target and should be confirmed prior to each job. Be mindful
of specifying products just because they are LED sources without
 confirming the efficacy as LED’s may not always be the most
efficacious solution.
Lamp Life: Great
As of this printing, LED source are marketed as having conservative
lamp lives in the 50,000 to 80,000 hour range. This translates to 50
to 80 years depending on use. Of note: LED’s tend to “fade away”
rather than simply “burn out” so they should be replaced on a
schedule rather than on instinct. LED’s are also very heat sensitive.
Exposure to excess heat or improper heat dissipation situations can
significantly reduce lamp life.
Temperature requirements: Avoid heat
LED sources are commonly mated to significant heat dissipating
technology. Care must be taken to allow space for ventilation and
heat dissipation (manufacturers may even specify ventilation
requirements). Excess heat will significantly reduce the lamp life
and reliability of an LED source.
Heat Generated: Relatively little
LED sources convert most input electricity into visible light, but the
small amount of heat can add up, akin to fluorescent. Dissipating the
heat is critical, regardless of the quantity.
Noise Generated: None
Both LED sources and the electronic components that drive them
operate very quietly.

LED’s are everywhere and gaining ground fast. This has resulted in standardized
lamp shapes, connection types and more availability. Ubiquity also results in
lower costs. LED’s are suitable candidates for directable accent applications,
area lighting, and small and medium scale diffuse applications. LED light
sources are also useful as continuous linear sources for coves and slots and for
colored or color-changing applications. Many suitable LED products are
available for retrofitting existing incandescent, halogen and fluorescent
installations. It is advisable to take care in researching and sampling LED’s to
find products suitable for a project. The major drawbacks are the initial cost and
sensitivity to heat as well as the lack of standardization across different brands.
LED’s are available as retrofit lamps, dedicated modules, continuous arrays and
complete luminaires. It is advisable to source LED products from manufacturers
with a track-record, who can be relied upon to stand behind the product. It is also
advisable to seek products that follow some form of standardization and have a
lamp module that can be replaced without replacing an entire luminaire. Beware
of novelty products from mysterious manufacturers and be aware of the hidden
inefficiencies of module replacement and disposal.

LAMP NAMING LOGIC

One of the more helpful elements of lamp technology comes in understanding
the naming convention that is used to describe the shape and sizes of common
electric lamps.
Most lamps are given a description code of 2 or 3 letters followed by 2 or
3 numbers. In most cases, the letters are some manner of describing the lamp
shape, and the numbers are a manner of describing the size.

Figure 8.11 Most lamp names describe the lamp diameter in 1/8” increments.

Lamp Size
The sizing of lamps is very simple, if not utterly logical. Common electric lamps
sizes are indicated by a two-number code that describes their size in ⅛”
increments. By this logic, our common light bulb, which in lighting circles is
referred to as an A-19 lamp, is ” in diameter or 2-⅜” in diameter. This
measurement turns out to be accurate as we go down the line from small lamps
like MR-16 lamps ( ” or 2” in diameter), to larger PAR-38 lamps ( ” or 4-
¾” in diameter). Figures 8.11 and 8.12 illustrate a few examples of these size
codes.

Lamp Shape
The system for describing the shape as a code is a little more varied. Inevitably,
the two or three letters leading a lamp code are meant to give some literal
indication of the shape of the lamp. A stroll through the family illustrates some
examples.
A-lamps, which include the A-19 (common light bulb), A-21, and A-23,
are named such that “A” stands for “arbitrary.” This is presumably due to its
irregular shape.
Next in the lineage of directionality are so-called “R” lamps, like R-20, R-
30, and R-40. In all of these cases, R stands for “reflector,” presumably to
describe the generic silver backing common of these lamps.

Figure 8.12 Common sizes of the arbitrary shaped “A” lamp (left) and reflector “R” lamps (right).

We then encounter our PAR lamps, like our PAR-20, PAR-30, and PAR-
38. PAR stands for Parabolic Aluminized Reflector and refers to the engineered
parabolic reflecting surface built into each of these lamps.

Figure 8.14 Common sizes of parabolic aluminized reflector “PAR” lamps.

 When we discuss MR lamps, like the ubiquitous MR-16 and the smaller
MR-11 and MR-8, the MR stands for Multifaceted Reflector; a very highly-
engineered reflecting device.

Figure 8.15 Common sizes of multifaceted reflector ‘’ MR” lamps.

T-lamps tend to be “tubular” in shape, as is the case with our linear

fluorescent T-8 and T-5 lamps. T-lamps can refer to smaller, tubular halogen or
HID lamps as well.

Figure 8.16 Common sizes of tubular (T) lamps.

The parade of names and codes goes on, but the lamps mentioned above
represent most of what we run into in the world of architectural lighting.
LAMP CODES FOR COLOR RENDERING INDEX
(CRI) AND COLOR TEMPERATURE
It is important to point out that lamps truly are the core of all of our light
creating devices. The design industry puts much focus on luminaires and their
behaviors and aesthetic appeal, but at the heart of every electric light creating
device is a lamp of some sort. It is perhaps more valuable to dedicate brain space
to knowing about lamp technologies and properties than to clutter one’s head
with the glut of luminaire literature that circulates. Lamp technology tends to
change slower than luminaire technology, and there is an inherent logic to the
way lamps are designed, marketed, and manufactured.
The key to successfully specifying the right lamp is caring tremendously
about Color Temperature and Color Rendering Index properties of the lamp.
Remember that once we step outside of standard incandescent and halogen
incandescent sources, science can cook up any color and color rendering
properties desired. As per our earlier discussion, it is imperative to boil lamps
down to their two primary properties of concern:
Color Rendering Index or CRI (from 1-100)
Color Temperature (in Degrees Kelvin or Kelvins)

Luckily for us, most engineered electric light sources like HID and
fluorescent are described by a three digit code that is stamped right on the lamp
or lamp packaging. This three digit code contains information indicative of both
the Color Rendering Index and Color Temperature.
The first number in the series indicates the Color Rendering Index or CRI.
If the 3-digit product code starts with a 7, the CRI of that product is in the 70’s.
If the code starts with an 8, the CRI is in the 80’s. A 9 indicates a CRI in the
90’s. We tend to give more merit to the color-rendering capabilities of our
fluorescent and HID sources, and so we can assess the CRI code like this:
7 = CRI in the 70’s: This is acceptable, but should be used only in non-
color critical environments.
8 = CRI in the 80’s: This is typical and reasonable to use in most day-to-
day applications.
9 = CRI in the 90’s: This is very desirable for color critical
environments, but also relatively expensive.
 The second component of the code lies in the last two digits. These two
numbers are indicative of the Color Temperature in degrees Kelvin. The system
breaks down like this:
28 = Color Temperature of 2800K = warm (imitating the color of
incandescent sources);
30 = Color temperature of 3000K = neutral (imitating the color of
halogen sources);
35 = Color Temperature of 3500K = slightly-cool;
41 = Color Temperature of 4100K = cool;
50 = Color Temperature of 5000K = very-cool;

Figure 8.17 Most fluorescent and HID products are labeled with a three digit code expressing color
rendering index and color temperature.

Keep in mind that color temperatures are really meaningful only as

guidelines within a family of products. One brand of 2800K fluorescent lamp
may not look like another brand of 2800K fluorescent lamp and will certainly
not look like a 2800K Metal halide lamp nor the incandescent lamp it is trying to
imitate.

Source Efficacy Estimates

Identifying source technologies with their general efficacies or efficiencies is a
useful and often neglected piece of information. In some lighting design guides,
it is a recommended practice to design appropriate light levels for spaces based
on a watts-per-square-foot density of installed luminaires. This practice tends to
be tactically deficient. Designing light on a power density basis is ignorant of the
different efficacies of the different source technologies. It can lead to uninspired
designs of flat, even illuminance levels where they may not be welcome. The
closest thing to designing to a density is the Lumen Method Calculation which
recommends light density based on lumens per square foot (we will discuss
calculation methods in Chapter 20). For the time being, we will introduce a basic
set of numbers that will paint an approximate but useful picture of how the most
common electric light sources compare to one another in terms of efficacy (light
out compared to electricity in). As design progresses, it is advisable to know the
efficacy of the specific product being considered. For schematic planning phases
and basic comparisons, the rough approximations for the source types below can
be used:
Standard incandescent efficacy = 10 lumens per watt (lpw);
Halogen incandescent efficacy = 15 lumens per watt (lpw);
Fluorescent and HID efficacy = 70 lumens per watt (lpw);
LED efficacy = 50-90 lumens per watt (lpw);

This simple table shows why we tend to group all of our high-efficacy
sources together. It also illustrates why fluorescent, HID and LED sources are so
desirable when compared to the efficacies of incandescent and halogen products
that they can replace. If you can make a mental note of these four numbers, you
will have an invaluable foundation for visualizing, estimating, and calculating
lighting effects.
All of these properties together give the user fairly good insight into
making lamp decisions. Lamp literature is also, thankfully, more straight-
forward than that of luminaires. By grasping the basic concepts of color
rendering, color temperature and efficiency, one is much better prepared to make
decisions about suitable sources for accomplishing lighting goals.
Part II
Designing Light
Chapter 9
Textures of Light
Texture is one of the most neglected concepts of light. It also happens to be one
of the most useful for designers desiring a quick intuitive knowledge base for
making lighting decisions. This understanding allows one to visualize and
describe the various textures of light that we might paint onto our surfaces. You
will recall that the basic spectrum of light texture includes “soft”, diffuse light on
the one end, and directional, focused light on the other end. Once we can
identify how our various lamp and luminaire technologies deliver these various
textures, we can make informed decisions from the start of the design process.

DIFFUSE LIGHT
When we talk about diffuse light, we are talking about light that leaves a source
equally at all angles and, as such, reflects off of the surfaces of an environment
at all angles.

Figure 9.1 Diffuse sources deliver light evenly in many directions.

This light is usually the product of large glowing sources like

incandescent globes and fluorescent tubes. We can diffuse light even further by
placing diffusing lenses like frosted glass and acrylic on our light source, as in
the case of decorative pendants and sconces.
Diffuse light fills in shadows and, therefore, reduces the appearance of
texture changes. We use this light to render people as it is flattering and
forgiving of textural imperfections. We use soft, diffuse light to create
comfortable, intimate environments where we want long-term visual comfort.
Diffuse light tends to be even light, which reduces eye strain that comes from
high-contrast environments. Diffuse light also works well for task environments
by eliminating shadows and, again, reducing contrast that causes eye strain.

Figure 9.2 Diffuse sources can be further diffused to deliver even softer light.

Diffuse light applied as the only ingredient can become boring and
visually un-interesting. When a space is filled with even, diffuse light, there is
little visual interest to direct the order that you experience a space. Diffuse light
can also cause a unique type of eye strain that comes from having too little
contrast. Over long periods of time in purely diffuse environments, the eye tends
to strain to pull out detail and find visual acuity; often described as an “under-
water” feeling.

DIRECTIONAL LIGHT
Directional light is the product of lamps and luminaires that have purpose-built
reflectors that harness light from a source and push it out in a single direction.
Figure 9.3 Directional lamps (left) and directional luminaires (right) utilize reflectors and optics to deliver
light in a controlled manner.

This effect is often accomplished with an engineered luminaire, or simply

within the lamp itself. Directional light is notably delivered in a shape that has
distinct boundaries. Our directional light sources create pools and beams and
scallops of light that tend to be brightest in the center, and fade to a clear-cut
border. These sources are commonly the first ingredient considered in our design
process, as they are able to deliver specific pieces of light to specific surfaces
and objects in our space. The light arrives from one direction and has a tendency
to reflect off of objects in one direction. Hence, directional light creates distinct
shadows between light and dark and, therefore, introduces contrast that shows
off material texture.
 Figure 9.4 Diffuse light sources (top) hide texture and limit contrast. Directional sources (bottom) create
shadows, contrast, and visual interest.

We use directional light sources to cast accent onto art, objects and unique
architectural features. Directional light makes objects glow and makes metals
and glass shimmer and sparkle. It is these sources that add visual interest and
hierarchy to environments by creating objects and surfaces that are distinctly
brighter than their surroundings. The contrast created by directional light can,
however, become uncomfortable over long time periods. Excessive contrast
causes the eye to constantly re-adapt when looking from bright elements to dark
elements. Directional light is also undesirable for many tasks since excessive
shadows (often from a person or his / her own hand) can obscure the task on
which you are trying to focus.

DESIGNING WITH DIFFERENT LIGHT

TEXTURES
The fundamentals of making good luminaire and lamp decisions are as simple as
identifying light sources by the type of light they deliver. The diagram below
exhibits what we will consider as the four levels of light texture, ranging from
directional to diffuse.

Very Directional Light

At the directional end of the spectrum, we have reflector driven lamps like
halogen MR lamps that have precision engineered reflectors that drive light out.
This light is perfect for accenting art and decorative objects, but creates glare
and contrast that may be unsuitable for lighting a social gathering space. We can
also create this directional light with accent luminaires that have precise
reflectors around a small halogen or HID source. Many LED sources also
provide very directional light. We can compare this light to the harshness of
direct sunlight.

Figure 9.5 Effects of very directional light (left) are often the product of lamps and luminaires that
incorporate engineered reflectors and small sources (right).

Directional Light
Slightly-softer directional light can be created with PAR type lamps. These
lamps also have a reflector, but incorporate diffusing lenses and less-precise
optics that create a slightly more diffuse quality of light. PAR lamps are built
around small Halogen or HID sources. We can also create this quality of light by
placing diffusing filters in front of MR type lamps. This light is perfectly
functional for painting light onto art, gathering areas and architectural features; it
is acceptable to some for creating even levels of task light. It is similar to the
quality of unfiltered skylight.
 Figure 9.6 Effects of directional light (left) are often the product of lamps or luminaires that incorporate
less precise optics and reflectors.

Diffuse Light
Towards the softer end of the spectrum are luminaires that use reflectors to
harness the light of diffuse lamps. When we take an otherwise diffuse
incandescent lamp or fluorescent lamp and build a large reflector around it, the
product is a subtle wash or pool of slightly diffuse light. We also get this light
from our family of incandescent “R” lamps that are little more than a common
light bulb with a generic reflecting surface built into the back. Diffuse light is
unsuited for making an accent statement, but delivers a nice quality of light for
gathering areas and task situations. We might liken this effect to the soft light of
daylight diffused through sheer curtains.

Figure 9.7 The effects of diffuse light (left) are often the product of diffuse lamps (right) and luminaires
 with engineered reflectors and larger sources (right).

Very Diffuse
On the very diffuse end of the spectrum, we consider glowing sources that put
out light in every direction and often include diffusing materials to encourage the
spread of light. We get this light from bare incandescent and fluorescent lamps.
We also create this light with diffusing sources like shaded table lamps, floor
lamps, diffusing pendants and sconces. This is like the light we get on a cloudy,
overcast gray day. Diffuse light is suitable for filling an entire room with a
homogenous glow, but is certainly not useful for accenting objects.

Figure 9.8 Effects of very diffuse light (left) are often the product of luminaires with diffusers and diffuse
sources (right).

With these four textures committed to our intuitive knowledge base, a

designer is well-prepared to articulate the quality of light envisioned for a space.
Once you get used to the idea of making a texture decision about light, you will
wonder how you ever got by without doing so. The designer who can visualize
and describe different textures of diffuse and directional light can also identify
light sources, lamps and luminaires that are not going to meet the needs of the
design.
Chapter 10
Shapes of Light
The next ingredient in our intuitive understanding of light is the articulation of
shapes of light that we add to our designed spaces. It is impossible to deliver
visual interest in a space without making distinct statements through the shape of
light and lighted surfaces. The easiest way to understand the different shapes of
light is to identify the following three categories: pools of light, planes of light
and glowing objects.

POOLS AND PIECES OF LIGHT

Most of our directional sources – lamps and luminaires with engineered
reflectors and optics - emit beams of light that deliver some well-defined shape
of light onto the objects we illuminate. These shapes of light can have relatively
soft borders or well defined boundaries between light and dark. We use these
shapes to “spotlight” or cast shapes of light onto specific objects like art,
sculpture, furniture pieces, and convening areas. Creating distinct pieces of light
certainly adds visual interest, but care must be taken to not overuse the
treatment. Light shapes tend to come across as artificial and contrived, as they
are rare in the natural world. Pools and distinct pieces of light can also break up
otherwise homogenous surfaces. Walls and large rectilinear shapes can become
visually chaotic with too many applied pieces of light. When not used with
restraint, these defined pieces of light can give galleries, restaurants and other
environments an “over-done” appearance.
 Figure 10.1 Distinct pools of light add visual interest and contrast, but can become overwhelming or
visually “noisy.”

PLANES AND LINES OF LIGHT

We have a vast array of continuous linear sources that are useful for creating
long lines of light that follow the long lines of our architecture and materials.
Linear sources, used properly, allow an entire geometric surface to glow evenly
and can enhance the way textures and materials are perceived. Slots and washes
of light bleed across surfaces and create shapes of light very similar to what we
might encounter from daylight devices like skylights, light wells and windows.
We tend to have an affinity for these shapes because they deliver a sense of
connection to the natural skylight and sunlight to which we are accustomed.
Geometric shapes of light can reinforce the shape and form of rectilinear
architectural surfaces. Uniform shapes are also good candidates for mitigating
the high-contrast effect of strong accent lighting. They are a good tool for
balancing ambient glow in a “too-contrasty” space.
 Figure 10.2 Planes and lines of light can harmonize with architecture and are reminiscent of natural
daylight.

GLOWING OBJECTS
Glowing objects like pendants, sconces and shaded lamps make up the last shape
we consider. We call these self-contained pieces of light art “self-luminous”
sources, and we distinguish them from the architecturally-integrated light
sources that we use to create pools and planes of light. The most certain thing
that we can say of self-luminous sources is that we must use them with care.
When we combine decorative intrigue with brightness, the result is an object that
draws immediate attention to itself. These glowing objects can be useful for
instructing visual flow and encouraging way finding, but if we try to use them as
our primary sources of light, we end up with overly bright decoration that works
against our lighting goals. Once these glowing sources have attracting one’s
gaze, the eyes adapt to the brightness, so the space, as a whole, is consequently
perceived as darker. It is good practice to use these sources in conjunction with
luminaires that direct light onto surfaces. This combination of effects allows us
to use our decorative luminaires at lower levels for the visual effect we truly
desire without having to rely on them to create brightness in a space.
Adding a concern for shape to
our lighting decisions gives us
one more specific ingredient
for matching light application
to the function of our space,
and the shape of our space.
We can now identify how we
want to add light so that it
harmonizes and emphasizes
the geometry, scale and
materials of our design.
Designing with shapes of light
also has a profound effect on
the mood and feeling that a
space translates.

Figure 10.3 Glowing sources serve as visual interest, but can

overpower a space and be a source of glare.
Chapter 11
Location of the Light Source
The last frontier of decision making about adding light is designing where the
light appears to be coming from. It is important to ponder this decision because
recent trends and technologies have led to the misconception that all lighting
devices belong in the ceiling, washing light down onto the ground below. To
make the most of our lighting resources, we must take time to investigate all of
the other ways of delivering light that we can conceive. Many successful lighting
designs are, indeed, based on ceiling-mounted downlights as they are certainly a
versatile way to deliver pieces of architectural light. We will strive for
innovation, however, by opening our mind to the variety of methods for
delivering light. It is a good practice to investigate uncommon techniques, first,
to avoid the tendency to migrate back towards the generic means of recessed
downlights.

LIGHT FROM THE CEILING ONTO WALLS

The quickest change we can make to the generic downlighting tactic is to use
light sources that can be aimed to direct light onto the vertical surfaces of a
space, rather than simply straight down. These pieces of light go a long way to
increase the overall perception of brightness in a space. Vertical lighting also
expands a space and shows off the architectural boundaries.
 Figure 11.1 Lighting vertical surfaces creates a distinct impression of brightness.

LIGHTING FROM THE GROUND UPWARD

We can implement light sources that recess into the ground or floor plane and
create beams of light that wash the walls and cast pools of light up onto ceilings
and canopies overhead. This tactic delivers a unique light quality that is rare in
the natural world, where daylight from above is the norm. Upward directed light
can contribute to the perception of height and verticality. It can also create a
more intimate feeling if the light further reveals the ceiling above.
 Figure 11.2 Lighting upward from the ground is at once unusual and creates a unique environment.

LIGHTING FROM THE WALL UPWARD

These sources are mounted to the surface of a wall or regressed into a wall and
cast light up onto the ceiling plane above them. Light onto the ceiling plane
opens up a space and increases the perception of volume. A bright ceiling lends a
feeling of openness by mimicking a bright sky above. The even light from a
glowing ceiling is sometimes all the light needed for a simple environment
where little task or accent lighting is necessary.

Figure 11.3 Lighting from the wall to the ceiling adds volume and height to a space.
LIGHTING FROM THE WALL BACK ONTO THE
WALL
We have a vast array of
decorative and functional
luminaires with shielded
sources that paint light back
onto the wall to which they
are mounted. These differ
from our purely-decorative
sconces in that they wash light
onto the wall, rather than
simply glow. This treatment of
light is useful where ceiling or
floor mounted luminaires are
not an option. These Figure 11.4 Lighting back onto the wall creates brightness
without glare.
luminaires can be mounted in
rows and patterns to help the
flow of a long space or corridor.

LIGHT FROM SLOTS AND COVES ONTO WALLS

AND CEILINGS
These are the architecturally integrated lines of light that create even washes and
unique glows onto entire surfaces of a space. These shapes of light go a long
way to enhance the geometry of space. The long, clean lines can show off the
joints and connections of structure. Lines of light also do a good job of
mimicking the clean light we receive from daylight openings like skylights and
light shelves.
 Figure 11.5 Slots of light from above create brightness onto vertical surfaces and are reminiscent of
daylight.

SUSPENDED GLOWING SOURCES

Glowing sources add a haze of light to our spaces and a distinct focal point.
They must be applied with care to avoid glare and generic floods of light. These
sources are often the crowning elements of visual interest that we apply after our
other lighting needs have been met. There are environments where a single,
well-placed glowing source can solve most of our lighting needs, but they are
more often misused to draw attention and leave a space feeling dark.

Figure 11.6 Glowing pendants act as focal points, but can also deliver controlled light up and down.

LOW LIGHTING ONTO THE FLOOR

Localizing light onto the floor plane can be accomplished with luminaires that
mount low on the wall. These so-called “step lights” are usually considered for
lighting stairs, but they are just as effective in delivering light onto the floor
plane. These luminaires typically recess into the wall and work to get the light
source closer to the surface being lighted.

Figure 11.7 Low, wall-mounted area lights keep light down where it is needed.

The goal of considering a simple list of lighting applications like this is to

avoid the repetitive and static environment that is the product of over-using
recessed lighting. Certainly, a complex space can be lighted entirely with the
right adjustable, ceiling-mounted luminaire, but if we start by experimenting
with ideas of unusual light application, we are much more likely to innovate.
The result can be a space with a truly special and unique design character. There
are certainly numerous ways to deliver light other than the manners we have
listed, but if we can add these distinct methods to our intuition, we will be much
more likely to consider them as we design.
Chapter 12
Building Light from Darkness
With our new-found intuition for the texture, shape and origin of light, we can
further expand on our decision-making process to make sure that we are
considering all of our options when adding light to a space. If we consider each
of these aspects every time we look to add light to our design, we can be sure
that the light will support what we are attempting to convey through the design.
The convenient aspect of this intuitive knowledge is that it doesn’t yet require
knowledge of light levels, calculations, or luminaire technologies. We are still
simply addressing the light itself and how that light will interact with the
surfaces of our designed environment.
As long as we can visualize light and communicate design ideas for it, we can
find a way to implement it.
Our expanded list of the controllable aspects of light now looks like this:
Light intensity: Bright vs. Dark;
Light Color: Warm vs. Cool;
Light Texture: Directional vs. Diffuse;
We now have a visual understanding of what texture means and
what types of sources create these textures.
Light shape: Pools of light, Planes of light, Points of light;
We can now make decisions about how we match the shape of light
to the shape of our architecture, surfaces and objects within a space.
Light origin: Where is the light coming from?
Thinking beyond basic downlighting, we are more likely to come up
with lighting systems that are truly complementary of the designed
space.

BUILDING LIGHT FROM DARKNESS

An effective mental exercise for enhancing the design process is to step back and
approach a space as a collection of surfaces that can receive light. This process
can be broken down into two steps: seeing an environment as a collection of
surfaces and seeing those surfaces for the materials of which they are made.

Seeing our environment as a collection of surfaces

Once we have adopted all of the subtleties of lighting design decisions into our
intuition, we are ready to start placing light with meaning, conviction, and true
relation to the design goals of our project. The helpful process for making
lighting additions to our environment is to take what we know about our
architecture and surroundings and visualize this environment as a collection of
surfaces in darkness. From this starting point, we picture ourselves with the
ability to paint light onto the specific surfaces that make up the space.

The more we know about the use and layout of a space, the better, but this
visualization can be done with only the walls, floor and ceiling in our mind. We
picture ourselves placing light onto each surface because this is exactly what all
of our architectural luminaires are designed to do. All of the engineered
reflectors and precision lamps have been tweaked and refined to give us total
control of delivering light exactly where we want it. We can place light onto a
wall, onto a table, onto a piece of art, up onto the ceiling, anywhere we feel the
light belongs. A space visualized in total darkness is a blank canvas waiting for
lighting design. The designer can imagine painting light onto surfaces as if with
a brush or spray can. One-by-one, surfaces are lighted in this manner until the
desired lighting effect begins
to emerge. Figure 12.1
illustrates the mental process
of visualizing darkness and
adding light one surface at a
time.

Seeing surfaces for

the materials that
make them
Once we have established the
mental picture of our
environment as the surfaces
that make it up, we take the
next step and visualize the Figure 12.1 The mental progression of visualizing a space as a
collection of surfaces and painting light onto surfaces one by
materials that make up these one.
surfaces. This is where we
implement our intuitive knowledge of matching light texture, color and intensity
to the specific materials with which we are building.
Texture: Think of the material texture and whether it should be revealed
our concealed. Organic stone, concrete and wood may benefit from
directional sources that show off the subtle textures by creating shadow
through grazing and steep aiming angles. Imperfect walls or materials
intended to appear smooth and flawless may benefit from diffuse sources
located far from the material.
Color: Think of material color and what color light source will
complement it. Cool-colored materials can be emphasized by cool sources
like cool fluorescent, metal halide and LED’s. Warmer, richer materials,
like wood and warm stone, benefit from warm sources like Incandescent.
Keep in mind that warm fluorescent sources often appear warm to the eye,
but actually do a poor job of rendering warm materials. Mock up any
critical situations where the source needs to complement the color of the
material.
Intensity: Think of material finish and what light intensity is suitable.
Often times, light colored surfaces need very little additional light to make
them stand out as bright surfaces and focal elements. Darker materials
 may require considerably more light to serve as focal points. Some dark
surfaces reflect so little light that they may not be worth lighting at all.
Shininess or specularity of a material should always be considered. Shiny
materials respond to light by reflecting an exact image of the source that
is lighting them. This can be desirable as in the case of accenting jewelry,
glassware and other shiny products. Large architectural surfaces of glass
or metal may, however, reflect undesirable glare or reflect the light
source. Such surfaces may be better off applied with little or no light.
This mental process of visualizing a space in-depth effectively draws out lighting
concepts and ideas that will enhance an environment. Taking just a few moments
to break a space down into its constituent materials and surfaces makes it easier
to address the specific nuances of each lighting addition. This thoughtfulness
leads to a designed environment with lighting applications that respond to each
surface and perfectly support the design intent.
Chapter 13
Developing Lighting Ideas
When we consider the process and decision-making that we can now apply to
our lighting design, we begin to see the steps in a more articulate manner. If
abused, this can lead to lighting design that is overly complicated. If we make
decisions carefully, however, the result will be a unique synergy of light and
material in space that meets the goals of our program and becomes the
framework of truly great design.
Take, for instance, a
common residential bedroom.
If we use our knowledge to
determine where light actually
belongs in the space, we can
very quickly establish a
number of appropriate
applications. We can consider
any or all of the “Five Layer”
approach that guides our
design. We may think of
choreography, mood, and
accent, or we may think only
of visual tasks.
Consider the following
applications of light in
this space:
Accenting art on the Figure 13.1 A typical residential bedroom.
bed wall to provide a
visual focus;
Light onto the vanity for tasks and rendering faces;
 Light onto book shelves to read text and highlight the objects;
Light at the bench at the foot of the bed to accommodate dressing.

Figure 13.2 One way the space might be rendered to show numerous lighting options.

Now consider all of the applications of light that we have articulated and
consider the most commonly seen method to solve all of these problems: a single
luminaire in the center of the room.
 Figure 13.3 A typical economy-minded lighting solution.

Suppose this luminaire is a simple recessed downlight. Which of these

goals are being addressed? Nearly none, as the light is simply pushed down to
the dark surface of the floor in the middle of the room.
Suppose this luminaire is a surface mounted decorative dish. Now which
of our identified applications are we addressing? Perhaps none directly, but it
could be argued that we are creating some amount of light on nearly every
surface. Hence in a very generic manner, it may be a suitable solution.
Now, what if we articulate and place luminaires to specifically address all
that we have identified?
We begin to see what lighting design can look like, though such a solution
may be overly complex and a bit self-indulgent. The effort and expense required
to install, electrify and maintain such a solution would be excessive.
Additionally, the lighting solution may be too specific and customized to the
current layout and use of the space. In spaces of this type our lighting solutions
may need to be more universal and flexible.
It is easy enough to select from among the solutions that we have
identified to come up with a reasonable blend of function and versatility.
If we start experimenting with combinations of the effects and
applications we have identified, we are bound to refine our options into the
exceptional solutions that will
support the rest of our design.

Figure 13.4 An example of an over-developed solution for the

space.

Figure 13.5 Examples of a few prudent lighting solutions.

The process we have just walked through is one for a very common and
misunderstood space. This same methodology can be applied to all of the
environments, large and small, that we will design. We have allowed ourselves
to rely on our intuition and brainstorm in a fashion to identify lighting goals and
then the methods for implementing them. No matter how complex our spaces
and environments become, lighting design is simply a matter of using design
knowledge to determine where light goes, what kind of light it is, and how to get
it there.
If we look carefully at the steps above, we will see that we are giving
ourselves the opportunity to apply all of our procedure:
We think spatially and see our room as a collection of surfaces.
We identify specific objects first and visualize light on those specifics.
We consider the five layers of light (choreography, mood, accenting,
architecture and tasks.)
We consider the controllable aspects of light (intensity, color, texture,
shape, origin)
We consider all of the ways we can deliver the light we are after.
All the while, we are considering the real world aspects of efficiency,
economy, maintenance, flexibility, and any other factors that may be a reality for
this type of space. We may go on to solve lighting challenges with cost effective
luminaries or high-efficiency sources, but since we have already identified where
light will go, the integrity of the design solution will stay intact. By designing
with light, rather than attaching ourselves to specific luminaries or a specific
layout or tactic, we can respond to the changing program of the project.
Deciding where light belongs affords us the confidence to deal with changes in
budget or schedule that might otherwise derail a developed lighting design.
With a thorough knowledge of our design requirements, and an intimacy
with the environment we are designing, all we need is the willingness to be
thoughtful with light, and our intuition will do the rest.
This gives us great confidence to explore all of our ideas and lighting
design goals without an extensive knowledge of specific luminaires, specific
light levels or complex lighting calculations.
Chapter 14
A Shortcut to Concepts in Light
Before delving into specific applications of light in typical spaces, it is well
worth exploring lighting application concepts in a broader sense. The strength of
lighting design lies in how the individual designer applies his or her knowledge
of lighting cause and effect. Rather than present a collection of generic lighting
solutions for generic spaces, the following chapter represents a portfolio of
lighting concepts that can be applied to many spaces. Confidence in making
design decisions comes from experience and familiarity or from the genuine
belief that every option has been considered. There are no shortcuts to
familiarity and experience, but the following visual concepts can help lay a
foundation that will strengthen a designer’s ability to conceptualize and
investigate numerous lighting options.
For the majority of designers, the goal is not to grasp every shred of
lighting knowledge possible. The goals are more practical and focused:
visualization and communication.

A designer must be able to visualize lighting effects.

(This is the reason we present light as visual concepts.)

A designer must be able to communicate and describe the light that

he/she desires.

(This is why we emphasize lighting vocabulary and graphic

communication.)

If a designer can visualize light and successfully communicate lighting

goals to others, there are consultants and experts who can assist the designer in
bringing those lighting ideas to reality.
The images and descriptions presented here are targeted towards this
hypothesis. By providing visual concepts of what light can do, the designer is
left to decide where these ingredients are best put to use in the design.

“LIGHT A WALL AND LIGHT AN OBJECT”

This basic concept can be implemented in even the simplest spaces. It is
applicable at any scale for any architecture. The large vertical surface to which
you apply light will define the bright character of your space. It will contribute
to your mood and the architectural effect of the space. The object that you focus
light on will create visual interest, likely accommodate tasks, and will organize
and choreograph your space. Figures 14.1 and 14.2 show spaces lighted
generically beside the same space with this tactic applied.

Figure 14.1 A generic layout (top) yields a flat quality of light in a seating area. Lighting a vertical surface
and a focal object (bottom) creates perceived brightness and visual interest.
Figure 14.2 A generic layout applied to a dining area (top). A more focused
approach (bottom) creates contrast and mood.

MOVE LIGHT TO THE PERIMETER

One of the simplest ways to transform a space is to apply light to the walls and
other vertical surfaces. When we consider the bare-bones lighting tactic of
placing a group of recessed downlights in the center of a room, we need only
change our tactic slightly to get greater effect. Thoughtlessly placing luminaires
in the center of a space is a poor use of light resources. By simply shifting the
location of these luminaires, light is painted onto the high vertical surfaces that
deliver the perception of brightness. This simple shift is an effective example of
using the same luminaires in a different way to make an impacting difference on
how a space feels. Observe how different these basic spaces feel as a result of
this shift.
Figure 14.3 Light directed downward (left) can create a cave-like effect. The same amount of light applied
to vertical surfaces (right) adds to the perceived brightness.

CHOREOGRAPH HALLS AND CORRIDORS

Passageways are often treated with the same thoughtless application of
regularly-spaced luminaires marching down the center of the space. These
luminaires lose most of their light into the dark floor surface and do little to
organize the space or create brightness. If we use our light to address the vertical
surfaces, we can create both visual interest and definite way-finding by creating
lighted goals. We can experiment to identify the lighted surfaces that create the
mood and effect we are after, but, invariably, the best use of our light will not be
on the floor. A single piece of light at the end of a hallway is often more
compelling than an entire row of recessed downlights. Consider also what
happens when we implement asymmetric lighting or even a linear slot of light
down one side. Lighting the wall of a hallway creates a continuous light shape
that encourages flow.
 Figure 14.4 A lighted goal and a lighted surface are all that are needed to make a corridor attractive and
functional.

UPLIGHT OVERHANGS AND CANOPIES

Walls and vertical surfaces
aren’t the only surfaces that
have a profound effect on our
spaces. We can create a
dominating presence and alter
mood by washing light up
onto the ceilings and canopies
in our space. Lighting the
ceiling overhead can make
people feel safer, can expand
space, and can lend a sense of Figure 14.5 Light directed upward onto an overhang or ceiling
lightness to an environment. creates an encompassing environment of light.
Using our lighting resources
in this manner can often deliver dramatic effect with very little light used.

SLOTS, COVES AND LIGHT SHELVES

The last two decades have truly seemed “the era of the recessed downlight”.
Because of this trend we have gotten very used to the idea that scallops of light
and pools of light are the proper shapes to add to our space. More and more, the
geometry of contemporary architecture seems to pair better with linear planes of
light. Spaces that tend to become visually cluttered can be organized by applying
light as large geometric statements.
Large clean geometric shapes of light lend our designs the same clean,
efficient feeling as our contemporary architecture. Slots, coves, and light shelves
are all examples of architectural features that can conceal light sources that
create the large, glowing shapes that define our perception of brightness in a
space.

Figure 14.6 Spaces usually treated with pools of light take on new feeling when lighted with lines and
planes.

LIGHTING THROUGH GLASS

Lighting glass can be understood by recognizing that as a transparent material,
we cannot light glass itself. Light directed toward glass either passes through or
reflects directly back. Because of this property, if there is nothing to see beyond
a piece of glass, the glass will simply act as a mirror. This has two important
design consequences.
First, it is worth noting that luminaires placed close to windows tend to
reflect a direct image of the bright source right back at us. For this reason it is
good practice to avoid placing interior luminaires right next to glass and
windows. Secondly, it means that our best chance of drawing attention through
glass is to create bright surfaces and objects beyond the glass. This leads us to
light exterior features to draw attention through glass openings. It also leads us
to wash light onto exterior eves and overhangs just beyond our windows.
SUPPLEMENTING DECORATIVE LUMINAIRES
Hopefully, it is clear through all of our discussions that glowing decorative
sources of light are not ideal stand-alone tools for our version of integrated
architectural lighting design. Decorative luminaires do have an important place
in our lighting tool vocabulary, but, on their own, they tend to be sources of glare
and leave a room gloomy. To make better use of these decorative luminaires, we
need to support them with more directional luminaires nearby. When we have
concealed sources that we can use to place specific pieces of light where we
want, we are free to use our decorative sources at lower light levels for the subtle
visual effects and mood effects we desire.

Figure 14.8 Providing directed accent light frees up glowing sources to serve as decoration.

DIRECTIONAL DECORATIVE LUMINAIRES

In order to avoid tiptoeing around decorative lighting elements, it helps to be
deliberate in the types of decorative luminaires specified. It is useful to draw a
clear distinction between self-luminous glowing sources and shielded decorative
luminaires that direct light back onto nearby surfaces. Luminaires that appear as
glowing bright spots tend to be overly self-serving and don’t always support the
space as a whole. Decorative luminaires that direct light can be used like our
other architectural light sources for lighting surfaces. For every glowing
decorative pendant, wall sconce and floor lamp, there is probably a version of
the luminaire that shields the source and directs the light onto the surfaces of the
space.

Figure 14.9 Decorative luminaires like the linear pendant shown here can be designed to provide functional
light for tasks and ambience.

The ideas presented here are just a head-start toward familiarity of the
ways light can be effectively delivered to add emotion and experience to our
designed environments. With a dedication to dissecting designed environments,
the designer will steadily build a repertoire of lighting ideas and concepts that
will work for him/her. As this knowledge base grows, it is a helpful practice for
a designer to pinpoint what works and what could be changed to improve the
interaction of light in the spaces he/she visits.
There are few absolutes in design, and even fewer in lighting design, but
the images and concepts discussed in this chapter should encourage you to think
a bit deeper about what options are available and should get you to question the
status-quo solutions that get applied to so many spaces.
Chapter 15
Lighting That Works
The deeper our familiarity with the basics of lighting science and design, the
more we can learn from lighted, designed environments all around us. Take time
to investigate design and articulate what elements of design are responsible for
the way things are functioning. Each of the following images has identifiable
lighting elements that play a strong role in the design as a whole. There is a
saying in lighting design that “Good lighting gets a space noticed, and bad
lighting gets itself noticed.” This speaks to the power of architecturally-
integrated light and warns us to be cautious with our decorative lighting
elements and strongly-themed lighting statements.
The surest way to create a predictable effect is to integrate something that
has been successfully implemented before. But a designer must be sure that
he/she is implementing something because it works and is desired, not simply
because it is a commonly-used solution.
The following images are accompanied by numbered items that point out
the key lighting elements in each scenario. The scenarios focus on integrated
lighting that is well thought-out and supports the needs and goals of each space.

Daylight Responsive Office Space

 1. Localized direct task / accent luminaires at each work station for targeted
task lighting
2. Subtle direct linear lighting cast downward provides uniform, low-level
glow onto horizontal surfaces
3. Indirect, linear uplight cast onto highly reflective suspended ceiling surface
provides perceived brightness and inter-reflected glow onto horizontal and
vertical surfaces throughout.
4. Daylight responsive mechanical shading to balance direct and diffused
daylight contribution

High-end Retail Showroom

 1. Continuous linear sources illuminate vertical perimeter to define boundary
and create perceived brightness
2. Concealed, adjustable accent luminaires cast light onto specific exhibit
objects and choreograph path through space.

Museum / Gallery Space

 1. Pools of increased light levels move the eye from one important object to
the next
2. Slender, indirect sources fill the ceiling volume with diffuse ambient light
3. Directional luminaires provide accent light on art and vertical surfaces
4. Indirect uplight reveals the volumes and shapes of the vaulted ceiling
system
5. The combination of directional, accent light and diffuse light provide for
long-term visual comfort

High-End Retail Display

1. Combination luminaires in the room center provide both comfortable
diffuse light and aimable accent light for visual interest
2. Adjustable accent luminaires in running slots provide punch onto the
displayed objects
3. Planes of light in each display niche define the space and create the
perception of brightness
4. Glowing lines of light in the display niches define the depth and form of the
space
Contemporary High-end Dining

1. Continuous linear LED lighting to cast ambient glow and vertical

brightness
2. Adjustable halogen accent luminaires to cast distinct pools of light on
dining tables
3. Adjustable halogen accent luminaires to accent wall paneling, provide
additional vertical brightness, and depth of space.

Contemporary, Casual Lounge

1. Uplight and reflective surfaces define the entry of the space, while darker
materials and light directed downward provide more intimacy and a lower
scale in the dining area.
2. Recessed decorative downlights provide a twinkle on the ceiling and a pool
of light for mood and accent down at the task.
3. The bright vertical surfaces keep the space bright, so the lighting is free to
be applied only where necessary.
Chapter 16
Designing with Daylight
Sustainability and energy concerns have brought daylight design and integration
to the forefront of the lighting design practice. Local codes and incentive
programs have significantly opened up the daylight discussion. A lighting
designer is now expected to have a much broader understanding not only of
good daylighting practices, but of specific code and incentive compliance
requirements. This trend drives projects to consider daylighting factors -
building orientation, glazing, shading structures and landscaping - far earlier in
the design process. This leads to earlier lighting designer involvement, making
daylighting yet another topic in which the lighting designer should become an
expert.
When we talk about the importance of making decisions about where light
will go and how light will interact with architecture, we are talking about the
controllable aspects of daylighting, as well as electric light. The most critical
component of daylight to remember is that as a source, it is hugely intense. As
such, the misuse of daylight can be amazingly detrimental to a project. For this
reason, daylight design is primarily a study in control.
There are numerous texts discussing the fine, technical aspects as well as
the more philosophical side of the sun as a light source.
We will focus here on basics that can prove useful as intuitive knowledge.
Also presented here is a fundamental procedure that will encourage you to think
through all of the factors and decisions that will lead to successful use of
daylight.
Daylight can be assessed and controlled, and, as such, it deserves the
same type of design scrutiny that we apply to electric light. We should approach
our spaces with the intent to visualize our effects and determine what surfaces
and objects will benefit from the addition of daylight, just as we do with electric
light.

OBVIOUS BENEFITS OF DAYLIGHT

A primary aspect of daylight systems is to consider the benefits that may serve
your design. In order to actually make use of these benefits, the daylight systems
we integrate must be as well-conceived as our electric light systems.
First and foremost, daylight is a means of producing light without the
consumption of electricity or other fossil fuels. This is a huge benefit to all
manner of projects where sustainability, minimal maintenance and
environmental concern are part of the program. Daylight consumes no electricity
and also eliminates the need for changing lamps. Daylight can also be harvested
with relatively little heat gain, which means that we can reduce our need for the
electricity associated with air conditioning and cooling that offsets heat
contributed by electric light.
Daylight is also a special source of light because of our long standing
relationship with it. When we consider how long humankind has had only
daylight (and occasional firelight) as a light source, it is easy to imagine why we
have a special fondness for it. Daylight connects us to the natural world and
brings us into contact with a way of life for which we are readily equipped.
Small quantities of daylight stave off depression, allow us to synthesize Vitamin
D, and can invigorate our spirit and energy level. Certain forms of daylight also
have the uncanny ability to deeply relax us.
Daylight is inherently dynamic and changes throughout the course of the
day and the year. This factor benefits our natural rhythms and stimulates our
active mind. One of the most depressing aspects of poorly-executed electric light
is the static, unchanging nature. Daylight is dynamic by nature, so even a small
amount can have a huge impact on the interest and stimulating effect of an
environment. The changes in daylight quality are so effective in encouraging
different mental states that many electric light systems strive to mimic similar
changes in texture and color over the course of a day.

FLAVORS OF DAYLIGHT
In order to visualize and implement the integration of daylight into design, it is
helpful to categorize two types of daylight systems: Functional Daylight and
Daylight Accenting.
Functional Daylight is the careful introduction of daylight into a space to
serve task and spatial-defining functions. This is generally diffuse, even
light that can accommodate long term visual comfort.
Figure 16.1 Controlling daylight through diffusion or shading (left) turns it into a tool for solving lighting
challenges. Direct sunlight components (right) are useful for impact and interest.

Daylight Accenting is a more dramatic and obvious use of daylight to

inspire certain moods and create distinct visual interest. These features
may be integrated into high-design spaces where emotional impact is the
priority.

These two types of daylight are accomplished through distinctly different

types of systems and have very different effects on our environments. There are
systems that introduce both simultaneously, but when we visualize a design
effect, it is important to identify our target and distinguish between the two.

COMPONENTS OF DAYLIGHT (TEXTURES)

The other basic intuition that a designer should carry is the distinct difference in
light quality that is obtained from the different components of daylight. Daylight
enters our spaces in a number of different ways and takes on different texture
accordingly. Just as we distinguish between the directional beam of an accent
luminaire and the soft diffuse light of a glowing globe, we break down the
components of daylight into three textures: Direct Sunlight, Skylight and
Diffused Sunlight
Direct sunlight is, arguably, the least useful as a functional light source
 and most hazardous to design. Light received directly from the sun is
excessively bright and leads to situations of glare and unacceptable
contrast. Direct sunlight can also introduce heat and UV radiation that
can damage materials and fabrics. As creatures of reflected light, sunlight
into our eyes or off of a bright surface into our eyes is simply too bright
for our visual system.
Skylight is the product of sunlight diffusing and scattering through
various states of our atmosphere. Skylight takes on many different
qualities depending on time of day, time of year, weather and atmospheric
conditions. From clear blue skylight to soft, diffuse cloudy daylight, most
forms of skylight suit our visual system well as a sustained light quality
for long durations. (This is no surprise, given our long history with
skylight).

Diffused sunlight is the product of introducing sunlight into our spaces

after it has interacted with some sort of diffusing material. Once we have
passed sunlight through tinted or frosted materials, we gain a much more
manageable source of light.

SITE LAYOUT AND MASSING

The dynamic nature of the sun and sky demand that we consider the daylight-
harvesting goals for a project very early. The first step in recognizing how to
make use of daylight is to identify the opportunities based on the project’s
orientation and proportions.
There are a few quick rules of solar geometry that will have significant
impact on the potential uses of daylight on a design job. Daylight is simple at its
heart, and the relationship created by project orientation is equally simple.
Architectural layout and massing must be considered with daylight
implications in mind. Height and width of forms and facades greatly affect the
surface area available for daylighting opportunities. Glazing must be considered
for its daylight implications and not simply for its view considerations. Solar
orientation, sight lines and solar shadow lines should also be investigated in
deciding how and where to locate a project.
 Figure16.2 The massing of a structure will determine the opportunities for various forms of daylight
harvesting

Latitude
The closer you are to the North and South Pole of the earth, the lower the sun
will be in your sky throughout the year. Without burdening ourselves with solar
geometry, we can safely say that a project on the equator has the potential for the
sun to be directly overhead much of the year, while a project in the Arctic will
never see the sun high in the sky.

Figure 16.3 High Latitudes and summer months (left) mean a high sun angle and short shadows. Low
latitudes and winter months (right) mean a low sun and long shadows.

Cardinal Orientation
The sun rises in the east and sets in the west. Spaces facing these directions have
the potential for direct sunlight exposure in the mornings and evenings of every
day.

Figure16.4 In the northern hemisphere, the sun will reliably arc across the south sky, casting shadows to the
north.

Seasonal Sun Angles

Daylight also has a predictable dynamic behavior over the course of the seasons
in a year. The sun will ride higher in the sky in the summer months and will ride
lower in sky over the winter months. This means that with a little studying, we
can design physical overhangs and shading devices that affect daylight
differently throughout the year.

Figure 16.5 A well designed overhang can shade high summer sun (left) and allow in low winter sun (right)

North Light / South Light

Living in the northern hemisphere means that the sun will always arc across the
sky to the south. This means that south facing spaces have the potential for direct
sunlight all day, while north facing spaces will receive exclusively skylight.
(This principle is obviously reversed for those living in the southern
hemisphere.)
It is good practice to create a simple diagram of the project site in
reference to the cardinal directions. This will give the designer guidance as to
where he/she can use certain techniques and where to watch out for potential
problems.
It is also helpful to draw the elevations of the project site in reference to
solar angles and the structures that may shade daylighting opportunities. Do
some research on the solar angles that occur at the project latitude through the
year to gain a specific understanding of the sunlight variance.

Figure16.6 A simple map of what types of daylight can be expected on a project in the northern
hemisphere.

When it comes to actually implementing and designing daylight systems into a

space, it pays to think the solutions and concepts through all sun positions.
Visualize not just the ideal situations, but every potential sun angle condition to
which the design will be subjected. Think the project through morning and night,
sunny and cloudy, and winter to summer. Far too many daylight ideas are
conceived in one dimension and are successful only on the one day a year when
the sun and the project are perfectly aligned.

DAYLIGHT SYSTEMS
The next step in making daylight decisions is to determine what types of light
character will serve the design intent. The controllable aspects of intensity, color,
texture, shape and origin are just as valid with daylight as they are with electric
light. Daylight systems can be lumped into two basic categories: sidelight and
top-light. We then identify the technologies and geometries that we use to
control, modify and enhance each.

Sidelight Systems
Common wall windows are the clearest example of sidelight entering a space.
Sidelight systems are unique in the many ways that they can transform daylight
into a useful form. If we receive direct sun sidelight, we must consider diffusing
techniques like tinting, frosting, and fritting. Sidelighting systems are effective
high up on vertical surfaces to impart a glow that lights up ceilings and walls to
translate volume. Sidelight systems can also be designed with geometry in mind
so that different components of sunlight and skylight are delivered differently
through the year. These systems can incorporate overhangs and shelves to shade
direct sunlight. Figures 16.7 through 16.11 illustrate various systems for
harvesting and controlling sidelight.

Figure 16.7 Sidelighting daylight systems: Overhanging soffit.

Figure 16.8 Sidelighting daylight systems: Light shelf.

 Figure 16.9 Sidelighting daylight systems: Light monitor.

Figure 16.10 Sidelighting daylight systems: Clerestory window.

Figure 16.11 Sidelighting daylight systems: Vertical shading.

Top-light Systems
Most designed spaces have access to high angled downward daylight, regardless
of orientation and neighboring structures. Daylight from above can be shaped
much like the recessed luminaires we use so much. High daylight is easy to
incorporate into long, linear slots and clean planes. The guidelines for such
systems are the same as any daylight:
Direct sunlight should be diffused and controlled;
Skylight is welcomed and easier to put to use;
Study of solar geometry and diffusing materials are the key to good
daylight textures.
Figures 16.12 through 16.14 illustrate various systems for harvesting and
controlling Top-light.

Figure 16.12 Top lighting daylight systems: Skylight.

Figure 16.13 Top lighting daylight systems: Bounced skylight.

 Figure 16.14 Top lighting daylight systems: Shielded skylight.

LIGHT CONTROL TECHNIQUES

The last ingredient to making use of daylight is an understanding of the
technologies that we use to alter the light textures we receive.

Diffusing
Diffusing daylight can be accomplished through the use of translucent acrylic,
frosted glass and a host of other slightly opaque materials. This treatment tends
to create a soft, even texture similar to skylight on a cloudy day.

Tinting
Tinting is the simple act of reducing the transmittance of a transparent substrate.
Tinting films and laminates come in a variety of colors and are often mirrored. In
many cases they receive mixed reviews as they impart a strange sort of gloomy
or dark perception of the outside world.

Fritting
Fritted materials are otherwise transparent materials with lines etched or
embedded in them. Good fritting can act like a series of miniature light shelves
or louvers, using geometry to reduce the transmission of light at certain angles.
Bad fritting behaves similar to diffusing materials or prismatic lenses.

Daylight at Work
There are, of course, situations where the raw, unbridled effects of natural
daylight are exactly what a space needs. When daylight is used as an accent
feature, the challenge is often in studying exactly what type of system is most
effective. Daylight for the sake of energy conservation is a noble cause, but there
are just as many valid emotional and experiential reasons to work daylight into
your design. Many of the most amazing natural and designed spaces hang much
of their greatness on the inclusion of daylight. The ethereal connection we hold
with daylight makes it a powerful ingredient that can turn an otherwise sterile
environment into a truly moving experience.

INTEGRATING WITH ELECTRIC LIGHT

Whether our daylighting ingredients are functional or aesthetic, it is necessary to
consider how they can substitute or work in harmony with electric light. In
design applications it is worth investigating how a particular daylight effect can
be recreated with electric light, or vice-versa. It allows a space to have similar
light textures in varying sky conditions throughout the day and the year.
Consider how shelves, slots, coves and coffers can be fitted with components of
both electric light and daylight. Consider also the decisions that help the two
systems work in harmony: intensity, color and shape.
Intensity:
Technology allows us to respond to the daylight we are receiving by
automatically reducing the intensity of the complementary electric light
system. Photocells can send signals to dim or step down the output level
of the electric light system. Photocells can also activate shading systems
in the case of excess daylight. If your goal is to use daylight to reduce or
replace electric light, a thorough study of technologies like photocells,
dimmers, and time clocks is in order.
Color:
Coordinating daylight use with electric light also demands careful
consideration of the color temperatures of light that are being introduced
to the space. The color of both skylight and sunlight are entirely variable.
Skylight can range from the pale blue of a clear morning to the murky
cool of a cloudy day to the violets and pinks of a sunset. Direct sunlight
can vary from a warm glow to a brilliant orange. Both, however, seem to
have an uncanny knack for showing off the unnatural look of the colors of
our electric sources. Because daylight components by nature have perfect
color-rendering capabilities, they tend to show off the deficiencies of our
 electric systems. Electric light can look very unnatural when it is shown
up by daylight. Because of the great variance of daylight, it is not
suggested that your electric light sources necessarily try to match the
color temperature of your daylighting ingredients; it is simply one more
facet of light to consider.
Shape:
Integrating daylight and electric elements together also requires
consideration of the shape of light. Daylight tends to be delivered in long,
clean pieces and planes. Our long, linear electric sources can do a good
job of harmonizing with these elements. Daylight can also be delivered in
clean directional beams and pools when produced by small apertures and
devices like solar light tubes.

The point is to take control of daylight and expand concepts of what can be
accomplished with it. Almost any source of electric light has a proper daylight
counterpart. The responsibility is simply to investigate the possibilities and think
through every design decision.
Some common daylight integration details can be found in chapter 30

HAZARDS OF DAYLIGHT
For all of its power and charm, it is important to remember that there are distinct
hazards of daylight applied improperly. Keep at the forefront of your mind the
perils that can befall a space with poorly-controlled daylight contributions.

Heat Gains
Unmitigated direct sunlight generally contributes a fair amount of heat, in
addition to excessive light. There are low-emissivity glasses and coatings that
can transmit visible light without the heat contribution, but these are not
commonplace. If you want direct sunlight, you get heat, or you make use of
these expensive glazing technologies.

Glare and Contrast

Sunlight is an obvious culprit, creating light hundreds of times brighter than our
brightest electric sources. As a task light, direct daylight is simply too bright. As
an accent light, sunlight can still cause glare and contrast to which the human
visual system simply cannot adapt. Skylight and diffused sunlight can also
present problems when not carefully considered with the material reflectances,
colors, and visual criteria of a space.

Damage to Art, Fabrics and Other Materials

Sunlight and daylight contain a quantity of ultra violet radiation that will
deteriorate dyes, inks, pigments and the integrity of organic materials. Glazing
blocks all but a small quantity of UV radiation, but even this small quantity has
damaging effects over time.

Excessive Window Light

Daylight windows are not necessarily view windows. Windows placed for clear
views of the exterior environment should always be considered for the daylight
that they will receive. Far too often, glazing is designed for views with no
consideration for the intrusion of daylight that will result. Daylight systems
should be designed independent of view windows and vice versa. Simple wall
glazing can certainly serve both purposes, but careful study and consideration
are necessary.

DAYLIGHT AS A CONTROLLABLE ELEMENT

The bottom line is that sunlight and skylight are controllable, predictable sources
of light that can be used to satisfy the needs of all of our five layers when
implemented properly. There are daylight ingredients to serve the needs of way
finding, mood, accenting, spatial revelation and tasks.
The key is to take control of daylight and design systems that use it. Even
simple wall windows deserve the consideration of diffusing curtains, blinds and
shading devices. Daylight should never be an accident, nor should it be
neglected. Like many other aspects of light, fear keeps designers from
confidently implementing daylight. Daylight is such an elemental material that
there are numerous simple ways to successfully put it to use.
Unlike electric light devices, there are few product catalogs that illustrate
daylight systems. Good daylight use is often the product of unique situations and
a fair amount of experimenting. If you come across an application that you like,
take note, sketch it, and start a collection of daylight systems that you can draw
from the next time you need to lean on the sublime character of sunlight and
skylight.
I am a strong believer in the unique mood and visual attraction of
daylight. I go to great lengths to study the opportunities for introducing skylight
and diffuse sunlight into my environments. I think this affinity is so strong that I
tend to design my electrical lighting systems to mimic the intensity, shape and
texture of controlled daylight systems. This also offers the advantage of seamless
integration between electric light and daylight. Despite all of the caution
encouraged regarding daylight integration, remember that a little bit of daylight
can go a long way towards a positive effect in the designed environment.
Chapter 17
Graphic Tools: Rendering and Light Maps
We mentioned earlier that the
designer’s ability to visualize
lighting ideas is only one of
the necessary skills. In order
to implement lighting design,
the designer must also be able
to translate those ideas to
other designers and ultimately
back to themselves.
Communicating ideas is
necessary for working through
challenges, getting feedback
and assistance, thinking
innovatively, and, foremost,
being free to think creatively.
For a designer, representing
ideas visually is the fastest,
Figure 17.1 Lighting symbols on a construction document do
clearest way to get those ideas very little to describe how the space will look, feel, or function.
out of one’s head and into the
design process. The credo that a lighting designer should adopt can be stated as
simply as this:

“DRAW YOUR LIGHT.”

Far too often, people see light as a product of luminaires, and they,
therefore, design by staring at a space plan and placing symbols that represent
luminaires. This process inevitably yields repetitious, static solutions of habit.
The little circles and square symbols do little to explain to us or anyone else how
light is behaving in the space. In our design process we should vow never to
design by drawing lighting symbols straight away.
 The first step in expressing light ideas is to graphically represent light as
light. We draw this light how we envision it, and where we envision it. We
identify the surfaces and objects that we want bright, and we draw brightness
onto them. Remember: lighting design is nothing more than the successful
application of the most appropriate type of light onto the most appropriate
surface. If we can make a habit of expressing our ideas through drawing light,
we can head down a more thoughtful and program responsive path of designing
that will yield more inspired and innovative designs.
Drawing light onto surfaces, object and spaces requires only the simplest
of tools. A yellow colored pencil can represent “light” in its most generic form.
With this single colored pencil, we can sketch light onto architectural elevations,
sections, plans and perspectives. We can print out images and sketch onto them.
We can sketch light onto our own hand-drawn scribbles. I make a habit of
carrying around a small army of yellow, colored pencils so that as soon as a
lighting idea comes to mind, I can communicate it immediately without a lot of
big words and hand waving. When one draws light onto plans and sketches the
eyes of fellow designers, clients and peers light up with comprehension and
understanding. I know of no easier tool for communicating light ideas, and so
this will be our first. I call this process of expressing light through graphics
“Light Mapping”
Figure 17.2 A light map detail example of a contemporary residence.

Figure 17.3 A light map example of an entire floor of a residence.

 Figure 17.4 A light map example of an elevation of a central bar area in a casino.

Our design process should always revolve around a dimensional

understanding of our environments as a whole. A recommended practice is to
commit to is pinning up, displaying, and surrounding oneself with all that can be
known about the program, surfaces forms and spaces of a project before starting
to design lighting for it. Being surrounded by visual representations of material
concept boards, elevations, section, plans and dimensional models allows the
designer to render lighting ideas in all dimensions and to understand the
ramifications of lighting decisions and concepts.

CREATING LIGHT MAPS

The most basic form of a light map is simply whatever architectural or
environmental information the designer has available with lighting graphics
applied on top. After we have exhausted all of the information we have available
and have made light maps of all of the elevations, sections and perspectives, we
set our sights on creating a light mapped plan. The light mapped plan can be
based on a floor plan, furniture plan or ceiling plan. This simple, graphic tool
will help to communicate light ideas and will serve as a roadmap when we move
forward and lay out our lighting equipment. When we go to solve lighting
challenges and identify locations and types of luminaires, a good, light-mapped
plan will solve itself. In an ideal design world, there is time enough to create
light maps to address separately each of the Five Layers of Light that we have
identified.

The Keys to Success in Creating a Light Map:

Think only in terms of light. Don’t worry about practicality,
constructibility, luminaire location, or even the luminaire itself.
Think about the quality of light and where it goes
Focus on surfaces and objects and how they receive light.

Adding to the Impact of a Light Map

When we set out to translate lighting information on plan in two dimensions, it is
imperative that we keep our mind open and our ideas fresh. We can add
rendering techniques like additional colors and patterns to represent different
lighting techniques. It is often helpful to graphically distinguish between
directional accent lighting, diffuse lighting, light cast up onto ceilings and lids,
as well as variation in desired color casts. Figure 17.5 illustrates a few ideas for
ways to represent lighting. It is often helpful to create a legend on the light map
that helps translate the different applications of light.
 Figure 17.5 an example of a legend (left) used to clarify colors and patterns used on a light map (right).

With these simple tools: A yellow pencil, an orange pencil, and some
imaginative patterns, a designer can translate a wealth of lighting concepts in
plan.
As one can see from the preceding figures, the goal is to truly represent
light where it ends up. More to the point, we represent the surfaces that receive
the light. Our Light Map plan becomes a map of specific “lighting events,” one
specific lighting concept after another clearly identified.

Describing Light
In order to create Light Maps that can truly stand on their own to translate
information to others, we add articulate descriptions to the graphics of our
lighting “events”. Describing light doesn’t need to be a study in poetics and
superlatives. We are simply clarifying what it is that light is doing. The better
our descriptions, the less we have to rely on specialized graphics to get our ideas
across. Lighting descriptions are like architectural notes; they need be detailed
only enough to get information across clearly. However, even a brief description
is better than the ambiguity of no description at all. Take pride in descriptions of
light and dole them out generously. There is a rule in design that says: “When in
doubt, create a note.” We will translate this guideline to be one of our mottos in
graphics and creating light maps: “When in doubt, add a description”.
To help forge the right level of information into a lighting description, I
recommend considering the following elements that are included in a good
description: Color, texture, and intensity of the light;
How the light affects mood;
How the light interacts with the surface.

If a lighting description includes these elements, it will be that much

easier for other designers to understand the intent of the design. It will also be
easier to solve lighting ideas and select the luminaires that will bring the idea to
life. A list of useful lighting descriptors is included in appendix C.

Figure 17.6 Descriptions of lighting intent are a crucial step towards defining lighting challenges.

It is good visual practice to study environments that feature good lighting

design and imagine how one would represent them graphically as a Light Map.
This analysis really shows off the idea that it is the surfaces receiving light that
define a space. Figure 17.7 and 17.8 show images of lighted spaces and how
they might have looked as Light Maps during the design process.
Figure 17.7 A contemporary kitchen (below) can be quickly represented in a light map (above).
Figure 17.8 A living room (below) can be quickly represented in a light map (above).
CREATING LIGHT MAPS FOR ALL 5 LAYERS
In the “5-layer Process” we have a tool that creates maximum opportunity for
germinating lighting concepts. In the “Light Map”, we have the ultimate tool for
efficiently and clearly translating lighting concepts and goals. The combination
of the two can result in the ultimate program specific, thoroughly-articulated,
well-communicated lighting design.
As discussed in Chapter 4, the ideal design process involves thinking in terms of
one lighting layer at a time. The Light Map process can be broken down to
accommodate this. A good practice is to render Light Maps for each of the five
layers on separate sheets of translucent velum or trace paper that can be overlaid
on one-another for comparison and coordination.
Let’s review the Five Layers of Light as we addressed them in Chapter 4:
1. Light to choreograph an experience;
2. Light to affect mood;
3. Light to accent objects;
4. Light to reveal architecture;
 5. Light for tasks.

As lighting ideas evolve on a series of Light Maps, particular lighting

events will serve many purposes across our five layers. This will point out
lighting events that are absolutely critical and will also help identify lighting that
is perhaps expendable or not as necessary for the overall success of a project.
Light Mapping in layers allows each light ingredient to be assessed and re-
assessed as the design evolves.

Layer 1: Light Mapping Choreography

A good first step to implement when creating a light mapped plan is to show
light for the sake of choreographing a path of experience for a visitor (the first of
our five layers from chapter three). Choreography benefits greatly from the light
mapping process because it requires a large scale overview of the project. The
choreography step is a quick and simple application of light on just a few large
surfaces or objects in space to create distinct destinations that serve as lighted
goals for people to move towards. The choreography intent can be further
clarified by adding symbols to represent the location of a person interacting with
the space. Figure 17.9 shows these symbols as blue cones indicating goals for
directing the attention and motion of a visitor. This process of creating a path
helps to identify what it is that should be lighted in order to draw a person
through the space. Light can be rendered onto one surface after another in
sequence to map how the lighted surfaces encourage a person to flow through
the space.
 Figure 17.9 Cones of view and descriptions explain how we intend to use light to lead a visitor from one
space to the next.

The addition of descriptions to further articulate the goals of the

choreography lighting ingredients rounds out this first phase of Light Mapping.

Layer 2: Light Mapping Mood and Emotional Effect

Creating a light map of desired mood and emotion in a space can be as
simple as identifying descriptive mood words for each space or area of a project.
This “Mood Map” can be created by drawing borders to define spaces of unique
use and labeling each with a few descriptive terms. Think in terms of the
overarching project mood as well each individual space. Project goals may call
for spaces to impart a variety of moods; calm, welcoming, relaxed, professional,
sterile, cold, etc. The goal is to then translate these mood descriptors into various
effects or characteristics of light. The mood descriptors will inform decisions
about intensity, color, texture, shape and origin of the light.

As with each of the Five Layers, it is advisable to apply each light map as
a separate sheet of translucent velum or trace paper over the previous Light
Maps in a stacking manner, so a designer can see where different lighting goals
overlap and support one-another.

Layers 3, 4 and 5: Light Mapping Visual Interest,

Architectural Definition and Task Lighting
Once Light Maps have been created to successfully represent
choreography and mood, the Light Map process is implemented for the
remainder of the lighting thought layers. The third, fourth and fifth layers
identified in the Five Layer Process should ideally be studied and rendered onto
a light map individually. As a designer gains experience with the processes and
tools, it may become second nature to tackle many layers at once.
However the process is articulated, the discipline is always focused on the
two core habits of visualizing lighted surfaces and objects - not luminaires and
lamps - and drawing light to create visual representations of concepts. The Light
Map process can be implemented many different ways, but the final result
should be a visual representation of a project showing all of the light that will be
added.
A well-executed Light Map process will create a visual road map to which
lamps, luminaires, controls and other lighting solutions can be easily applied to
“solve” the desired lighting events. Before moving on, take time to review all of
the aspects of the project program and whether they have been thoroughly
addressed by these concept and graphic processes. Effort spent on the Light Map
process will pay off in spades as design development rapidly moves into the
“solution” phase of lighting calculations and equipment selection and placement.
 Figure 17.10 A completed light map of a residential floor.

The goal of the light map is to communicate ideas to others and to create a
visual map of light that will help to make luminaire decisions easier. If the light
map is thorough, with bold, clear graphics to represent light, it sets the designer
up nicely to move forward and make quick work of laying out the luminaires
that will create the lighting events.
Chapter 18
Lighting Units and Measurements
Up to this point, we have managed to explore the depths of lighting design
concept and application without having to burden ourselves with the specifics of
lighting science and the systems of units and measurements that go with it. In
order to speak knowledgeably about lighting effects and lighting solutions, it is
necessary to have a basic understanding of light levels and how they translate
visually. In order to engage in this discussion, we must first take a look at
lighting science and some of the fundamental building blocks of lighting metrics.
This will help us not only communicate our lighting ideas more precisely, but
will also allow us to recognize appropriate tools and tactics as they are presented
by others.
When we go on to discuss light levels in design, we almost always refer to
the lighting unit of the foot-candle. A foot-candle is a measurement of
Illuminance cast onto a surface in a space. The unit of the foot-candle is, indeed,
based on the light produced onto an object a “foot” away from a very special
candle. We however are not really concerned with what a foot-candle is, but
rather what different illuminance levels, expressed in foot-candles, look like.
Let’s start with the basics.

IT’S ALL ABOUT THE LUMEN

Light comes in pieces, or at least we consider that it does for most of our science
and study. Scientists call these tiny pieces of light photons, and they exhaustively
study all of the ways that photons interact with the physical world.
In lighting science, we are not just concerned with light generically; we
are concerned with how these pieces of light affect human vision. Our visual
system is more sensitive to some types of light than others, so we measure a unit
of light energy as it affects the sensitivity of the cones and rods in the human
eye. We call these modified pieces of light “lumens.” The lumen is the basis of
all lighting study, and we can always be safe talking about light in terms of
lumens. We study three common ways that lumens interact with the
environment: We study the number of lumens onto or “striking” a surface;
called illuminance
We study the number of lumens off of or leaving a surface; called exitance
We study lumens of light leaving a surface or source in a specific direction
with a specific density; called luminance

When we talk about lighting effects, we generally talk about light density,
and, therefore we talk about how many lumens are acting per area. An
unfortunate part of lighting science is that we have come up with different names
for the measurements of light interacting in different ways. Figure 18.1 shows
the three interactions as lumens of light strike and reflect off of a surface.
Figure 18.1 shows that illuminance and exitance are both measurements
of light density; specifically, a measure of lumens per square-foot. The
difference between the two phenomena is simply whether the light is striking a
surface (illuminance), or leaving a surface (exitance).
Luminance, however, is a more thorough measurement of how densely
light is leaving in a specific direction.
To completely understand the nuances of these three methods of
measuring light, we will elaborate on them here.

Figure 18.1 The two common ways we consider light interacting with simple surfaces.

Illuminance:
 Illuminance is the measurement of lumens of light striking onto a
surface.
Illuminance is measured and expressed in foot-candles (FC).
1 foot-candle is the equivalent of 1 lumen of light distributed evenly
onto a 1 square foot surface.

Figure 18.2 Diagram of one foot-candle (density of light onto a simple surface).

Exitance:
Exitance is the measurement of lumens of light leaving a surface or
source.

Exitance simply accounts for the total number of lumens leaving and
gives no information about the density or direction in which the light is
leaving. The exitance of a reflective surface is the illuminance onto that
surface multiplied by the reflectance of the surface. If a surface is 50%
reflective, the exitance off of the surface will equal half of the
illuminance on to the surface. In the case of a light source, the exitance
is the sheer number of lumens that the light source is creating and
emitting.
Exitance is seldom used to describe light levels, but understanding it is
useful for visualizing how lumens interact with surfaces and objects.

Luminance:
Luminance is the measurement of a specific density of lumens of light
leaving a surface or
source in a specific
direction. It describes
light how an observer
experiences it and
explains our instinctive
undertanding the
intensity of light on a
surface diminishes as
that surface gets further
from the light source.
Luminance is
measured and
expressed in candelas
per square meter
(CD/sq.M).
In order to understand Figure 18.3 Diagram of Candle-power (density of light leaving
what luminance a light source
represents, it is
necessary to understand what a candela represents.
The candela is the unit of light density. It is a useful way to express how
densely light leaves a source or surface. One candela is the equivalent of
light leaving a source with a density of one lumen per “steradian,” of
spherical area. A steradian is a contoured area made of a portion of a
sphere. The area of a steradian is such that there are always 4Π (four pi, or
12.56) steradians in any sphere. Thus in the case of a sphere with a radius
of 1 ft. (and thus a total spherical surface area of 4Π), each steradian is 1
sq.ft. in area. As a sphere grows larger, the size of a steradian carved from
the sphere grows larger exponentially. Figure 18.3 shows two different
spheres and one steradian of area carved out of each of them. Because
light spreads out spherically as it leaves its origin, the same number of
lumens passes through each steradian despite the area difference. But, an
object of fixed size receives fewer and fewer lumens as the distance
increases and light spreads out.
This candela output is very useful for describing directional light sources
like accent luminaires that direct far more light forward than off to the
 side. Knowing the candela value that comes from the center of an accent
luminaire is useful for calculating the illuminance level that will occur at a
point on a surface or object due to that specific luminaire.
The nature of the candela means that the luminance value exhibited by a
light source or surface differs based on the angle from which the source or
surface is being viewed. It is luminance that the eye detects and uses as
the basis for decisions about source or surface brightness.
Although we have crafty names for all of these interactions and their units, the
most important and commonly-encountered in lighting design is illuminance
expressed in foot-candles. This expression of light onto objects is easy to
measure and helps us to understand the levels of contrast we can create in an
environment. Illuminance values onto a surface are independent of the color or
reflectance of the surface, so an illuminance value alone does not indicate how
an object will look. A black object and a white object, side by side on a table,
may be experiencing the same Illuminance level from the luminaires above
them. The drastic difference in appearance between the objects is a product of
their reflectance. To successfully visualize a situation, we must be told the
reflectance of the objects (values and colors), as well as the Illuminance level
onto the objects. This gives us enough information to interpolate the exitance
from the objects. If we also know the texture of the books and how they will
direct reflected light, we can estimate their luminance, which is much more
closely related to our description of object “brightness.” It is worth noting that
all of these measurements of light do not dictate objectively how bright a surface
will appear. Brightness is a judgment made by a viewer and is dependent on the
adaptation of the viewer and the contrast of the environment.
In all three of these cases of lighting measurement, we are talking about
lumens interacting with objects, so if all else fails; it is always safe to describe
light as lumens.
Chapter 19
Understanding Illuminance Levels
Light is most commonly described by how much we detect to be leaving a
surface and striking our eyes. “Brightness” is a generic term for this
phenomenon. Oddly, in lighting design study, we more commonly describe the
quantity of light striking a surface. Very often this is because we are discussing
light quantities as they are needed to perform visual tasks. These visual tasks
involve materials of various reflectances that create contrast. This quantification
of light “on to” a surface is called Illuminance. And when we get scientific about
quantitative lighting study, our discussions will revolve around measurements
and expressions of illuminance. Therefore, we will commonly express light
levels in terms of foot-candles (the unit of measuring Illuminance) incident
“onto” a surface.

The study of specific quantities of light desired is a natural progression of the

Light Map process. When we start addressing each individual lighted surface –
especially accented surfaces (Layer 3), or task surfaces (Layer 5) – we will need
to identify specific illuminance levels that we want to provide so that these
accented surfaces stand out from their surrounding environment and so that the
task surfaces receive enough light to perform the visual task at hand.

ILLUMINANCE LEVEL INTUITION

There is a wealth of published information about what specific
illuminance levels are appropriate to provide onto surfaces to accommodate
different types of visual tasks, and many people use these guidelines as the basis
of their design. Adhering to prescribed illuminance levels for tasks and
neglecting the lighting effect of a whole space can, however, lead to a very one-
dimensional experience.
Because we are after a much more holistic approach to our design, we are
interested in an intuitive ability to visualize different Illuminance levels and what
they represent. Though prescribed illuminance levels are really intended only to
be considered for a specific surface, a designer can put Illuminance levels to
good use by utilizing them to describe the overall, ambient glow of a space
where many surfaces are experiencing a similar illuminance level. This is
technically an abuse of the intention of illuminance level prescription, but is
such a useful way for designers to communicate lighting intention that we take
the liberty. When one describes an entire space as exhibiting an “average”
illuminance level, one must account for contrast, accent, and areas of higher and
lower light levels within it.
Assembled here is a short list of illuminance levels (expressed in foot-
candles) that can help a designer to visualize what these different light levels can
mean to a design. As you consider each space type, close your eyes and visualize
the space described if it were lighted fairly evenly. What you are visualizing on
the surfaces of the space is likely the illuminance level listed. Remember this is
not a list of recommendations, but rather a reference for visualizing.
Designed Space illuminance Level
Full Moon Light 0.1 Foot-candle
Exterior Parking Lot 1.0 Foot-candle
Dim, romantic restaurant 5.0 Foot-candles
Comfortable Living Room 10-15 Foot-candles
Residential den / study 20-35 Foot-candles
Classroom / Open Office 50-70 Foot-candles
Laboratory / Exam Room 100 Foot-candles

It is uncommon to light an entire interior space to Illuminance levels

beyond 100 foot-candles. Once we start dealing with these higher illuminance
levels, we are usually talking about light that would be applied to small areas of
localized task. We may provide 200 foot-candles of light onto an operating table
or an accented object, but it is unlikely that we would light an entire space to this
level.

ADDING ILLUMINANCE VALUES TO A LIGHT

MAP
Keeping these light levels in mind while designing and discussing light, will
provide all of the intuitive knowledge needed to engage in discussions of light
levels for basic spaces. With just this small amount of familiarity, one can start
adding these values as targets for specific surfaces and whole room effects in
designed spaces. The suggested progression of design is to label these whole
room and “specific surface” Illuminance level targets as a part of light map
Layer 5 (See Ch. 4). Illuminance levels are best used to describe the quantity of
light cast onto a surface, but they can also be used to give an impression of the
overall ambient glow that one may perceive in a room. This can be put to use by
mentally walking through the design, room by room, determining the overall
ambient glow that is desired for each room.

Figure 19.1 Adding ambient illuminance level targets (shown here in green) helps to refine design goals.

In residential settings this process can be handled very easily. For spaces
like residences that don’t have to support critical tasks, it is safe to use a limited
range of illuminance values between 5 and 35 Foot-candles as targets for whole
room ambience. You can reference the table above to see that these values cover
most of the moods and environments we try to create in a residential setting.
These illuminance levels can also serve as the overall ambient glow for spaces
like restaurants, galleries, hospitality and museums. For more task oriented
spaces, like open office areas, classrooms, civic and conference spaces, average
illuminance levels in the 35 to 55 Foot-candle range tend to be common. When
visual tasks are a critical component of the lighting design program, a designer is
advised to consult more technical reference material for Illuminance level
recommendations onto specific task surfaces.
The illuminance guidelines above are a gross simplification of a topic that
encompasses much study and engineering. For our basic understanding and
ability to visualize, these numbers will suffice.
It is important to realize that whole room illuminance levels are just
reference targets off which to build. The hope is that all of the specific task and
accent lighting that gets added to the space will inter-reflect to create this glow.
Our design procedure in not to create an ambient light level first, and add accent
or task affects later.
We define lighting goals for specific surfaces and objects for task and
accent first and then assess the effect. Only after we have done this, do we
design lighting intended to increase ambient light levels or perceived brightness.
As illuminance level targets find their way onto the Light Map, designers
will find their lighting design fall into place much easier.

LIGHTING FOR VISUAL INTEREST: THE “2X”

RULE
As designers primarily interested in adding impact and emotion to our
environments, much of what we light are accented surfaces and objects that must
stand out from the surfaces around them. When we paint light onto objects with
the intent of drawing attention to them, it is helpful to identify specific light level
targets to make sure the impact of design stays intact.
Now that we have a basic understanding of what illuminance levels mean,
we will introduce a useful rule-of-thumb for designing accent and feature
lighting. We call this rule the “2 times” contrast rule, and we use it frequently for
creating accents and visual interest. The rule is based on fundamental vision
science that tells us that an object must be twice as “bright” as a surface adjacent
to it to appear noticeably “brighter”. When we light an object or surface with the
intent to make it “pop” or serve as a focal element, we implement a simple
version of this theory by illuminating the accented object with at least twice as
much light as the surrounding environment. This simplified solution of
addressing only the amount of light cast onto an object ignores the reflectance
and color of the object, but it is a good starting point. There are more complex
ramifications of this rule that have to do with object color, and reflectance, but
for our design purposes, we can safely rely on the broad version of this rule.
Generally, the more light we cast onto a surface, the greater the accented effect.
The other end of the contrast rule comes from the desire to not create too
high a level of contrast that might be translated as glare. To avoid uncomfortable
glare and excess contrast, we avoid lighting an object to be more than 5 times as
bright as the surrounding environment.
So the “2 times” contrast rule really becomes the “2 to 5 times” contrast
rule. We say that for creating visual interest in designed spaces, we want to light
our objects to be twice as bright as their surroundings, but not more than 5 times
as bright. We accommodate this in a very simplified manner of illuminating
objects to two to five times the illuminance of the surrounding environment.
The effects of this rule can be written onto the light map to further clarify
the lighting design intent. The process is as simple as identifying the objects and
surfaces one wants to use as focal elements in each space. Because the designer
has already assigned a desired ambient glow to these spaces, he/she has an
illuminance value to use as the basis for the “2 to 5 times” contrast rule.
Mentally walk through the design, space by space, and identify objects and label
them with a target accent illuminance level.
An example might be a dining room where the design intention calls for a
minimum ambient glow of the space to be around 10 foot-candles. Using the 2 to
5 times rule, we see that our accented objects should be illuminated to levels
between 20 and 50 foot-candles. The “2 to 5 times” rule requires that we have
first established an ambient illuminance level with which to work. This is why
we went through the process of targeting overall ambient illuminance levels for
the whole space. These two simple steps of defining an ambient glow for a space
first and then using that as the basis for accents are quick and effective.
 Figure 19.2 Establishing ambient illuminance level targets (in green) allows a designer to go back and
define areas of heightened light levels (in pink).

How we will actually get the light there can be worked out later. For now,
we are simply adding more information to our Light Map to make it increasingly
easier for us to locate and select luminaires.

IES ILLUMINANCE LEVEL CRITERIA

A more specific way to arrive at illuminance level targets for specific tasks and
critical effects is to use the well-established system put forth by the Illuminating
Engineering Society of North America (IESNA). The IESNA is a scientific body
dedicated to the study of lighting and its effects on human visual performance.
The IESNA has committed significant resources to the study of illuminance
levels onto tasks.
Remember that Illuminance levels are descriptions of how much light we
are putting onto an object. Illuminance levels don’t account for reflectance or
how light will leave a surface. This limits their value in trying to describe how a
surface, object or space will look.
Illuminance levels are exceptionally useful when determining appropriate
light levels for tasks. This works primarily because visual tasks involve objects
with known reflectances. If we know the reflectance of the materials involved in
a task, it is safe to prescribe a quantity of light that should be cast onto the task
to create the necessary contrast. Reading, for example, involves dark text on
light-colored paper. As we cast more light onto a reading task, the light-colored
paper reflects more light back at us, while the dark ink continues to reflect very
little. In this manner, the contrast between the two increases. This is the
fundamental basis for the long list of Illuminance values that the IESNA
provides. The IESNA publishes a book that categorizes a variety of tasks
articulated with a variety of materials. For each of these task and material
combinations, the IESNA provides a recommended Illuminance level. IESNA
literature can be ordered from www.iesna.org.
The IESNA recognizes that there are many factors that dictate what is
appropriate lighting. Another significant aspect of the IESNA illuminance
selection procedure is the assessment of the designed space and consideration for
all of the other visual performance issues that must be addressed. This includes
concerns like color rendition, evenness, and glare. It is helpful for a designer to
develop his/her own list of lighting issues and concerns like the one presented in
Figure 19.3. Rating the importance of each - on a scale of one to ten, say - can
add even more value to such a list.

Figure 19.3 A list of lighting concerns that should be considered for every project

The IES selection procedure can certainly help a designer avoid under-
lighting critical situations, but it is really intended as a procedural guide for
visual tasks (the fifth layer of our 5-layer system).
For visual effect, aesthetics, mood, and spatial organization (The
remaining four layers from our 5 layer system), intuition and experience will
serve us better than exact numbers. This is the reason we have gone to great
lengths to voyage through a thought process that leads to understanding and
intuition, before diving in to quantification. Illuminance values are a welcome
level of information to add to our design intent, but they are only one part of a
much bigger picture that has its foundation in visualization and graphic
rendering of lighting concepts.

Remember to visualize lighting effect first and then draw and describe the
lighting effect. Only if the designer feels the need to further articulate does
he/she need to move on to specifying target Illuminance levels. We add these
values to our light map to clarify our intent and make the selection and
placement of lighting equipment easier. If targeting a specific task or accent light
level does not serve to progress our design, it is not worth taking the time to
identify.
Chapter 20
Lighting Calculations
It is imperative before delving into the world of lighting calculations to step back
and remember the reason for using calculations in design. We use calculations to
help us arrive at specific solutions to critical lighting challenges. If a calculation
will help us select a luminaire, and apply that luminaire to create the lighting
effect we are after, we welcome it. It is important not to rely on calculations too
heavily as they are merely a supplement to good lighting instinct and
experiential knowledge. It is also important not to assume that every lighting
element we are designing can benefit from performing a calculation.
Lighting calculations can assist us in selecting lamps and luminaires when
we are trying to obtain a specific light level. Lighting calculations also help us
predict the lighting effect we may get from a specific lighting scenario.
We will investigate two lighting calculation methods that help us in two
types of lighting situations: Lumen Method Calculations and Point Calculations.

Lumen Method calculations are used for determining average light levels
in large, open areas.
Point Calculations are used for determining light levels at a specific point
on an object or surface.

These two calculations cover the two ends of the design spectrum: broad,
spatial light levels and minute, point-specific light levels.
To understand how we make use of lighting calculations, we must first
investigate more specifically the way we count and measure light.
In the case of both types of calculations, we will be using Illuminance as
our measurement of light level. Illuminance is, of course, the measure of light
falling onto surfaces. Specifically, illuminance is the measure of the number of
lumens that are falling onto a square foot of area, which is the definition of a
foot-candle, the unit of measurement of illuminance. A foot-candle is one lumen
of light received evenly over an area of 1 square foot.
 Figure 20.1 One lumen onto a one square-foot area represents one foot-candle of illuminance

Figure 20.2 Ten lumens onto a 10 square-foot area is also represents one foot-candle of illuminance

LUMEN METHOD CALCULATIONS FOR LARGE,

OPEN AREAS
The lumen method of calculating light levels is really not a calculation all, but
rather an extrapolation of the unit definition of the foot-candle. When we dissect
the foot candle, we see it is simply a measurement of light density in lumens per
square foot.
1 Foot-candle = 1 Lumen ÷ 1 square foot
or
1 FC=1 Lm ÷ 1 sq.ft.
Therefore, we can generalize
Illuminance = Lumens ÷ area (in square feet)
or we can express it as mathematical abbreviations
E = Lms ÷ A (sq.ft.)
Putting this together tells us that to calculate the Illuminance level onto a
surface, we simply count up the number of lumens falling onto that surface and
divide by the area of the surface.
In the case of a whole room, that surface would likely be the floor, or an
imaginary work plane above the floor at task height (often assumed to be 30”). A
basic situation where we want to predict lighting effect may look like example 1.

Lumen Method Example 1: Solving for Illuminance

level
Imagine a room that is 10’ × 15’, with 5 downlights placed evenly around the
room. Each downlight emits 1000 lumens. If we imagine that all 1000 lumens
from each luminaire end up on the floor of the space, what illuminance level can
be expected onto the floor in this room?

Figure 20.3 A 10’ by 15’ floor lighted by 5 downlights.

We know that the solution to a problem like this is to simply count up the lumens
that make it to the surface in question and divide by the area of the surface.
Using the basic equation
Illuminance = Lumens ÷ area
or
E = Lms ÷ A
We plug in the values we know.
The area of the floor is
A = 10’ × 15’ = 150 square feet.
The total number of lumens that make it to the floor “Lms”
1000 Lumens × 5 downlights = 5000 lms.
So the equation
E = Lms ÷ A
becomes
E = 5000 Lms ÷ 150 sq.ft.
or
E = 33.3 Lms per sq.ft.
or
E = 33.3 Foot-candles
(Similar to the illuminance level we might picture on the desk of a home office
or library).

Lumen Method Example 2: Solving for Lumens or

Luminaires Needed
We tend to use the Lumen Method Calculation more frequently for figuring out
how to deliver light to provide a desired illuminance level. In these cases, we use
this same equation flipped around.
Illuminance = Lumens ÷ Area
becomes
Lumens = Illuminance × Area
or more specifically
Lumens needed = Illuminance level target × Area (in
square feet)
A basic situation where we need to solve a lighting challenge may look like this
two-part process:
Given the same 10’ × 15’ room, we would like to light the floor to an average
illuminance level of 60 foot-candles. How many lumens need to make it to the
floor surface?

Figure 20.4 How do we deliver the desired illuminance level to a 10’ by 15’ floor?

We use our basic equation

Lumens needed = Illuminance target × Area
or simply
Lumens = Illuminance × Area
or
Lms = E × A
We plug in the values we know.
Our illuminance target is
E = 60 foot-candles.
Our area is
A = 10’ × 15’ = 150 square feet
So the equation
Lms = E × A
becomes
Lms = 60 fc × 150 sq.ft.
or
Lms = 9000 Lumens
We need to introduce 9000 functional lumens of light onto the floor to get the
average illuminance level we are after.

How do we get those 9000 functional lumens onto the floor? We need to
determine what quantity and type of luminaire can accomplish this goal. Hence,
the calculation has two parts. In order to answer the question of how many
luminaires we need, we need to know the lumen output of those luminaires. For
this reason, most luminaire manufacturers provide cut-sheets that provide this
information. For this example, we will assume that we have found a luminaire
that emits 550 lumens and that all of these lumens will make it to the floor in the
space.

If we were to use a luminaire that provides 550 Lumens onto the floor, how
many luminaires would we need to evenly place in the space.
This question translates to a simple equation:
Luminaires needed = Lumens needed ÷ Lumens per
luminaire
We solve this by plugging in what we know
Luminaires needed = 9000 Lumens needed ÷ 550
Lumens per luminaire
so our answer
 Luminaires needed = 16.36
gets rounded up to
Luminaires needed = 17
So we have determined that 17 of these specific luminaires spaced evenly in the
150 square-foot space will yield us the 60 foot-candles of average Illuminance
onto the floor.

Lumen Method Reality Checks

When we perform lumen method calculations for critical situations, it is
important to add in two factors that make our calculations much more realistic.
The first of these factors is a safety factor, or “maintenance” factor called the
light loss factor, or “LLF.” The second factor is the coefficient of utilization,
or “CU.”

Light loss factor

Light loss factor is a way to account for the fact that the light performance
of our lamps and luminaires will deteriorate over time for a number of reasons.
The light loss factor accounts for lamps getting dirty and thus emitting less light
over time. It also accounts for loss in performance of ballasts and transformers
over the life of the luminaire. There is an articulate method of calculating each of
these contributing factors, but it is common to use an industry standard
generic value of 0.85 for a light loss factor. This means that we perform
calculations expecting only 85% of the light from our lighting system to be
working in the space as the system ages (In exceptionally dirty spaces we
determine this value more carefully). This assumption pushes us to design not
for how we want a system to perform on day one, but rather for how we want the
system to perform 2 or 3 years down the road. Just as an architect over-designs
the key structural elements of a building, the lighting designer over designs to
make sure that a space will perform as intended well into the future.

Coefficient of utilization
The other way to bring the simple lumen method calculation closer to
reality is to account for how effectively the luminaires are working with the
surfaces of the space to deliver light to the target surface in question. If we are
concerned with the light level on a floor plane and we are implementing an
indirect lighting system that delivers light upward onto the ceiling where it then
is reflected downward, it is safe to say that some of that light will be absorbed by
the ceiling and walls and lost before it makes it to the floor. Indeed, it is rare that
the majority of the light from a luminaire is directed immediately onto the
surface with which we are concerned. It is also important to account for the
geometry and reflectances of the room surfaces. Room surface geometry and
reflectance will determine how effectively light inter-reflects to reach the surface
in question. We accommodate for luminaire orientation, room geometry and
surface reflectance by including a factor that takes into account these
relationships in each specific situation. We call this factor the coefficient of
utilization, or CU. The CU is expressed as a decimal number or a percentage to
represent how effectively our lighting system is being utilized. The more directly
our luminaires are being utilized and the more favorable the geometry, the higher
the CU. In situations where light takes a very indirect path to the surfaces we are
calculating, the CU is lower.

Figure 20.6 Light delivered with a high Coefficient of Utilization (left) and light delivered with a low
Coefficient of Utilization (right).

There is a very tedious way to accurately calculate the coefficient of

utilization that takes into account room geometry, surface reflectances and
luminaire placement. For our purposes, we will rely on a few ballpark numbers
that will simply add to the usefulness of our lumen method calculations. Like the
light loss factor or any other safety factor, we include these numbers in our
calculations to make sure that we are over designing and accommodating for
non-ideal conditions. The list below shows Coefficient of Utilization values that
would be appropriate in a calculation where we are concerned with an
illuminance level on the floor or a horizontal work plane. The values also
assume that the space in question consists of fairly reflective surfaces:
Lumen Method Calculations with Safety Factors
Both of the factors discussed here simply get inserted into our equations to
convince us to use more light or, conversely, to expect less light from our lamps
and luminaires.
This creates a more accurate and useful equation for predicting lighting
effect. With the addition of the light loss factor and the coefficient of utilization,
our lumen method calculation goes from:
Illuminance = Lumens ÷ Area
to
Illuminance = (Lumens × LLF × CU) ÷ Area
Our formula for determining how much light we need to introduce into a space
goes from:
Lumens needed = Illuminance target × Area
to:
Lumens needed = (Illuminance target × Area) ÷ (LLF
× CU)
Oftentimes, when we are after a very basic calculation and we don’t want
to numerically include these two factors, we refer to the lumens in our equation
as “functional lumens,” that is, lumens that we know are being utilized to put
light onto the task with which we are concerned. In this manner, we can use the
basic versions of our equations, without the safety factors, but describe our
results in terms of how many “functional lumens” we would need, or how many
“functional lumens” we are providing.
Regardless of whether we use the simplified equations, or whether we
include the two safety factors, it is important to recognize where lumen method
calculations are viable. In order for an “average illuminance level” to be
meaningful, the space or surface in question must actually have an “average
illuminance level.”
 So the lumen method calculation is really only valid for large, open areas
with even lighting layouts. This means that if we have a space where the
luminaires are concentrated and directed to one area, knowing that the average
Illuminance level on the floor is 25 foot-candles tells us very little since we can
plainly see that the room is exceptionally bright in one area and very dark in
another area.
Good candidates for lumen method calculations are open office spaces,
classrooms, sports arenas, warehouses, public hallways… any rectangular space
with an even layout of luminaires and few obstructions.
When we are interested in lighting effects onto objects and specific
surfaces, we use the other form of calculation: the point calculation method.

THE POINT CALCULATION METHOD

When we are interested in illuminance levels that exist at a very specific point on
a surface, we use a simple calculation that takes into account how the delivery of
light spreads out as the distance between the light source and the object
increases. We generally use this calculation for considering object, accent and
task light levels that are a product of a few specifically-placed luminaires that are
directing their light immediately onto the surface in question. Because of this,
the point calculation method requires that we be able to at least estimate the
location of our lighting equipment in reference to the surface and the distance
and aiming angle between the two. One of the most common situations to use
the point calculation is in accenting artwork or other objects of interest.
The equation we use for the point calculation method is, again, not really
an equation at all, but rather an expression based on the unit definition of the
candela. Candelas are a measurement of light density exhibited from a specific
source in a specific direction. Candle-power (expressed in Candelas) is a very
common way to describe the way light leaves directional luminaires.
When we consider a glowing globe, it is fairly obvious that the source
distributes light evenly in every direction.
 Figure 20.7 A candela distribution diagram (left) for a diffuse source (right).

Architectural luminaires like downlights, accent luminaires, spot-lights

and wall-washers have optics and reflectors that drive light in a very specific
manner. The Candle-power measurement from a particular luminaire is a
measure of the light density that a luminaire produces in a specific direction.

Figure 20.8 A candela distribution diagram (left) for a directional source (right).

There really is no way to estimate the candela values coming from a light
source by observing the source, so this information must be given to us by the
manufacturer of the lamp or luminaire. Luminaire literature often includes a
candela distribution diagram. This diagram gives specific candela values that
occur directly beneath a source and at various angles.
 Figure 20.9 Literature for a high-performance luminaire may provide a candela diagram.

Point calculations usually involve very directional luminaires that create

pools or spots of light. In these situations, we can usually count on the highest
concentration occurring at the center of the pool of light. The candela value from
this center point has a special designation: we call it the “Center Beam Candle-
Power” or CBCP. Some luminaire and lamp literature will forgo a complex
candela distribution diagram and simply publish this CBCP value, assuming that
the user is concerned with the bright area of light at the center of the beam.
 Figure 20.10 The highest candela value from a light source is commonly found at the center of the light
output.

The point calculation method is based on the principle that light spreads
out as it travels away from a source. This spread of light is exemplified by the
pool of light created by a directional luminaire. As the distance from the source
increases, the pool of light gets larger, but also gets less “bright” because the
same quantity of light is spread out over a larger area. Using this principle, we
can determine the illuminance level at a specific point by knowing the candela
value of the source in that direction and the distance and aiming angle from the
source to the point. Candelas are an expression of light density or lumens per
area where the area is a piece of spherical space (see ch. 18). The most important
step in putting the point calculation equation to use is determining the distance
value “D” from the source to the illuminated point in question. This value must
be determined and always expressed in feet before it is squared in the equation.
The equation for a straightforward point calculation looks like this:
Illuminance = Candela value ÷ Distance2 (distance in
feet squared)
Or
E = CD ÷ D2
The equation is best understood through a simple example.

Point Calculation: Example 1:

Suppose we have an accent luminaire recessed into a 10’-0” ceiling directly
above a plate that is on a table at 3’-0” above the floor. If that accent luminaire
has a center beam candle power (CBCP) of 10,000 candelas, what illuminance
level can we expect at the brightest point on the plate?
This is best expressed as a diagram as in Figure 20.11.
 Figure 20.11 Point calculations are commonly used in situations involving one source and one object of
interest.

Using our basic Point Calculation equation

Illuminance = Candela value ÷ Distance2
or
E = CD ÷ D2
plug in the values we know:
center-beam candela value of the source
CD = 10,000 Candelas
distance squared: The “Distance” is the distance the light must travel. In this
case, it is the mounting height of the luminaire (10 ft.) minus the height of the
table (3 ft.)
D2 = 7 feet, squared = 49 square feet (the units get
squared too, which represents the translation of
distance into surface area)
Our equation becomes
Illuminance = 10,000 CD ÷ 49 sq.ft.
Or
Illuminance = 204 Foot-candles.
This is a high illuminance level, but certainly within reason for an object we are
trying to accent. It is also important to note that this illuminance level occurs
only at the bright center of the pool of light on the object.
We tend use this calculation more frequently to deduce what type of
candela value (and therefore source) we need to accomplish a certain lighting
task. An example of such a situation may look like example 2
Point Calculation: Example 2:

Suppose we have an accent luminaire recessed into the same 10’-0” ceiling
directly above the same plate that is on a table at 3’-0” above the floor. If we
want to illuminate that plate to 150 Foot-candles, what kind of center beam
candle power value would we need from the luminaire? The diagram is the
same, but we use the flipped version our basic equation
Candela value needed = Illuminance level desired ×
distance squared
Or
CD = E × D2
We plug in what we know:
illuminance desired
E = 150 Foot-candles
distance squared
D2 = 7 feet squared = 49 sq.ft.
and our solution becomes
CD = 150 FC × 49 sq.ft.
or
Candela value (typically CBCP) needed = 7350
Candelas.
Of course the second part of this type of situation is figuring out what sort
of lamp or luminaire is going to provide this candela value. We may even decide
to use two luminaires in which case we need only half of the contribution from
each of them. To find a specific luminaire or lamp, we simply look at the various
candela values produced by different lighting equipment. In the case of
luminaires, the candela values are represented in the form of a distribution
diagram.

Figure 20.12 Candela distribution diagrams for various versions of a basic downlight.

When we are using one of our many accenting lamps, like an MR-16 or
PAR lamp, the candela value will usually be expressed as the center beam candle
power (CBCP), tucked in with a host of other information.
Figure 20.13 Accent lamp literature commonly describes the Center Beam Candle-power values of a family
of lamps.

Point calculations become much more useful and slightly more

complicated when we consider situations in which the object we are lighting is
not perpendicular to the light source. In these situations we must include a bit of
geometry in our calculation to be more accurate : If we are aiming the light
source at any angle other than perpendicular to the surface being lighted, we
know our “pool” of light spreads out and is therefore less “intense”. This is
exemplified by the shape the “pool” of light takes on. As the aiming angle is
increased, a circular pool of light becomes an elongated and widened “scallop”
of light.
We modify our point calculation equation to accommodate for how the geometry
will spread out the light intensity:
Candela value needed = (Illuminance level desired ×
distance squared) ÷ cosine of the angle
The angle in question is the angle created between the aiming line of the
luminaire and a line perpendicular to the surface being lighted as displayed in
Figure 20.14.
or
CD = (E × D2) ÷ cosine of angle.
or, if we use the equation to solve for illuminance onto the object, we use this
E = (CD × cosine of angle) ÷ D2
An example of this situation might look like example 3

Point Calculation: Example 3:

Suppose we have an accent luminaire recessed into a 10’-0” ceiling aimed to
light a collectible plate resting on a pedestal 3’-0” from the floor. To accent the
plate, the luminaire is aimed at an angle. Aiming the luminaire creates an angle
of 30 degrees between the aiming line of the luminaire and the line
perpendicular to the plate. If we want to illuminate the plate to 100 foot-candles,
what kind of center-beam candela value would we need from the luminaire?

Figure 20.14 A point calculation used to determine how to light an object when an aiming angle is
involved.

We use the version of our equation that accounts for lighting at an angle
Candela value needed = (Illuminance level desired ×
distance squared) ÷ cosine of the angle
or
CD = (E x D2) ÷ cosine of angle
We plug in what we know:
illuminance desired
E = 100 Foot-candles
We use simple trigonometry to determine the Distance squared
D2 = 8.1 feet squared = 65 sq.ft. Cosine of angle =
cosine of 30 degrees = 0.87
Our solution becomes
CD = (100 FC x 65 sq.ft) ÷ 0.87
Or
Candela value needed = 7471 Candelas.
Through this example we can see that lighting at an angle reduces the
effectiveness of the light source immensely. This makes sense when we consider
how the geometry affects the shape and size of the piece of light created. Rather
than a defined circle or “pool” of light, the aiming angle results in a long, wide
“scallop”.
It is important to recognize that this chapter presents simple calculations
that ignore any inter-reflected light. In these situations, it is assumed that all of
the light being measured comes directly from the luminaires in question.
Once a designer gets the hang of the basic principles of these two types of
calculations, he/she will begin to gain an instinct for where each can be useful.
As mentioned before, it is equally important to recognize where calculations will
not benefit the design or help to create a good lighting solution. Calculations are
merely tools to support and refine the lighting concepts that one draws up as
he/she works through the more graphical and imaginative processes that we now
associate with lighting design.
All of the tools we have explored through this section are geared towards
bringing us to a point where we are ready to prepare drawings that will translate
our lighting concepts into a constructible project. The visualizing, the
articulating, the sketching, the drawing, the describing, and the calculating are
all tools to make the job of selecting the appropriate lighting easier. The next
logical step is to use all of the creative and calculative input to create the
drawings and details that will allow the project to be built.
Part III
Deliverables
Chapter 21
Deciphering Manufacturers Literature and
Luminaire Cut Sheets
Before we can hope to make intuitive decisions about selecting lighting
equipment to solve our lighting challenges, we must dedicate some time to
understanding what types of luminaires are available to us. Lighting products,
like most specification design products, have a wealth of information published
about them to help the designer determine which product is most appropriate. In
addition to printed catalogs and websites, most lighting manufacturers employ a
local representative to service the needs of the designer. This representative will
take the time to explain why a particular piece of lighting equipment may or may
not suit ones needs. The manufacturer’s rep can also give pricing information
and indicate shipping lead times for time sensitive jobs. One of the best things
designers can do to position themselves for good lighting knowledge is to
contact their local lighting manufacturer’s representative agency.
Lighting literature comes in all shapes and sizes and all levels of
usefulness. Manufacturers publish what they call “cut sheets” to list the various
features, options and capabilities of a lighting product. First and foremost, a
product cut sheet should give us an idea of the size, function and overall
appearance of a product. Beyond these basics, the level of information provided
by various manufacturers varies greatly from very vague to very detailed.
Generally, the more technically inclined the luminaire, the more articulate the
information. Some of our more exotic decorative luminaires provide very little
information. In order to learn to decipher these manufacturers cut sheets, we will
look at a few examples and learn how to identify the key pieces of information.
The complex and cryptic nature of lighting manufacturers’ cut sheets
should not prevent a designer from taking up lighting as a design tool. If a
designer can develop confidence in the ability to gather information from these
cut-sheets, he/she will be well armed to make confident luminaire decisions. The
ability to decipher manufacturers’ cut sheets is absolutely necessary for properly
specifying and ordering lighting equipment.
 The following is a list of features that the designer should be able to
identify from a cut sheet and put together to create a complete luminaire product
number. As the designer reads about the pieces of information that he/she is
looking for, refer back to the sample cut sheet in Figure 21.1.

PHYSICAL BASICS
The first impression of a luminaire should be its size, shape and function. It
should be readily apparent how and where this luminaire would be mounted
(surface, recessed, wall, ceiling, etc.). If the luminaire is recessed into the wall or
ceiling, the cut sheet should quickly confirm whether the luminaire will fit into
the space available. One should also get an impression of how the luminaire will
look in the space.
Figure 21.1 A typical architectural luminaire cut sheet. In this case, a recessed adjustable accent luminaire.

The cut sheet shown for reference in Figure 21.1 is for a small adjustable
accent luminaire and includes all of the various reflectors and the various
housings that can accommodate it. This is a recessed adjustable accent
luminaire. Upon first glance, it should be obvious that this piece of equipment
recesses into the ceiling plane. We should be able to identify the lamp located
within the luminaire, and the angle of the lamp should hint that this is an
adjustable / aimable luminaire. The other piece of information that should jump
out at us is the sheer size of a simple luminaire like this. This recessed accent
luminaire is a good example of how large these luminaires can get. If we look at
the cut sheet, we see that there are three different sizes of housing available for
different uses of this luminaire.

Mounting Style:
Does this luminaire recess into the ceiling?
Does this luminaire mount to the surface of a wall or ceiling?
Does this luminaire mount from a pendant or canopy?

The cut sheet in Figure 21.1 shows three different housing types for
different construction types. Recessed luminaires often have multiple housing
options to accommodate insulated (IC) and non-insulated (Non-IC) plenum
situations, which we will discuss below.

Luminaire Size and Height:

What are the luminaire dimensions?

How will the luminaire dimensions work in our space?

If this is a recessed luminaire, will it fit into our ceiling, wall or floor
assembly?

The luminaire shown in Figure 21.1 has an aperture of about 4”, which is
rather small. There are three housings available for this luminaire, ranging from
8” in height, to 11” in height. All three have a similar footprint of 14” x 10”.
These physical basics begin to show why it is so important to coordinate
recessed luminaire locations when building.

Aesthetics:
What are the colors and finishes available?
What trims, diffusers and accessories are available?

A recessed luminaire like the example in Fig 21.1 has relatively little
aesthetic impression in the space, but there are decisions to be made nonetheless.
For recessed luminaires, we must decide on the color of the reflector cone above
the ceiling and the trim ring that rests at ceiling level. The cut sheet in Figure
21.1 shows that we need to make a color specification for each of these
components. Because this luminaire holds an MR-16 lamp, we can also specify
any type of colored lens or diffusing lens to soften the light.

Light suitability:
Is the luminaire IC rated (Suitable for insulated ceilings / plenums)?
Is the luminaire listed for damp or wet locations?

Does the luminaire deliver the quality, color, and texture of light that we
are after?
Is the luminaire / lamp dimmable?
Is the source instant on / off?
Does the luminaire create excessive glare?

Is the luminaire aimable / adjustable?

The luminaire in Figure 21.1 is really nothing more than a holder for an
MR-16 lamp. As such, the lamp is going to dictate most of the light delivery
properties. The MR-16 lamp is a low voltage halogen lamp, so we know that it is
instant on and off, is easily dimmable, and is a very directional light.
IC rating is a common issue that comes up with recessed luminaires. IC
rating stands for “Insulation Contact.” It is a rating that indicates that the
luminaire housing is cool enough to be in contact with fiberglass and batt
insulation. We encounter this insulation most commonly on residential projects,
so when designing for a residence, it is always prudent to determine if the
luminaires need to be or are IC rated.

Lamp and Electrical Basics:

Are there multiple lamp / source options?
Does the luminaire require multiple lamps?
What are the luminaire voltage options?

What are the luminaire wattage limitations (Maximum wattage)?

Does the luminaire require a ballast or transformer?

The luminaire here accepts MR-16 lamps up to 75 watts for the non-IC
housing and up to 50 Watts for the IC version. The IC rated housing limits lamp
wattage to limit potential heat. Because the MR-16 lamp is a “low voltage”
source, we know that the luminaire requires a transformer. In this case, the
transformer is integral to the luminaire. Often, a luminaire will not include a
transformer, and a remote transformer will be required.

Light Output Performance:

What is the lumen output of the luminaire?
What is the efficacy / efficiency of the luminaire?
What is the distribution shape of the luminaire?
Does the cut sheet provide a distribution diagram?
How would we describe the light distribution shape? Spot, flood, accent,
wash, spread, glow, diffuse?

The luminaire in Figure 21.1 will have the properties of the MR-16 lamp
we put into it. MR-16 lamps come in all different beam spreads and candela
distributions. Because the lamp defines the light output properties, we can
probably learn more about this luminaire’s light performance from the lamp
manufacturer’s literature than we can from the luminaire cut sheet.
Regardless of how thorough or lacking the literature that is available,
remember the basics that will get us most of the way towards the right product:
How is this luminaire installed (Recessed, surface, wall mount etc.)?
What type of lamp / source does this luminaire use?
Does this luminaire require a remote driver, transformer or ballast?
What are the dimensions of the luminaire?
If a designer can successfully answer the preceding questions when faced with a
luminaire cut sheet, then he/she has a very good chance of selecting appropriate
lighting equipment. Just simply knowing that the information is somewhere on
the cut sheet gives us greater hope and confidence when we are poring over
luminaire catalogs and websites.
Chapter 22
Selecting Luminaires: A Basic Family
Every lighting project is entirely unique, and over the course of a design career,
one may find oneself becoming more proficient and familiar with certain types
of environments. Time and time, again, project situations call for the same styles
and types of lighting equipment. For this reason, we will look at a family of the
“workhorse” luminaires that commonly appear on luminaire schedules for
residential, high-design commercial and hospitality projects. Obviously, lighting
design projects span a broad spectrum. There are designers who will never have
need for any of the products mentioned here. But these tools seem to be versatile
enough to be useful as a foundation for everyone. Technologies; sources,
efficacies and code requirements are constantly changing, so be sure to stay up
to date with advancements within these basic families. When in doubt, hop
online or call your local manufacturer’s representative for up to date
information. And remember: It is always advisable to see a working sample of a
luminaire prior to specifying it on a project.

THE BASIC LUMINAIRE FAMILIES

The 4-inch Aperture Recessed Downlight
The recessed downlight is, no doubt, one of the darlings of the architectural
lighting world. This little device shows up as nothing more than a hole in the
ceiling and casts fairly directed light onto a surface below. The small version of a
downlight will usually hold an MR-16 low-voltage lamp or a line-voltage PAR-
20 lamp. There are even 4” aperture downlights that hold compact fluorescent
lamps, ceramic metal halide (CMH) lamps and of course LED’s. This small
aperture downlight will generally be useful in ceilings up to 9’-0” high. Be
warned, however, that by their very nature, downlights are fairly restrictive.
Because they place light directly down, they do not allow for precise aiming
onto vertical surfaces or specific objects. For this reason, many designers eschew
the “fixed aim” downlight altogether and instead use recessed adjustable accent
luminaires (See following pages) Some commonly-specified 4” aperture
downlights are made by Lightolier, Prescolite, Leucos, Deltalight, Prima, Capri
and Juno. Below are cut sheets and images of this type of luminaire.

Figure 22.1.1
4” aperture halogen downlight from Deltalight.

Figure 22.1.2
4” aperture LED downlight from Erco.
 Figure 22.1.3
4” aperture halogen downlight from Philips Lightolier.

Figure 22.1.4 An application featuring 4” aperture downlights.

The 6-inch Aperture Recessed Downlight

The 6 inch downlight behaves in the same way as its smaller cousin, but it
generally contains a larger lamp for more robust effects. If you are going to use a
6” aperture luminaire, make sure you are getting enough light to justify the
larger aperture. Look for a 90W-150W PAR38 halogen lamp, 70W-150W T6
ceramic metal halide lamp, or 2500-lumen LED module. Generally, these larger
downlights are a utilitarian way to get light onto the horizontal plane from
ceilings with ranging from 10’-0” to 30’-0” in height.
 Figure 22.2.1
6” aperture LED downlight from Erco.

Figure 22.2.2
6” aperture downlight from Philips Lightolier.
 Figure 22.2.3 An application featuring 6” aperture downlights.

The 4-inch and 6-inch Recessed Adjustable Accent

The recessed adjustable accent is simply a downlight that can be aimed. Its
versatility makes it one of the preferred workhorses of the lighting designer. This
luminaire can be used like a theatrical lighting device to direct a defined piece of
light onto any surface at which it is aimed. For many applications, the recessed
adjustable luminaire can act as an accent, a wall-wash, or simply as a general
downlight. They can be diffused with lens media to provide light that varies
from dramatic and harsh to soft and flattering. These luminaires are particularly
useful for “painting” pieces of light onto the specific objects and surfaces that
we have identified on our light maps (see ch.17). Some simple project spaces
can be lighted almost entirely with recessed adjustable luminaires. It is well
worth specifying an adjustable luminaire that has the aiming mechanism
recessed above the ceiling plane, rather than the all-too common “eyeball.”
Some well-known manufacturers of adjustable accents include Erco, Zumtobel,
and RSA, as well as those brands mentioned in the downlight family.
 Figure 22.3.1
4” aperture adjustable-accent halogen luminaire from Erco

Figure 22.3.2
4” aperture adjustable accent halogen luminaire from Philips Lightolier
 Figure 22.3.3
4” Aperture adjustable-accent ceramic metal halide (CMH) luminaire from Philips Lightolier

Figure 22.3.4
4” aperture adjustable-accent LED luminaire from Erco
 Figure 22.3.5
6” aperture adjustable accent halogen luminaire from Philips Lightolier.

Figure 22.3.6
6” Aperture adjustable-accent ceramic metal halide (CMH) luminaire from Philips Lightolier
 Figure 22.3.7
6” aperture adjustable-accent LED luminaire from Erco

Figure 22.3.8 An application featuring adjustable accent luminaires

The Millwork Downlight
Inevitably, there comes a need for a very small version of an adjustable accent or
downlight. As we have seen, the majority of recessed luminaires feature large
housings to contain heat. There are, however, recessed products that have
reduced housings and are suitable for building into cabinetry, millwork and
architectural details. Some commonly used products are available from Prima
lighting, DaSal lighting, and Ardee lighting.

Figure 22.4.1
Millwork “puck light” LED luminaire from Dasal.
 Figure 22.4.2
millwork “puck light” halogen luminaire from Dasal

Figure 22.4.3 millwork “puck light” halogen luminaire from Prima

 Figure 22.4.3 An application featuring millwork “puck light” luminaires

The Direct-burial or “In-grade” Floor Luminaire

This family of luminaires mounts directly into the ground or floor of a space and
casts light upwards onto walls, columns, and canopies above. It is essentially a
robust downlight mounted upside-down. Because it goes in the ground, these
luminaires must be durable, water tight and must be considered for the amount
of heat they create. They must be considered for their depth and the type of
flooring or ground (wood, earth, stone) into which they can be mounted. They
also need to be located very carefully as their installation is notoriously labor
intensive. Direct burial luminaires are also available in adjustable versions so
that they can be aimed to wash light onto a specific surface. Implementing these
luminaires is one way to introduce a unique light character into a space. Some
commonly specified versions of this type of luminaire are from Lumascape,
Lumiere, Hydrel, Kim, and Deltalight.
 Figure 22.5.1 Direct-burial halogen uplight from Deltalight.

Figure 22.5.2 Small direct-burial LED indicator uplight from Erco.

Figure 22.5.3 Direct-burial halogen uplight from Erco.

Figure 22.5.4 Direct-burial LED uplight from Erco.

 Figure 22.5.5 Direct-burial compact fluorescent (CFL) uplight from Erco.

Figure 22.5.6 An application featuring direct-burial uplights.

The Wall Mounted Uplight or “Wash Light”

These luminaires are often mounted on columns and other vertical surfaces to
accent the vertical surface and direct light upwards onto the ceiling or lid above.
They are useful for adding an ambient glow and accenting unique ceiling
architecture. These luminaires can be surface mounted to project from a surface
or can recess to create a “hole in the wall” effect. These luminaires are available
in numerous decorative styles or can disappear to have almost no impression at
all. Some commonly-specified versions of wall surface mounted uplights are
from Winona, Elliptipar and Insight. Some wall recessed versions are made by
Belfer, Energie, Eurolite and Deltalight.

Figure 22.6.1 Wall mounted halogen uplight from Deltalight.

 Figure 22.6.2 Decorative wall mounted uplight from Deltalight.

Figure 22.6.3 Wall-mounted compact fluorescent (CFL) uplight from Erco.

 Figure 22.6.4 Wall-mounted ceramic metal halide (CMH) uplight from Erco.

Figure 22.6.5 Wall-mounted “hole in the wall” uplight from Erco.

The “Glowing Disc” Area Light

Often times an afterthought, some sort of surface mounted area light should be
considered for small spaces or utility areas. Too often, these small spaces are left
to recessed luminaires that direct most of their lighting effect downward, leaving
the space dark and cave-like. A simple dish or slightly decorative disc can
provide light onto the ceiling and walls as well as downward. Some commonly-
specified versions are from Tech lighting and Eureka lighting.

Figure 22.7.1 Glowing surface mounted compact fluorescent (CFL) area light from Deltalight

Figure 22.7.2 Glowing surface mounted LED area light from Eureka
 Figure 22.7.3 Glowing, surface-mounted area light (CFL and LED) from Tech Lighting

The Residential-Grade Downlight: Compact

Fluorescent, LED and LED Retrofit
With energy consumption (efficacy), lamp-life and longevity of design rising on
the priority list, even the simplest of residential projects are being pushed
towards non-incandescent sources. The lighting program in residential spaces is
often driven by greater concern for color rendering, warm color temperatures,
minimizing glare and creating softer light textures through the use of diffusing
lenses. Recessed luminaires for residential projects must commonly provide an
insulated ceiling (IC) rated housing (see chapter 24). These criteria all add up to
a fairly specialized product, worthy of its own family. Commonly-specified
high-efficacy, residential luminaire are available from Lightolier, Iris, and Capri.
 Figure 22.8.1 Compact fluorescent (CFL) downlight from Erco

Figure 22.8.2 Compact fluorescent (CFL) downlight from Philips Lightolier

Figure 22.8.3 LED downlight from Philips Lightolier.
 Figure 22.8.4 A downlight LED retrofit / lamp replacement for downlights from Cree.

The Continuous Linear LED Luminaire

Long, continuous lines of light are fairly common design feature in
contemporary environments. The diminutive linear sources that create these
shapes of light can be smaller than 1” x 1” in profile and are often flexible and
can be cut to any length in the field. These luminaires often operate at low-
voltages that require a remote transformer or “driver”. These luminaires can
serve in coves, slots, niches, and even as under cabinet luminaires. Many mount
into slender channel brackets. Some even mount with simple sticky tape. Some
commonly-specified versions of this type of luminaire are from Tivoli, Solavanti,
ColorGlo, and Tokistar.
Figure 22.9.1 Linear LED source from Solavanti Lighting.
Figure 22.9.2 Linear LED source from Tokistar.
 Figure 22.9.3 An application featuring continuous linear sources to uplight ceiling beams.

Fluorescent Continuous Sources

For larger or more utilitarian linear applications, fluorescent sources often prove
to be a good solution. These luminaires incorporate linear or compact fluorescent
lamps mounted end–to-end to create a continuous effect. This can be
accomplished with something as simple as a bare lamp, or the luminaire may
have a reflector to direct light. These sources are commonly used in commercial
and themed environments in coves, slots, and backlight applications. Some
commonly-specified versions of this luminaire are from Belfer, Bartco, Tivoli
and Tokistar.
 Figure 22.10.1 Linear fluorescent staggered strip from Bartco

Figure 22.10.2 Continuous compact fluorescent system from Belfer.

Figure 22.10.3 Compact fluorescent staggered strip from Bartco.

Figure 22.10.4 Linear fluorescent strip from Lightolier.

 Figure 22.10.5 Modular linear fluorescent system from Deltalight.

Figure 22.10.6 An application featuring continuous linear fluorescent sources.

Low-Level Steplight
The low-level area light or “steplight” is a superb tool for delivering light
directly onto a ground plane. Too often, when a design calls for light onto the
floor, luminaires are placed up high, and, consequently, light is wasted.
Steplights can deliver focused lighting for safety on pathways and stairs.
Steplights succeed in delivering a controlled pool of light that does little to
disturb the existing lighted environment. Larger versions of this low-level area
light are used in larger settings for illuminating seating areas or exterior areas
bound by low walls.

Figure 22.11.1 Small aperture halogen steplight from Deltalight.

Figure 22.11.2 Large aperture compact fluorescent (CFL) steplight from Erco.

Figure 22.11.3 Small LED indicator steplight from Erco

 Figure 22.11.4 An application of typical steplights

This small family of luminaires is by no means comprehensive. It gives

but a glimpse of some of the more common ways to deliver light onto the
surfaces of our designs. There numerous tools for delivering light, but at the core
of design, we are still simply dealing with shapes of light, color of light, texture
of light, where that light goes, and how it gets there. Choosing architectural
luminaires should be an exercise in selecting tools to deliver lighting effects that
have already been identified through the design process. Remember that many
luminaires are often nothing more than lamp holders. A designer should be able
to recognize when the lamp is doing most of the work and when the luminaire is
more integral to the delivery of light. Hopefully, this representation of some
more common lighting tactics will broaden horizons as the designer moves on to
actually lay out and specify lighting equipment for his/her design.
Chapter 23
Switching, Dimming and Control Systems
Designing lighting control systems is an art and science in its own right.
Considering how the lighting elements in a space will be controlled is an integral
part of completing the lighting design thought process. There is a significant
chasm between simple, wall-mounted switches and the whole-building,
computer-based control systems that allow for tremendous flexibility.

Sustainability initiatives, incentives and codes have made lighting controls

increasingly important and consequently complex. A lighting designer is
expected to possess an intimate knowledge of current codes, incentives and
sustainability practices as well as the technologies available. Constant research
and staying up to date with technologies and practices is a must. On a modern
design project, documentation and troubleshooting of the lighting control system
can consume as much time as that of the light itself. But controls need not
become unwieldy. Once a designer is familiar with the baseline requirements of
local codes and the best practices employed by other designers, meeting code
requirements and implementing practical, useful lighting control technology can
become second nature.

The key to making use of these technologies is to make decisions about the
specific functionality the project needs. Design of the control systems should be
treated similarly to designing the light itself. The effects of dimming, mixing,
fading and timing functions are the components that complete a lighting
application. Lighting control systems should be chosen with a consideration for
how they can simplify the project. When lighting controls are added as a means
to provide more options and infinite flexibility, unwieldy chaos can be the result.

TYPICAL SWITCHED LIGHTING CIRCUITS

To make sense of the benefits and features of the various level of control system,
it is most helpful to understand how basic in-line “light switches” work to
control the delivery of power to luminaires.

Figure 23.1 Elevation diagram of typical electrical delivery for lighting.

In a typical electrical set-up like the basic residence in Figure 23.1,

electrical service from the utility is connected to distribution panels typically
located in a utility area on the project. From these distribution panels, the
electricity is split into branch circuits that run out to the receptacles (plugs) and
the various hard-wired luminaires on the project. The only way to interrupt
power to these devices would be to physically “open” or interrupt the branch
circuit that connects back to the panel. To control power to luminaires, this takes
the form of simple wall mounted “light switches”. The light switch is either on
(closed) and passes electricity to the lighting device, or the switch is off (open)
and electricity is not delivered. The important thing to visualize is the flow of
electricity from the panel, to the switch, and then onto the luminaire.

WALL MOUNTED LIGHTING CONTROL

DEVICES
There are also a number of wall mounted devices that can add helpful levels of
functionality to a lighting design without the expense and complexity of a
complete computer-based lighting control system.
Dimmers
Dimmers are devices that control lighting intensity. Common incandescent
dimmers simply limit the current of electricity. Low-voltage sources. LED
sources and fluorescent sources often require a dedicated dimmer matched to the
source type. Wall mounted dimmers are commonly available and serve in place
of a typical “light switch”. Increasingly, dimming devices are required by code
for lighting applications that involve incandescent or halogen incandescent
technology. They are commonly used in residential projects and are an
increasingly popular means of controlling large fluorescent applications in
special commercial spaces, event spaces and conference rooms. At their
simplest, dimmers curtail electricity waste by giving the user control over the
desired light quantity. Dimmers can also be paired with daylight sensors to
reduce electric light levels in response to available daylight.

Figure 23.2 Two versions of typical wall mounted dimmers from Lutron.

Timer Switches
A timer is a simple light switch that keeps a lighting load “on” for a set amount
of time, and then automatically turns it off. Many timers offer the ability to
modify or program the timer function.

Time Clocks
A time clock is a device with mechanical or electronic means of keeping time.
They are often mounted closer to an electrical panel to control entire circuits of
lighting. The time clock allows lighting functions to automatically occur at
specific times throughout the day. Sophisticated time clocks may also know the
time of sunrise and sunset through the seasons as well as daylight savings
changes. Controlling lighting through a time clock allows lighting functions to
be programmed to reliably activate at certain times of day throughout the year.
Time clocks are often a first level of sophistication on commercial projects as
they reduce wasted electricity by assuring that lighting applications don’t
accidentally remain “on” after business hours. Many time clocks meet the basic
control requirements of many local lighting code requirements.

Occupancy Sensors
Occupancy sensors detect
people and activity through
heat, motion, sound or
obstruction. These control
devices can often be
programmed to come on and
turn off manually or
automatically when they
detect a presence. Many
lighting efficiency codes
require that these devices be
used to automatically switch
lights off if occupancy is not Figure 23.3 An example of a typical wall mounted occupancy
detected. They are often used sensor
to turn off a portion of the
luminaires in a large area to meet code requirements addressing “uniform light
reduction” targets. They are available as integral to typical wall-mounted
switches, or as stand-alone devices for controlling entire lighting circuits.

INTELLIGENT LIGHTING CONTROL SYSTEMS

The increase in energy code requirements and sustainable design incentives had
made “whole project” controls increasingly popular and feasible. Besides fine
tuning of lighting effect, they allow implementation of many energy saving
initiatives (occupancy response, daylight response and time of day response) in a
comprehensive package.
Most of our more sophisticated lighting control systems deviate from the simple
“switching” model in an important manner. When an intelligent control system is
employed, power is delivered
from the distribution panel to
a nearby intelligent lighting
control panel (we will call it
the “lighting panel”).
Electricity then flows directly
from the “lighting panel” to
the luminaires. This means
that the primary control of
electricity flowing to a
luminaire is the intelligent
lighting panel itself. In the set-
up shown in Figure 23.5,
individual control devices like Figure 23.4 A typical Scene Controller or “Keypad”
multi-button keypads send a
signal to the lighting panel telling it to deliver electricity to the luminaire (or not
to). The biggest benefit of this type of design is that control devices can send a
signal to the lighting panel to tell it to operate any luminaire that is connected to
the lighting panel: A button on a keypad in the kitchen can tell the lighting panel
to activate the lights in the laundry room; a keypad next to the bed can tell the
lighting panel to turn on every luminaire in the house. This type of lighting
control scenario can be identified as three parts:
1. The intelligent lighting control panel (usually only one per project);

2. The control devices like multi-button keypads that replace common

light switches;
3. The groups of luminaires that we want to control together (called
“lighting loads” or “lighting zones”).

The function and design of the system branches out from this basic
concept. The lighting loads get specific names (or more likely address numbers),
and we program the lighting panel to recognize these names or addresses. We
then program the individual control devices to send the appropriate signal to the
lighting panel.
 Figure 23.5 Elevation diagram of electrical delivery for an intelligent “whole-project” lighting control
system.

In a set-up like Figure 23.5, we would program the top button of a keypad
to send a signal to the lighting panel to send power to a load in the room. In this
fashion, we can program the buttons on a keypad to control different lighting
loads to different intensities to create “scenes.” When this type of control
synchronization is distributed throughout an entire project, we call it a “whole
building” lighting control system.
Some well-known manufacturers of intelligent lighting control systems
include the following:
LC&D, Lutron, Litetouch, Vantage, and Crestron.

Localized Control Panels

Lighting control intelligence does not have to be remotely located as in Figure
23.5. Smaller control systems can be located to incorporate only the luminaires
in a single room as in Figure 23.7. These smaller, local control systems usually
control up to six lighting loads and can be connected to control devices
anywhere in the room. A typical situation may be an auditorium or a home
theater where numerous lighting loads in a space need to be controlled from
numerous locations. The local control system can reduce the number of
traditional wall-mounted light switches used and can add dimming and scene
creating abilities. A normal “switched” lighting layout for a space may look like
Figure 23.6. In this case, the wall sconces, wall-wash luminaires, steplights, and
pendants are each controlled by a light switch. A local control system would be
installed in place of the light switches. The groups of luminaires would now be
considered “lighting loads,” and each would be connected back to the local
control system.

Figure 23.6 Using standard light switches to control complex spaces can lead to an over-abundance of light
switches.
 Figure 23.7 A localized “whole room” control system can reduce clutter and confusion.

The local control system would have a set of visible buttons that would be
programmed to turn on the various lighting loads. We can keep the programming
simple and program each button to control one lighting load, or we can program
each button to activate a scene of multiple lighting loads at varying light levels.
We can also install other control devices capable of telling the local lighting
control system to activate the same scenes. Figure 23.7 shows how a space
might look when such a system is implemented. These local systems can often
be retrofit into existing lighting situations. A common candidate is a room that
has four or five wall switches in one location. Rather than fuss with each switch,
the local control system replaces all of the switches and opens up the possibility
of programming scenes and dimming levels and activating them with a single
button press.
Some common manufacturers of small, localized lighting control
systems include the following:
Watt stopper,
Lutron “Grafik Eye”, and
Crestron.
 These types of local lighting control systems can also be located far from
the lighting loads that they control. In many commercial projects, a simple local
lighting panel is used only for its built-in time-clock and all-on and all-off
functions.

All of the devices discussed here are intended to add to the functionality of a
lighting design and increasingly to tackle the two largest electricity wasters:
Lighting inadvertently left on, and excessive lighting with no local control for
reducing it. Without the consideration of these technologies, one is living in a
world of light switches on the wall that must be manually turned on and
manually turned off. A designer should consider how each lighting addition will
be controlled and whether these control technologies will provide a benefit. It is
highly advised that a designer employ the assistance of a lighting control
manufacturers’ local representative, who can assist in specifying components for
these systems.

The various levels of control capability are the crowning touch on the lighting
design in a space. A careful consideration of cost, complexity, and convenience
will dictate the appropriate lighting control system for each design.
Chapter 24
The Preliminary Lighting Layout “Redline”
“The preliminary lighting layout is where our design concepts start to become
buildable.”

Now that we have been introduced to a vocabulary of luminaire types,

applications, and control methods, we are ready to move forward in our design.
The preliminary lighting layout is the intermediate step between lighting
concepts and lighting drawings used for construction. It is an evolving layout of
lighting luminaire locations that gives the designer the opportunity to ponder and
select lighting equipment and fine-tune the locations, applications and control of
these luminaires. This preliminary layout is often referred to as a “redline
layout” because luminaire locations and notes are often marked in red pencil and
undergo numerous changes and tweaks before the document is finalized. The
redline layout is where our graphics, descriptions and calculations are translated
into individual symbols that represent specific pieces of lighting equipment.
Creating the “Redline” preliminary layout is basically the process of “solving”
the conceptual light map that has been created. A clear, well-executed light map
with notes and descriptions should pretty much solve itself, leaving the designer
with the simple task of matching lighting equipment and locations to the already-
documented lighting applications as indicated on the light map.
 Figure 24.1 The process of marking ideas (here in red) for the placement of specific lighting equipment.

The two significant tasks that are accomplished through this “redline”
layout are the locating and selecting of luminaires. These decisions will form the
basis of the final construction documents - the Lighting Plan, Luminaire
Schedule and Luminaire Cut Sheets - that will make our design buildable.
There are very few rules for the graphics and symbols used in laying out
preliminary lighting intent. The goal is simply to clarify the locations and types
of luminaires to be used in the design. If symbols alone cannot successfully
translate ideas, additional notes and comments can be used to provide more
information. Luminaire mounting dimensions and mounting heights are also a
useful addition.

THE PRELIMINARY LUMINAIRE SCHEDULE

As a designer goes through the redline layout, they will ponder over the types of
luminaires that will solve the particular lighting challenges they have mapped
out. While they are creating this preliminary layout, they should be
simultaneously creating the rough draft of their luminaire schedule. As luminaire
symbols are placed to represent lighting equipment, they should be given
luminaire “type” labels - unique names - that will serve as the coordination
between the lighting drawing and the luminaire schedule. The preliminary
luminaire schedule should be
a running list of luminaires to
be used. The list should
indicate at least the name or
“type” label and a description
for each luminaire. This
simple step will keep a
designer from repeating
luminaire types and will
streamline the luminaire
selection process.
The luminaire type
labels need to be unique to
each luminaire that ends up
being used on the job.
It is advisable to add
luminaire types and
descriptions to the preliminary
luminaire schedule as soon as Figure 24.2 Identify each unique luminaire with a “type” label
as soon as it is drawn into the space.
there is even a glimmer of
thought about what the luminaire will be. This simple step will build the
schedule incrementally and keep a clear record of the different equipment as the
designer goes through selecting lighting equipment to “solve” the lighting
applications indicated on the redline layout.
 Figure 24.3 A completed “red line” layout shows ideas for all luminaire locations and a preliminary
luminaire schedule. Each lighting application is informed directly by the light map.

The “redline layout” should act as a link from the graphics and
descriptions of the light map to the precision and clarity of the drafted lighting
plan from which the project will be built. The redline layout gives the designer
the opportunity to move luminaires and experiment with different solutions.
Chapter 25
Luminaire Schedules and Cut Sheets
The most important support documents that accompany a lighting plan are the
luminaire schedule and cut sheets that illustrate exactly what lighting equipment
is required to bring the lighting plan to life. All of the deliverable documents
must be accurate and error free, but this holds especially true for the schedule
and cut sheets, as they will inform the ordering of lighting products. On complex
projects, architects and engineers create specification documents that articulate
the specific nuances of every product and material that is necessary for the
construction of the project. The luminaire schedule and cut sheets are the
closest a lighting designer gets to true “specification”. As such, these documents
that must list products accurately and completely. The luminaire schedule is the
document that the electrical contractor will use to price, order and install the
lighting equipment. This means that a slight error in catalog number or
description can affect the budgeting, delivery and installation of every instance
of a particular luminaire type. The two secrets to a thorough luminaire schedule
are to get started early (as discussed in Chapter 24), and to check and re-check
the schedule and cut sheets for errors. By now, readers have seen enough
manufacturers’ literature to know that the catalog numbers for lighting products
can become rather lengthy and complex. A simple typo can cause a product to be
delivered in the wrong size, the wrong color, or not at all.

THE LUMINAIRE SCHEDULE

The sample luminaire schedule shown in Figure 25.1 includes most of the
pertinent information one would need to provide for a project. Each category has
critical information that must be presented in a manner that makes things clear
and obvious. The contents of the various categories of information are discussed
here.

Heading
The first piece of information that should go on a luminaire schedule is the name
of the project and the date the schedule was created. With so many projects
going on at once, and so many changes being made to luminaire selections, this
labeling ensures that those involved with the project are referring to the correct
document. The heading should also include the name of the firm or individual
preparing the document so that those involved in the project know whom to
contact with questions.

Luminaire Type Labels

Luminaire type labels will connect all of the luminaire symbols on the lighting
plan to the specific pieces of equipment that they represent as defined by the
luminaire schedule. Designers can use whatever “type” logic makes sense for the
project. Often a two or three digit or alphanumeric code is employed. To keep
luminaire selections clear, it is advisable to give a unique type to every variation
of every piece of lighting equipment. Even if the variation is simply a lens, lamp
type, or finish color, it should warrant a unique luminaire type.

Luminaire Manufacturer
This indicates who the product is made by and where specific questions
regarding mounting, installation and electrification should be directed. Be sure to
list the true manufacturer of the product, not a third party vendor who is
supplying the luminaire.
 Figure 25.1 The luminaire schedule lists the information a contractor needs to price and order all of the
luminaires.

Catalog Number
The most important piece of information to accurately list is the product code
that will be used to price and order the equipment. The catalog number is usually
full of letters and numbers that indicate specific finishes, colors, mounting styles,
and other options. Any small errors in catalog number will come back to cause
larger problems during construction.

Lamp Specification
The schedule should include information on the quantity and type of lamp
required for the luminaire. Sometimes it will be necessary to list a specific lamp
product. Other times it will suffice to list the desired wattage and source type. It
is always good practice to make sure that the lamp specification provides
information about color-rendering index (CRI) and color temperature (CCT) to
ensure that a suitable product is used.

Voltage
There are many voltages that service lighting projects. 120 volts is common line
voltage for residences in the US, but it cannot be assumed. Larger commercial
projects and projects that house heavy machinery often use 277 Volts as the
primary voltage. The luminaires specified for a project must be designed to
operate at the voltage that will be provided on the job. This is one of the first
pieces of information that should be confirmed with the electrical engineer or
contractor on the job. Luminaires that use low-voltage lamps typically require
electricity delivered at 12 or 24 volts. These low voltages generally require that a
transformer be integral to the luminaire or located nearby.

Mounting style
This piece of information will help an electrical contractor prepare the site for
the luminaire well before it arrives. It can also head off any major conflicts with
building conditions and space constraints.

Locations
This simple description of where the luminaire is actually used on the project
will save hours of looking for luminaire symbols on the lighting plan later.

Notes
This area is for any additional clarification information. The most common notes
that show up on a luminaire schedule are related to ballasts and transformers that
need to be provided, IC housing requirements, and wet-listing designations. This
is the place to put information that is essential to the successful installation of the
luminaire.
Remember that all of this information will serve the designer and the
electrical contractor on the job. The electrical contractor is a necessary ally on a
lighting design job and efforts put towards clarifying the contractor’s job will
benefit the design project as a whole.

LUMINAIRE CUT SHEETS

To take the job of providing clear information a step further, a lighting designer
includes job specific cut sheets to accompany the other construction documents.
These sheets are usually some form of the manufacturers’ luminaire literature put
into a format that will benefit the lighting design project. Many manufacturers
include blank spaces on their literature so that designers can turn them into job
specific cut sheets very easily.
 Figure 25.2 A manufacturer’s cut sheet often provides space for the inclusion of project-specific
information.

Like the luminaire schedule, cut sheets are a direct link between the
symbols and “type” labels on the lighting plan and a specific piece of lighting
equipment. A good cut sheet helps a contractor be certain that the luminaire that
is about to be installed does, indeed, belong. It is a good idea to include on the
cut sheet information directly from the luminaire schedule, such as catalog
number and lamp information. Some manufacturers’ literature will show
multiple luminaires or options on the same page. In these cases, is it very helpful
for the designer to highlight or draw attention to the specific piece of equipment
being specified. Figure 25.3 is a customized cut sheet made for a specific job.
The manufacturer’s information was simply downloaded from a website and
inserted into the blank cut sheet. It is certainly worth a designer’s time to
develop a blank template that serves this purpose while providing project
specific design information.
Figure 25.3 A custom luminaire cut sheet created by the designer for a specific project
Chapter 26
The Lighting Plan
The drafted lighting plan is the finalized construction document that will be used
on the job site for the location and installation of all lighting related equipment.
The lighting plan is a formally-drafted construction document that must provide
specific information clearly enough to allow a contractor to actually build the
design.
A proper lighting plan is a tool for construction; it is not a tool for design. At this
point a designer is merely translating information from a highly-evolved light
map and redlined preliminary lighting layout. The drafted version is simply a
finalized drawing that clarifies everything and facilitates the construction
process. A final drafted lighting plan will ideally show all of the lighting
equipment on a job; lighting installed in the ceiling, lighting in the walls,
lighting in floors, millwork and niches. If a device creates light, it should show
up on the lighting plan. It is advisable to not use a reflected ceiling plan as the
basis for a lighting plan as lighting equipment typically has much more
relationship to floor and furniture conditions than to ceiling conditions. A
preferable method for many jobs is to start with a furniture plan and add
pertinent ceiling information to create a suitable architectural background. The
final lighting plan truly is a tool for the builder. Remember: The construction
phase of a project is where actual lighting equipment will be priced, purchased
and installed. It is by far the costliest phase of a project. Errors and
miscommunications are equally costly. The job of the final lighting plan is to
eliminate any opportunities for confusion, mistakes or misunderstandings. There
is plenty of room to tweak the formula and add or subtract to make the lighting
plan work for each individual, but the following ingredients represent the “must-
have’s”

Luminaire Symbols
These can be of any design. They can relate literally or loosely to the shape of
the luminaire. It is encouraged, however, to draft these symbols to represent the
actual size of the luminaire if one is drafting a plan at ¼” = 1’-0” or ⅛” = 1’-0”
scale. If one is drafting a plan at a very small scale, it is advisable to size the
symbols so that they are clearly visible. Figure 26.1 presents a sample legend of
commonly-used luminaire symbols.

Luminaire Type Labels

There is plenty of room to invent convenient and helpful ways to tag luminaires
on the lighting plan. The safest and simplest is to put the luminaire type next to
every single occurrence of every luminaire on the lighting plan. More technically
oriented lighting plans may include information like wattage and source type,
but for a basic lighting plan, clarity of luminaire “type” and the ability to
reference a luminaire symbol back to the luminaire schedule is paramount.
COMMON LUMINAIRE SYMBOLS

Figure 26.1 Common luminaire symbols used on drafted lighting plans

Figure 26.2 “Type” labels or tags are crucial for referencing a drafted symbol to a specific luminaire on the
luminaire schedule.

Notes
Don’t be stingy with the application of lighting related notes on the plan. If there
is any ambiguity, clarify it with a note in plain language. When we rely on a
single plan to show luminaires in ceilings, walls, and millwork, notes are
imperative for clarifying where a piece of equipment actually belongs and what
it is doing there. A simple note at the end of a leader can save numerous phone
calls and coordination headaches.

Dimensions
Placement of lighting equipment is a relatively exact science, so it is preferable
to note exact locations of luminaires with clear dimensions. Luminaires for
accenting, wall washing, linear slots and coves all may warrant the addition of
dimensions that refer back to nearby architectural elements.
Control Intent
The lighting designer is also responsible for translating which luminaires are
controlled together (turned on, turned off and dimmed) and where that control
takes place. Most lighting control intent takes the form of arcs connecting
luminaires to wall switch devices or numbers and letters keyed to wall-switch
devices. Control intent can get a little more complex when we integrate
intelligent control systems and scene control devices as covered in Chapter 23.

Figure 26.3 Notes and leader clarify any ambiguities.

Figure 26.4 Dimensions ensure that luminaires are implemented properly.

 Figure 26.5 Numbered lighting control zones and keypads (left) take the place of traditional switching
symbols (right) when a control system is implemented.

Luminaire Schedule or Legend

If one has the means, it is
helpful to include the entire
luminaire schedule as a
drawing sheet that gets
submitted along with the
lighting plan. This clarity will
ensure that this information is
always available.
In addition to the
luminaire schedule, a basic
legend like the one shown in
Figure 26.6 can be helpful to
explain some of the other
symbols used on a lighting
Figure 26.6 A simple legend can help clarify various lighting
plan. It is common practice to related symbols.
create a legend that clarifies
not only luminaire symbols, but controls devices and details.

Detail Callouts.
Many lighting applications are simply too cumbersome to be understood in plan.
When this is the case, we develop lighting details that show specific construction
situations and dimension in a very precise manner. These details will usually
occupy a dedicated drawing sheet. Numerous examples of typical lighting details
appear in Chapter 29.

Figure 26.7 (example of detail callout)

As with any other construction drawing, proper formatting will add the
finishing touches that will get the lighting plan the respect it deserves. The
construction documents that come out of the studio are the only product that
much of the project team gets to see. Development materials - sketches,
renderings and light maps - can lead to great design, but it is all for naught if the
construction documents are not complete, correct and easy to use. In the end, the
construction of a project relies heavily on these few black and white drawings
and how easy they are to translate into a built environment.
Figure 26.8 A completed drawing sheet of a lighting plan for a commercial project, including lighting
details and title block.

Figure 26.9 A completed lighting sheet for a residential project, including legend and notes.
Chapter 27
Lighting Layouts for Residential Spaces
The following chapter includes lighting tactics commonly found in typical
residential spaces. The point of typical layouts is really just to lend some
familiarity and a jumping-off point. Every project has unique programming
criteria that must be thoroughly understood. It is good practice to dissect any and
all lighting layouts that one comes across to gain a familiarity with the various
techniques available. The lighting layouts in this chapter are annotated to
describe what lighting principles are at work. Take such “typical” layouts with a
grain of salt. Regardless of how many times the same space is lighted in the
same manner, it always behooves the designer to investigate all of the available
lighting options.


Layout 1
Lighting a Residential Dining Room

A residential dining room is a good opportunity to make use of different textures

and intensities of light. A formal dining room has very few critical tasks, so
lighting decisions can focus on environmental effect. Like many rooms, the
fundamental light elements of a dining room are the vertical surfaces that will
define the brightness of the space and the accented objects that will create visual
interest and add a unique character. Softness, warmth, and intimacy are usually
the desired qualities. These can be accomplished through uncommon tactics,
such as uplighting from the floor or walls, as well as more traditional pendants
and recessed luminaires. Even in its simplest form, dining room lighting should
be more than a single decorative pendant. At the very least, luminaires should be
dedicated to painting light onto the table and vertical surfaces to allow a
balancing act between task and ambient light levels

Common Features
1. Recessed adjustable halogen luminaires cast light onto the objects that
adorn the back wall.
2. An incandescent or fluorescent decorative pendant can serve as the
main focal element in a dining area. It serves as a glowing object to draw
attention and ultimately congregate around. Decorative elements are at
their best when they are free to be dimmed to an appropriate level for
ambience and mood.
3. Recessed adjustable halogen luminaires (ideally with diffusing lenses)
at the table provide light for eating and rendering the faces of the diners.
Implementing these luminaires frees up the decorative pendant to serve
only as ambience and décor.
4. Incandescent or compact fluorescent, Wall-mounted decorative sconces
or, better yet, wall-mounted uplights add a layer of diffuse light.
5 and 6. Additional adjustable halogen luminaires paint pools of light
onto the other important objects in the room and create more visual
interest through contrast.
7. Wall dimmers or a localized lighting control system can be used to
control any loads that can be dimmed. The flexibility that dimming adds to
a space will facilitate the creation of different evironments for different
moods and uses.

Addressing Layers
Choreography: The decorative pendant serves to anchor the space and create a
clear draw and area for gathering. The lighted character of the back wall will
serve as the visual goal compelling a visitor to move towards the space.
Mood and Ambience: Multiple textures can be created by implementing various
diffusing sources. Wall-mounted uplights lend a softness, and the decorative
pendant contributes to the mood and atmosphere Accenting: Crisp pieces of
accent light cast onto art or furniture objects provide visual logic and
interest through contrast. A brilliant pool of light onto the surface of the
table itself will serve to accent the objects on the table and create a bright
 plane in the space.
Revealing Architecture: Wall mounted uplights add volume contribute to an all-
encompassing glow that expands the space. The central pendant can also
cast light upward to illuminate the ceiling above.
Task Lighting: Dedicated recessed adjustable luminaires paint pools of light onto
the surface of the table as well as the buffet or any other task-related
furniture. The recessed luminaires and pendant at the dining table also serve
to illuminate the faces of the diners.


Layout 2
Lighting a Residential Kitchen

The residential kitchen is a place not only for food preparation, but socializing
and gathering. The kitchen island often becomes a multi-purpose task surface
used for studying and quick dining. The program for such a space is certainly not
purely task driven. Lighting ingredients should draw people to the space and
contribute to the mood.

Common Features
 1. 6” aperture recessed downlights help to create an above average
illuminance level throughout the space so that tasks can be accomplished
anywhere. These could be incandescent, halogen, or carefully-selected
compact fluorescent luminaires.
2. Under-cabinet luminaires provide localized task lighting on counter
tops. These could be linear incandescent, linear halogen, linear
fluorescent or individual puck lights.
3. Incandescent or compact fluorescent decorative pendants direct light
onto the island task surface. They should direct light downward in
addition to simply glowing.
4. A small aperture recessed adjustable halogen luminaire or fluorescent
downlight can augment light levels over the sink area.
5. Switches to activate task specific lighting can be located near the area
they serve.

Addressing Layers
Choreography: Decorative pendants over the island can serve as a focal point
and a point of gathering to draw people into the space. Lighting the vertical
surfaces of the back walls can also help create an inviting atmosphere.
Mood and Ambience: The glow or sparkle of the decorative pendants can serve
to reduce the scale of the space and create a more intimate area. Sources
should also be warm in color temperature to contribute to an inviting
feeling.
Accenting: Light washed down the face of cabinetry can create visual interest
and hierarchy. A distinct pool of light onto the island surface can also serve
as the bright centerpiece of the space.
Revealing Architecture: The pendants over the island serve to reduce the scale
and break up the volume of the space. The under cabinet luminaires can
create a band of light that breaks up the surfaces of the back wall.
Task Lighting: Under-cabinet luminaires serve to put light directly on the task
surface where it is needed. Small pendants cast task lighting onto the task
surface of the island. These two applications eliminate the need to create task
level lighting throughout the space.


Layout 3
Lighting a Residential Bathroom

Even a simple bathroom should be treated with care to create a space that serves
all of the functional needs while creating an environment for long-term comfort.
Lighting the vertical surfaces will dramatically improve the perception of
brightness, and a few, well-placed accents can add some sparkle and elegance to
the space.

Common Features
1. Diffuse decorative sconces at the vanity are the first line of defense for
making the space functional and inviting. Even with today’s energy
concerns, it is worth working to find a way to stick with incandescent or
halogen sources to ensure good color rendering and pleasing color
temperature.
2. A small aperture recessed halogen luminaire can serve as additional
vanity lighting to accent the area and provide additional task light
3. Additional recessed adjustable halogen or fluorescent wall wash
 luminaires can paint light onto art-work or simply illuminate vertical
surfaces. Light across from the vanity can reduce contrast by creating a
luminous background for looking at one’s self in the mirror.
4. A fan and light combination unit is a reasonable way to dedicate light
to the toilet area.
5. The shower or tub should have its own dedicated source of light. This
incandescent or fluorescent luminaire must be suitable for use in wet
areas.

Addressing Layers
Choreography: Even a simple bathroom should have areas of brightness to
determine a visual order. Self-Luminous sconces and a pool of accent light
at the vanity serve as the bright core.
Mood and Ambience: Diffuse decorative sconces at the vanity serve to define a
soft mood. Light onto the back wall and at the toilet create a heightened
light level to make the space more inviting.
Accenting: Recessed accent luminaires can create pools of light to show off the
vanity hardware, art on the walls, and even the toilet itself.
Revealing Architecture: Glowing wall sconces help to volumize the space. Even
the recessed luminaire in the shower can add to the perceived depth of the
space
Task Lighting: The vanity is a critical task area, where light sources should be
chosen for texture and color rendering. Lighting at the vanity must provide
soft, diffuse light from above and below with excellent color-rendering
capability for revealing faces. The even qualities of vanity lighting can also
be enhanced by using light-colored surfaces to reflect light. The shower
should also get a dedicated light source to aid in all of the important tasks
related to keeping clean.


Layout 4
Lighting a Residential Bedroom

The residential bedroom is a good example of a space with few driving task
criteria, but plenty of need for versatility. The lighting system in a bedroom
needs to be able to cast light effectively onto tasks, like dressing and reading. All
of the lighting ingredients need to contribute to the generally inviting and
comfortable feeling. The bedroom can survive with a few lighted vertical
surfaces and a few accented objects. Additions of decorative light or uplight can
be implemented to add volume and warmth to the space. The various lighting
loads should be independently controlled so that different moods can be created
for different times of day and different uses.
Common Features
1. A surface-mounted glowing dish serves to cast a quantity of diffuse
light to all reaches of the space. This luminaire is a good place to
integrate fluorescent lamps.
2. Recessed adjustable halogen luminaires paint light onto artwork and
the vertical surfaces of the space as well as areas for dressing or the head
of the bed for reading.
3. Wall mounted halogen or fluorescent uplights cast light onto the ceiling
to expand the space. These luminaires are a good place to integrate
fluorescent lamps.
4. A dedicated incandescent or compact fluorescent floor lamp or
recessed luminaire provides ample lighting for reading and creates an
attractive nook for relaxing.
5. Linear fluorescent luminaires mounted to the backside of the closet
header can be activated by a door jamb switch to turn on whenever the
closet is opened. The luminaires are out of sight and lend a nice glow for
navigating the contents of the closet.

Addressing Layers
Choreography: Washing light onto art and the back surfaces of the room helps to
draw in the eye. Accenting the reading nook creates an inviting area of
respite. The glowing table lamps and floor lamp also create objects that
draw attention and create hierarchy.
Mood and Ambience: Wall-mounted uplights brighten the ceiling and create an
open, inviting space. The glowing lamps and the center glowing dish
contribute to the intimate feeling. The warmth of incandescent sources or
carefully-selected fluorescent sources will create a desired mood.
Accenting: Recessed accent luminaires cast pools of light onto artwork, reading
areas and the various furniture elements in the space. Each serves to add
visual interest and contrast to the space. The decorative lamps also add a bit
of sparkle.
Revealing Architecture: Accent luminaires paint light onto the back walls to give
a perception of depth, while the wall-mounted uplights and center glowing
dish wash light on to the ceiling surface to expand the space and reduce the
feeling of confinement.
Task Lighting: Reading in bed is accommodated through recessed adjustable
luminaires or typical bedside table lamps. The vanity desk or dresser also
receives dedicated task light from above. Closets benefit from dedicated
luminaires so that they do not depend on the ambient light from the bedroom
itself.


Layout 5
Lighting a Residential Living Room

The residential living room sees frequent use and accommodates a number of
different activities. The primary program calls for a space that is inviting and
comfortable for long spells of socializing. The lighting ingredients should donate
multiple textures of light; directional accents to create visual interest and
obvious areas of activity, as well as diffuse light that lends soft ambience for
long term visual comfort. The living room should also be capable of providing
low-level ambient lighting for television viewing. The various lighting loads
should all be independently controlled so that the space can serve the various
functions.

Common Features
1. Recessed adjustable halogen luminaires balance light between the surface
 of the coffee table and the social seating area.
2. Wall-mounted halogen or fluorescent uplights create volume and inviting
softness. The luminaires provide a low level of ambient light without casting
light directly onto the television.
3. Small-aperture recessed adjustable halogen luminaires accent the hearth of
the fireplace to create visual interest and a choreographic goal.
4. Recessed halogen luminaires paint light onto the various furniture and
secondary task areas in the space.

Addressing Layers
Choreography: Light cast onto the fireplace acts as a focal element to draw
attention. Pools of light onto the coffee table create an attractive area for
gathering and socializing.
Mood and Ambience: Wall-mounted uplights cast soft, warm light onto the
ceiling to create an enveloping comfortable space. Distinct pools of accent
light onto wall objects and furniture serve to brighten up areas and create a
“lived-in” feeling.
Accenting: Recessed adjustable luminaires paint light onto the fireplace, art and
furniture to create visual interest and hierarchy.
Revealing Architecture: Accented vertical surfaces serve to expand the perimeter
of the space, while upward directed light adds volume and an evenly-lighted
ambient atmosphere. Light painted onto the coffee table and fireplace keep
the attention down at a human level.
Task Lighting: Recessed luminaires push light down onto the central area for
reading and rendering faces for socializing.
Chapter 28
Lighting Layouts for Commercial Spaces
Commercial spaces tend to be areas where visual tasks take priority. This does not, however, preclude their
need for thoughtful application of light for the sake of emotional state. It is increasingly common to find
work spaces that recognize the impact that environmental comfort has on productivity. Work environments
also commonly support multiple uses, serving workers as they move from computer tasks to physical layout
tasks, filing, reading and writing. The most successful work environments are those that keep a space fresh
by accommodating different lighting feelings throughout a workday. Task-focused lighting too-often takes
the form of a uniform texture of downward directed light. The addition of lighting ingredients that alter
mood in a space and reveal the architecture can greatly improve upon an otherwise drab and lifeless
environment. Remember that the layouts here are just some common tactics. A successful lighting design is
a thoughtful lighting design where the program of the space is considered, along with all available lighting
options.


Layout 1
Lighting Open Office Space

Open office spaces often suffer under the uniform treatment of task light directed
downward. The monotony of the single light texture can cause eye strain and
mental fatigue. The inclusion of multiple light textures can improve the long-
term comfort of such spaces. Lighting the perimeter of open office spaces also
works wonders to create a space that feels bright and lively. Office lighting
systems must also be designed to minimize visible lamps and glare that can
interfere with computer screens and sensitive tasks. Work spaces that are
computer-focused may even benefit from a lower overall ambient light level to
avoid a hazy reflection in the screens. Spaces that are more concerned with
diversity of tasks and interaction with documents and graphic materials benefit
from changeable lighting effects and emphasis on the color-rendering
capabilities of the light sources. Integrating daylight harvesting adds an
additional level of complexity to the situation.

Common Features
1. Linear fluorescent pendants distribute light up onto the ceiling and
downward. The combination of textures avoids an overly diffuse
experience and eliminates visibility of bare lamps. The luminaires are
mounted 18” to 24” from the ceiling to allow light to spread evenly over
the ceiling plane.
2. Recessed fluorescent wall wash luminaires mounted 18” to 24” from
the wall create a bright vertical surface to enhance the perception of
brightness in the space and define the perimeter
3. Localized fluorescent or halogen under cabinet task luminaires at each
work station provide a directional source to punch thought the haze of the
general office-wide light. The task light can also be selected to provide
improved color rendering. These luminaires are independently controlled
by each workspace occupant.
4. 2’ × 2’ or 2’ × 4’ acoustical ceiling tiles are a common finish in
commercial spaces. These tiles often restrict the layout or types of
luminaires that can be used in the space. An indirect lighting system must
consider the reflectance of these ceiling tiles.

Addressing Layers
Choreography: Long lines of linear fluorescent luminaires create a pattern that
directs an already symmetric space. A row of recessed wall wash luminaires
creates an additional bright vertical surface to draw attention through the
space.
Mood and Ambience: Individual work stations have the benefit of more
directional, color rendering, localized task lighting to punch through the
diffuse lighting created by pendant-mounted indirect luminaires. Fluorescent
lamps with good color rendering indices (80+) provide reasonably accurate
color rendition. Color temperature is selected to complement the color
palette of the materials and finishes.
Accenting: Wall wash luminaires provide a punch of light onto the vertical wall
surfaces. Local task lighting provides directional light at each work station.
Revealing Architecture: Long lines of indirect linear fluorescent luminaries
complement the linear nature of the lay-in ceiling tiles and the arrangement
of the workstations. Luminaires are mounted perpendicular to the long axis
of the room to avoid an overly-long, bowling alley effect.
Task Lighting: Linear fluorescent, direct-indirect pendants create a combination
of diffuse and downward-directed light for long-term visual comfort.
Localized task lighting at each work station accommodates critical tasks and
provides improved color rendering.


Layout 2
Lighting a Private Office

A private office serves as an area of industry and an area of respite. It must play
the part of a work station while also serving as a meeting room and thinking
environment. The lighting systems must be versatile to create varying
environmental effects. A typical professional may spend more time in a private
office than any other space. Different light texture, bright vertical surface and
control over individual lighting zones help to serve all of these functions.

Common Features
1. Well-designed 2’ × 2’ fluorescent troffers provide a directional
downlight component and a diffuse spread of area light. Recessed indirect
 2’ × 2’ luminaires might also provide a desirable light texture.
2. Compact fluorescent wall wash luminaires around the perimeter define
the space and add to the perceived brightness.

Addressing Layers
Choreography: A wash of light on the back wall directs attention through the
space. Heightened light levels on the desk surface and other furnishings
provide visual interest and hierarchy.
Mood and Ambience: Multiple textures are achieved through the combination of
more direct wall wash luminaires and diffuse linear fluorescent troffers. The
2’ × 2’ troffers in this space create a downward directed light component that
has directional and diffuse qualities.
Accenting: Wall wash luminaires can serve to accent art on the walls. The
directional component of the troffers casts a crisp light onto the desk surface
below, creating a lighted centerpiece to the room.
Revealing Architecture: The wall wash luminaires help to expand the perimeter
of the space by brightening the vertical surfaces.
Task Lighting: Diffuse and direction light textures combine over the desk area to
provide comfortable lighting for visual tasks, as well as conversing with
colleagues.


Layout 3
Lighting a Conference Room

Corporate conference rooms serve as areas of congregation that bring colleagues

together to discuss business and build camaraderie. These spaces also act as the
calling card that defines the image of the business to outsiders. Conference
rooms serve a multitude of uses from business dealings to presentations,
luncheons and video conferencing. The lighting systems in a conference room
should be dynamic and easy to control to create different lighting environments.
The luminaires in a conference room also tend to have an aesthetic appeal, fitting
of the image that the company wants to convey.

Common Features
1. A decorative, direct/indirect pendant casts light up into the coffer
volume and down onto the conference table and the faces of the
occupants.
2. Staggered linear fluorescent strips serve as an uplighting cove to fill the
coffer with light that inter-reflects to cast diffuse light into the core of the
space.
3. Compact fluorescent, recessed wall-wash luminaires add the necessary
perimeter brightness to soften the space and increase the perception of
brightness.
4. Acoustic ceiling tiles may dictate the layout of some luminaires and
must be considered for how they will reflect light back into the space.

Addressing Layers
Choreography: The conference table is, appropriately, the obvious organizing
element of the space. Linear fluorescent pendants overhead serve as bright
objects to draw attention, as well as to light the conference table. A ceiling
cove system creates a bright halo above this gathering area.
Mood and Ambience: The multiple textures of light create areas of distinct
gathering importance. The soft uplight of the cove and the brightness of the
pendants and the lighted table create a sense of severity and importance.
Perimeter lighting helps to lighten the mood when necessary.
Accenting: The pendants and the table surface are the notable elements of visual
interest and organization. The wall wash luminaires can also serve to accent
art work or graphics on the wall.
Revealing Architecture: Wall wash luminaires serve to define the perimeter of
the space while the central cove creates height and a focal element to anchor
the space.
Task Lighting: Various textures are at work to provide different types of light at
the conference table for reading tasks, as well as rendering occupants.
Conference rooms intended for video conferencing need additional layers of
controllable light to render occupants, as well as balance out the brightness
of the background.


Layout 4
Lighting a Reception Area

A reception area is often the first point of contact for an outsider and defines
much of the identity of a facility and a company. These spaces must be, at once,
welcoming and comfortable, not to mention impressive and intriguing. Defining
distinct zones of use within the reception are a helps to organize the space by
creating points of specific interaction. Seating areas, display areas, and task areas
all deserve unique lighting characters and their own physical space. Decorative
elements and attention to corporate signage work wonders to enhance the appeal
of reception areas. Light sources should also be chosen with concern for color
rendering and color temperatures that are complementary to the color palette and
materials involved in the décor.

Common Features
1. Incandescent or fluorescent decorative pendants add sparkle, reduce
scale and put light onto the task surface below them.
2. Compact fluorescent, recessed wall wash luminaires paint light onto the
back wall and any signage that may be there.
3. Incandescent or fluorescent, decorative pendants draw visitors to the
seating area, creating visual interest and reducing the scale of the space.
A little bit of decorative character goes a long way to create a welcome
environment.
4. Recessed, fluorescent troffers can create a volume of diffuse lighting
necessary to enliven the transition from outside to inside. Recessed,
indirect luminaires can be specified to provide a combination of diffuse
light without the sterile, corporate feeling of traditional parabolic troffers.

Addressing Layers
Choreography: A pattern of recessed luminaires creates brightness onto the floor
that surrounds an occupant in brightness upon entry. Light painted onto the
back wall serves as the visual goal and draws visitors through the space or
into the space if the entry has glass doors or walls. A row of decorative
pendants can also create a visual curtain that stops progress at the point of
interaction with the receptionist. Wall wash luminaires and pendants also
draw attention to the seating areas on the periphery.
Mood and Ambience: Multiple light textures liven-up the space and create a
welcoming experience. Light painted onto the walls increases the perception
of brightness. Pendants add a human scale and a touch of sparkle and a
comfortable diffuse quality of light at the entry point.
Accenting: Recessed wall wash luminaires place light onto the art and graphics
on the vertical surfaces. Decorative pendants catch the eye and push light
down onto furniture and horizontal surfaces as points of visual interest.
Revealing Architecture: Light onto the back wall defines the length of the space
while lighted vertical surfaces expand the perimeter. Decorative pendants
drop specific areas down to a human scale.
Task Lighting: Accented signage on the back wall lends corporate identity.
Pendants draw light onto the receptions desk and the seating area tables.
Chapter 29
Common Lighting Details
To implement lighting design that transcends the status-quo yet is still
constructible, a fair amount of time and effort must be put into refining the
construction details of each lighting application. Many lighting effects are the
result of precision and subtlety. Without the proper considerations, unusual
lighting applications can become sources of glare or simply wasted electricity.
To understand what is possible with light, it is important that a designer have a
fair understanding of typical construction methods. Every project has unique
conditions which will accommodate certain types of lighting integration better
than others. Knowledge of issues such as plenum space, framing construction
type and wall thickness will affect lighting options. Remember that every project
is unique, and the details presented here are for reference only. Be sure to
coordinate with the design team to develop lighting applications that will work
for the specific project
A wall or ceiling-integrated cove is a great way to volumize a space by casting
light up onto the ceiling plane above. This kind of clean shape of light can
harmonize well with the geometry of the space and lend a soft, enveloping light.
Coves can be implemented with a variety of linear sources, including linear
fluorescent, linear incandescent and linear LED sources.

Keys to Success:
Socket shadow that occurs where luminaires butt against one another is a
common problem. Consider whether the light has room to spread out, or
whether the luminaires should be staggered to overlap and eliminate these
dark areas.
Geometry of the cove should create an opening large enough for light to
leave, as well as for maintenance of the luminaires.
Cove-specific luminaires exist, which incorporate reflectors and optics that
drive light out of a cove in a very efficient manner.
 Cove geometry should be designed to eliminate the possibility of lamp
visibility.

Wall slots integrate continuous linear sources concealed and directed downward
to create a wash of brightness on the vertical surfaces of a space. These bands
and planes of light can break up a space and add to the perception of lightness by
disconnecting the walls from the ceiling.

Keys to Success:
Socket shadow that occurs where luminaires butt against one another is a
common problem. Consider whether the light has room to spread out or
whether the luminaires should be staggered to overlap and eliminate these
dark areas.
Geometry of the slot should create an opening large enough for light to
leave as well as for maintenance of the luminaires.
Cove-specific luminaires exist, which incorporate reflectors and optics that
drive light out of a slot in a very efficient manner.
Slot geometry should be designed to eliminate the possibility of lamp
 visibility
Consider the materials and craftsmanship of the wall being lighted. Because
of their grazing nature, wall slots tend to show off imperfections. Beware of
specular or shiny wall surfaces as they tend to reflect images of the lamp.

Under cabinet lighting is a good way to localize task light. This can be
accomplished with a variety of source types, but color rendering and color
temperature should always be a priority.

Keys to Success:
Under cabinet lighting should be accomplished with a solid front luminaire
or include a fascia or proper geometry to eliminate the possibility of lamp
visibility.
Under cabinet systems can include local switching at the task location or
may be controlled from typical wall switch locations.
Under cabinet systems can utilize luminaires as small as 1” × 1” linear
incandescent or more robust puck lights and linear fluorescent sources.
If linear fluorescent lamps are used for under cabinet light, they should be
specified with good color rendering and color temperature in mind.
 Consider the location for the transformer that is required for the low voltage
sources commonly used.

Suspended soffit panels and floating lids are good ways to reduce the scale of
space and cast a volumizing light upward. Such systems can be very simple
structurally and can make use of common sources like linear fluorescent strips.
With the addition of inexpensive color filters, a dropped lid can transform the
mood and spatial effect of a space very thoroughly. Dropped soffits can serve as
the anchor for seating areas, office work stations and retail displays.

Keys to Success:
Consider the geometry and location of the luminaires to eliminate the
possibility of lamp visibility.
Consider the material above the soffit. It should be reflective enough to
spread the light back into the room. Specular (shiny) surfaces should be
avoided as they will reflect the image of the lamps or luminaires.
The suspension distance should be considered to ensure that light has room
to inter-reflect within the space.
Luminaire placement should be studied to ensure even lighting without
apparent stripes or hot spots.
Backlit walls and large glowing panels add a lightness that transcends typically
constructed spaces. The challenge with large scale applications is achieving an
even plane of light that truly appears to be self-luminous.

Keys to Success:
Ample space behind the backlit panel must be available for light to diffuse
evenly.
Maintenance and access must be designed into the panel system.
The diffusing properties of the panel material will dictate the geometry and
luminaire layout. Be sure to mock-up the application with the specific
material that will be used.
Millwork integrated lighting creates a very distinct and attention drawing display
element. This type of feature is commonly used for retail display and food and
beverage display.

Keys to Success:
Consider the heat output of the light source and how it will affect the object
being lighted.
Subtle changes in source location will affect the light quality and should be
studied and mocked-up.
Display lighting can be accomplished with a single line of light; both top
and bottom light, individual puck lights or a combination of treatments as
shown here.
Consider the location for the transformer that is required for the low-
voltage sources commonly used.
Chapter 30
Daylight and Electric Light Integration
Details
Some of the best lighting details are those that combine the effects of daylight
and electric light sources. The human affinity for the quality, color and texture of
daylight crosses over to electric light applications that can mimic these same
traits. Well thought-out details that manage to fuse the two together can create
remarkable lighting effects that can define a space. These details have a dynamic
character that will change through the course of a day while maintaining a
desirable effect.
If the electric light component can be put on a dimmer, a photo-sensor
that detects variation in light levels can be implemented to control the exact
quantity of electric light being contributed to augment the daylight. Such
systems ensure that the electric light is not wasted.
Typical skylights can be augmented with the addition of upward-directed light
sources. The electric light system can be as complex as a shelf or cove system or
as simple as surface mounted luminaires that cast light upward. Under daylight
conditions, sunlight will diffuse through the skylight material. When activated,
the electric light will wash up, filling the volume of the skylight and reflecting
back into the space.

Keys to Success:
Consider the diffusing material of the skylight as it may reflect an image of
the electric luminaires.
Consider the geometry and location of the luminaires to eliminate the
possibility of lamp visibility.
Consider accessibility and maintenance of the electric light system.
Consider switching or dimming options and photo sensors to regulate the
contribution of the electric light system.
A light monitor is a perfect candidate for electric light integration. A shelf or
cove system can be integrated to cast light upward onto the ceiling surface of the
monitor. The electric light will wash up, filling the volume of the monitor and
reflecting back into the space.

Keys to Success:
Consider the diffusing material of the monitor as it may reflect an image of
the electric luminaires.
Consider the geometry and location of the luminaires to eliminate the
possibility of lamp visibility.
Consider accessibility and maintenance of the electric light system.
Consider switching or dimming options and photo sensors to regulate the
contribution of the electric light system.
A ceiling slot is a great way to harvest daylight and is the perfect candidate for
electric light integration. The clean plane of light created by the daylight can be
seamlessly complemented by the same shape and texture of electric light. A
simple fascia to conceal the electric source is all that is needed.

Keys to Success:
Consider the diffusing material of the daylight slot as it may reflect an
image of the electric luminaires.
Consider the geometry and location of the luminaires to eliminate the
possibility of lamp visibility.
Consider accessibility and maintenance of the electric light system.
Consider switching or dimming options and photo sensors to regulate the
contribution of the electric light system.
Even simple windows can be used to harvest daylight when they are fitted with a
diffusing material to control the light contribution. During daylight conditions, a
clean, diffuse light filters in. During electric light operation, light washes the
interior surface of the diffusing window and reflects a soft glow back into the
space.

Keys to Success:
Consider the diffusing material of the diffusing window as it may reflect an
image of the electric luminaires.
Consider the geometry and location of the luminaires to eliminate the
possibility of lamp visibility.
Consider accessibility and maintenance of the electric light system.
Consider switching or dimming options and photo sensors to regulate the
contribution of the electric light system.
Part IV
Final Thoughts on Design
The Fundamental Lighting Design
Process
LIGHTING DESIGN IN A NUTSHELL
The following shortcuts will serve to jog your memory and act as a checklist for
the thought processes and production processes that yield good design and
implementation.

The Design Development Process

Brainstorm and develop concepts

The Controllable Aspects of Light (Ch. 5) Intensity of light
Color of light
Texture of light
Shape of light
Origin of light

Lighting techniques (Ch. 9, 10, 11, 14) Graphic development (The Five
Layer Process)

Light Map choreography goals (Ch. 17) Light Map remaining design
goals (Ch. 17) Identify and label Illuminance level criteria (Ch. 19)

The Specification and Refinement Process

Concept refinement

Lighting Calculations (Ch. 20) Redline Lighting Layout (Luminaire

locations) (Ch. 24) Select luminaire types (Ch. 21, 22) Downlights, Adjustable
accent luminaires, Floor uplights, Wall-mounted uplights, Linear sources, Low-
level steplights

The Final Construction Documents

Luminaire schedule (Ch. 25)

Luminaire cut sheets (Ch. 25) Drafted lighting plan (Ch. 26)
Green Design and Sustainability
Sustainability has moved well-up the program for many of today’s lighting
projects. This evolution will only accelerate as electricity and other materials
become more expensive. All parties involved in the building process now realize
that good design means “green” design and lighting is recognized as a key
component of this. The lighting designer is absolutely expected to be an expert
in the implementation of current standards of best practice. Luminaires, lamps,
and lighting controls all contribute. Softer environmental issues like light
pollution and light trespass add yet another layer of knowledge and expertise.
In the United States, roughly 1/3rd of the electricity we consume is for electric
lighting. This is a huge percentage, and means that even small improvements in
the application of light can mean large reductions in our consumption of
electricity. You may live in a municipality where energy conservation codes are
written into building codes and certain criteria must be met in order to get a
building permit.
All lighting designers should research and investigate the organizations that are
taking the initiative to suggest and mandate progressive, energy efficient lighting
design.
California State Energy Code Title 24 energy.ca.gov/title24
ASHRAE 90.1 aashrae.org
USGBC including LEED Program usgbc.org
Savings by Design savingsbydesign.com
International Dark Sky Association darksky.org
Energy Star energystar.gov
US Department of Energy energy.gov/savings
DSIRE Solar Incentives dsireusa.org

But remember: Some conservation recommendations take the form of

very clinical methods for reducing the consumption of electricity through
draconian limits on source types, connected load and control requirements.
Many guidelines and codes are based on a “lighting power density” (watts-per-
square-foot) prescription that is based on the use type of each project space.
Remember that your intuition of where light belongs in a space and your
understanding of how to accomplish more with less light are the foundation of
your ability to create impacting design with minimal light waste. The more you
rely on brightness through contrast and visual interest, the more you will find
yourself using less light through good design without having to “reduce” or
eliminate design ideas.
Put light where it belongs, decide what lighted surfaces will contribute
best to your lighting goals, and you will be well on your way to conservative
design through conscious placement of light.
Designing with New Eyes
Remember that as designers, we are ultimately responsible for how people feel
and, therefore, interact with the built environment around them. There are
numerous lessons to be learned from classical design, as well as the natural
world all around us. Look at the world with designer’s eyes. Always be on the
hunt for tools and techniques that you can use in your design to impart a specific
feeling or function.

Light has immense power.

Architectural projects are rarely recognized as great without having superbly-

executed integration of light. Many good projects use light as an afterthought,
but every great project has lighting thought at the very core. There is no “right”
lighting just as there is no “right” design. There is only design and designed light
that are well thought-out and that which is not. If you know your space, you
know more than enough to get to work placing light onto the surfaces and
objects that will enhance your design. The tools presented here are simply ways
to get you to better visualize and draw light.

“If you can conceive of ideas and communicate them to others, you are eighty
percent of the way to great design.”

Hopefully, the more technical aspects of implanting these ideas will serve you as
you solve your own lighting challenges.
Design is a state of mind. A true designer can design anything. It is the
knowledge of a reliable, creative design processes that will give you confidence
in the form of a bottomless well of great ideas that jump from your mind onto
paper. Let those ideas out. Write them down, sketch them up. Do whatever it
takes to empty your head of concepts to create room for new ones. There is no
need to self-censor your creative ideas. There is a whole world out there that will
help you weed through your thoughts and filter out the best of them.

Good luck in designing and never stop observing and learning from the
environment around you.
Appendix A
Glossary of Lighting Terms

A
Accommodation: The function of the dynamic components of the eye to focus
on objects at different distances.
Adaptation: The function of the eye and brain working together to operate
under varying amounts of light.
Adjustable (Luminaire): Describes a luminaire that includes mechanical means
to aim light output in a specific direction.
Ambient light: A description of the light quality that defines the overall
experience of a space.
Aperture: An opening cut into a form or surface. Often describes the opening a
recessed luminaire creates in the ceiling B
Backlighting: The tactic of placing a light source behind an object or translucent
surface. This creates an effect of silhouetting solid objects or creating a
luminous plane from a translucent material.
Baffle: a visual control device that mounts to the face of a light source to control
the angles at which the light source is directly visible.
Ballast: An electronic or magnetic device used to control electricity to start and
operate fluorescent and HID light sources.
C
Candela (CD): a unit measurement of light density from a light source or
reflective object. 1 Candela is the equivalent one lumen of light emitted
evenly from a portion of spherical surface area called a steradian.
Candlepower: an expression of luminous intensity from a light source expressed
in Candelas.
Candlepower Distribution curve: A graphical representation of the light
intensity leaving a light source in specific directions.
Center Beam Candlepower (CBCP): A commonly-used expression of
luminous intensity from the center-most area of a light source. (This is
 typically the most luminous area of a light source) Choreography: the
direction of movement and path of experience of an individual in the
designed environment.
Chromaticity: The level of saturation evident in a colored material or colored
light source.
Coefficient of Utilization (CU): A factor used in lumen method calculations to
express how effectively light is being delivered from a luminaire to the
surface in question Color Rendering Index (CRI): An expression of the
completeness of the spectral output of a light source. Indicates how
accurately a light source will reveal colors in the lighted environment.
Expressed on a scale from 1 to 100: the higher the number, the more
complete the spectral output and the more accurate the color rendition.
Color temperature: A manner of describing the apparent color of a light source.
Commonly used to express the cool or warm color of a source that deviates
from neutral. Expressed in degrees Kelvin or Kelvins (K) D
Daylight: A general reference to the quality of light received from the sun as it
diffuses through the atmosphere of the earth, including both direct sunlight
and diffused skylight.
Diffuse Light: Light which is scattered in all directions in relation to its source
Diffuser: Lens material used to scatter the light output of a source in all
directions
Dimmer: A lighting control device that varies the electricity delivered to a
luminaire to control the output of light.
Directional Light: Light that leaves a source in a single direction through means
of reflectors or optical control.
Direct Burial (Luminaire): A luminaire that resides primarily in the ground or
floor structure of a space and casts light upward.
E
Efficacy: Used in lighting as an expression of how well a light source converts
electricity into radiant light energy. Expressed as Lumens of light per Watt
of electricity for Lumens per Watt (L / W) Exitance: An expression of the
light quantity leaving a reflective surface in all directions.
F
Flood (Light): describes light cast in a confided manned over a broad area as a
result of interaction with optics and reflectors.
Fluorescent Lamp: A light source technology that relies on the excitement of
phosphors to convert a limited spectrum of radiation into a more complete
spectrum of visible light Foot-Candle (FC): The (English) unit of
 expressing and measuring light flux onto an object, where 1 Foot-candle is
the equivalent of one lumen of light arriving evenly onto a surface area of
1 square foot.
G
Glare: Excessive brightness created by an unshielded light source. Also
describes the reflection of bright objects visible in a specular surface
Grazing: The tactic of lighting a surface at a severe angle from a nearby
light source. Tends to spread light over a great distance and reveal texture
H
Halogen lamp: A light source technology that relies on an incandescing
filament within a pressurized environment of halogen gas.
High Intensity Discharge (HID) Lamp: A light source technology that relies
on an arc of electricity passed between electrodes to excite an environment
of vaporized metal. Includes sources such as Mercury Vapor, High
Pressure Sodium and Metal Halide.
I
Illuminance: An expression of light quantity incident onto a surface. Expressed
and measured in Foot-candles (FC) (English unit) or Lux (LX) (SI unit).
In-grade (Luminaire): (See direct burial)
Incandescent lamp: A light source technology that relies on radiant energy
emitted from a metal filament resisting a flow of electricity.
Indirect Light: light distributed after it reflects or interacts with a shielding
surface
Inter-reflection: The product of light interacting with the objects and surfaces
of a space.
L
Lamp: The generic term for an engineered light source
Lamp Life: An expression of the expected operating life of a light source
expressed in hours.
Light: Electromagnetic radiation that stimulates the visual system of a typical
human.
Light Emitting Diode (LED): A Light source technology that relies on
electricity passed through a solid state electrical device that emits a single
wavelength of radiation.
Light Loss Factor (LLF): A safety factor used in lighting calculations that
accommodates for the loss of light production of a luminaire over time due
to dirt, ballast depreciation and lumen output depreciation Light Map: The
author’s term for a visual document that expresses lighting intent through
 colored graphics on an architectural furniture or floor plan.
Louver: A bladed shielding device implemented in a luminaire to reduce the
visibility of a bare lamp
Lumen: an expression of radiant energy flux as it impacts the human visual
system.
Luminaire: A device that controls the delivery of light through the management
of electricity and the inclusion of ballasts, transformers, optical elements,
reflectors and architectural mounting mechanisms.
Luminous Flux: The total quantity of visible radiant energy that leaves a light
source in all directions. Expressed in Lumens.
Lux (LX): The SI unit of expressing light flux incident onto a surface
(illuminance)
O
Occupancy sensor: Device that implements heat, sound and motion detection to
determine whether a space is in use.
P
PAR Lamp: Lamp shape that utilizes a parabolic aluminized reflector to deliver
controlled directional light. Commonly associated with Halogen and Metal
Halide sources Photometry: The science of measuring light output
distribution, patterns and effects from light sources.
R
Recessed Luminaire: A luminaire that resides primarily in the plenum above
the ceiling line of a space.
Reflectance: An expression of the percentage of light incident onto a surface
that in turn leaves the surface.
Reflected Ceiling Plan (RCP): An architectural plan that shows the contents
and details of an architectural ceiling system as it would appear if viewed
from within a space.
Re-strike Time: An expression of the time required for a light source to cool off
before it can be reignited after an interruption of power. Commonly used in
reference to HID sources.
S
Sconce: A wall-mounted lighting device commonly associated with a decorative
character.
Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD): A human physiological condition
associated with inadequate exposure to various wavelengths of light
contained in daylight.
Soffit: An architectural feature of geometry added to a space through built-up
 construction
Solar Geometry: The predictable movement of the sun in the local sky, due to
the earth’s rotation, revolution and declination.
Specular: Description of a material’s ability to directly reflect light images.
Commonly expressed as “shiny”.
Spot (Light): Describes directional light delivered in a confined beam as a result of interaction with optics
and reflectors.
Step Light: A luminaire that typically recesses into the lower portion of a wall
for the purpose of illuminating stairs.
Steradian: A unit of spherical area such that any size sphere consists of 2π
Steradians. Used in measuring luminous intensity (see Candela).
T
Transformer: an electromagnetic device that alters the voltage of electricity
delivered to a light source.
Translucent: The descriptive property of a material that allows light to pass
through but alters the direction of the light, resulting in diffusion.
Transmission (of light): The passage of light through various materials.
Transparent: The descriptive property of a material that allows light to pass
through it with minimal refraction or change of direction.
Troffer: Description of luminaires, commonly of a rectangular nature, that
utilize linear fluorescent lamps to deliver a uniform light texture.
W
Warm-up Time: Reference to the time required for a lamp to come to full light
output. Commonly used in reference to HID light sources.
Wash: Describes light delivered in an even fashion across a large surface.
Watt: Unit of expressing and measuring electrical work potential in a circuit as a
product of potential voltage and amperage.
Appendix B
Professional Organizations and
Agencies

Professional and Educational Organizations

American Institute of Architects
www.aia.org
American Lighting Association
www.americanlightingassoc.com
American Optometric Association
www.aoanet.org
American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning Engineers
www.ashrae.org
American Society of Interior Designers
www.asid.org
American Society of Landscape Architects
www.asla.org
American Solar Energy Society
www.ases.org
Illuminating Engineering Society of North America
www.iesna.org
International Association of Lighting Designers
www.iald.org
International Commission on Illumination
www.cie-usnc.org
International DarkSky Association
www.darksky.org
International Interior Design Association
www.iida.org
National Council for Interior Design Qualification
www.ncidq.org
National Council on Qualifications for the Lighting Professions
www.ncqlp.org
National Lighting Bureau
www.nlb.org

Publications
Architectural Lighting Magazine
www.archlighting.com
Lighting Design + Application Magazine
www.iesna.org/lda/iesnalda.cfm
Metropolis Magazine
www.metropolismag.com
Mondo Arc Magazine
www.mondoarc.com
Professional Lighting Design Magazine
www.via-verlag.com

Search Tools
Elumit (Lighting search and specification tool)
www.elumit.com
Design guide.com
www.designguide.com
Lightsearch.com (Lighting product search tool)
www.lightsearch.com

Conferences
Lightfair International
www.lightfair.com
Professional Lighting Design Convention
www.pld-c.org
The Arc Show
www.thearcshow.com
Appendix C
Descriptive Words for Lighting

Bold
Brilliant
Confined
Contrasty
Crisp
Dramatic
Dreamy
Diffuse
Direct
Effervescent
Ephemeral
Even
Exotic
Expansive
Focused
Gleaming
Glimmering
Glowing
Harsh
Intense
Liquid
Muddy
Murky
Oozing
Radiant
Restrained
Sharp
Smooth
Soft
Sparkling
Sprawling
Subtle
Theatrical
Understated
Vivid
Voluminous
Appendix D
Directory of Contributors and Other
Manufacturers

Special Thanks to the following manufacturers who were gracious enough to

furnish reproductions of literature, technical data and images. Without this
material, the pages of this text would not be nearly as colorful.

Ardee Lighting
888.442.7333
www.ardeelighting.com

Bartco
714.230.3200
www.bartcolighting.com

Belfer
732.493.2666
www.belfergroup.com

DaSal
604.464.5644
www.dasalindustries.com

Deltalight
954.677.9800
www.deltalight.us

Erco
732.225.8856
www.erco.com
GE Lumination
216.606.6555
www.led.com

Philips Lightolier
508.679.8131
www.lightolier.com

Lutron Electronics
610.282.3800
www.lutron.com

Osram Sylvania
978-777-1900
www.sylvania.com

Tech Lighting
847 410 4400
www.techlighting.com

Wila Lighting
714-259-0990
www.wila.net

The following represent a small cross section of manufacturers of lighting

equipment.

Lamps

GE Lighting
www.gelighting.com

Osram Sylvania
www.sylvania.com

Philips Lighting
www.lighting.philips.com

Ushio
www.ushio.com
Venture Lighting
www.venturelighting.com

Luminaires

Artemide
www.artemide.us

Bega US
www.bega-us.com

Bruck Lighting Systems

www.brucklighting.com

Color Kinetics
www.colorkinetics.com

Columbia Lighting
www.columbia-ltg.com

Cooper Lighting
www.coooperlighting.com

Flos
www.flos.com

Juno Lighting
www.junolighting.com

Lightolier
www.lightolier.com

Louis Poulsen Lighting

www.louispoulsen.com

Lithonia
www.lithonia.com