AURLTD004 Diagnose and Repair Light Vehicle Steering Systems PDF

Diagnose and repair
light vehicle steering

systems
AURLTD004
Diagnose and repair light vehicle steering systems
Application
This unit describes the performance outcomes required to diagnose and repair
faults in the steering systems of light vehicles. It involves preparing for the task,
selecting the correct diagnostic procedure, carrying out the diagnosis and the
repair, performing post-repair testing, and completing workplace processes and
documentation.
It applies to those working in the automotive service and repair industry. The
steering systems include those in light vehicles, light commercial vehicles or
outdoor power equipment.
No licensing, legislative, regulatory or certification requirements apply to this unit

at the time of publication.
Pre-requisite Unit
NIL
Competency Field
Mechanical - Light Vehicle
Unit Sector
Technical – Steering and Suspension
ii
Elements and Performance Criteria

ELEMENTS PERFORMANCE CRITERIA MAPPING
INFORMATION
(Describe the (Performance criteria describe the
essential performance needed to demonstrate
outcomes) achievement of the element)
1.1. Job requirements are determined from Page 15

workplace instructions
1.2. Diagnostic information is sourced and Page 15

interpreted
1. Prepare to
1.3. Diagnostic options are analysed and Page 51
diagnose
those most appropriate to the
and repair
circumstances are selected
light vehicle
steering
1.4. Hazards associated with the work are Page 3
system
identified and risks are managed
1.5. Diagnostic tools and equipment are Page 18

selected and checked for serviceability
2.1. Diagnostic tests are performed Page 51

according to workplace procedures and
safety and environmental requirements
2.2. Faults are identified from diagnostic test Page 51

2. Diagnose
results and causes of faults are
steering
determined
system
2.3. Diagnosis findings are reported Page 71
according to workplace procedures,
including recommendations for
necessary repairs or adjustments
3.1. Repair information is sourced and Page 57

interpreted
3. Repair 3.2. Repair options are analysed and those Page 57

steering most appropriate to the circumstances
system are selected
3.3. Repair tools, equipment and materials Page 57

are selected and checked
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3.4. Repairs and component replacements Page 57

and adjustments are carried out
according to manufacturer
specifications, workplace procedures
and safety and environmental
requirements, and without causing
damage to components or system
3.5. Post-repair testing is carried out Page 68

according to workplace procedures to
confirm fault rectification, and any
further problems detected as having
been introduced during the repair
process are rectified
4.1. Final inspection is made to ensure work is Page 68

to workplace expectations and vehicle,
is presented ready for use
4.2. Work area is cleaned, waste and non- Page 69

recyclable materials are disposed of,
and recyclable material is collected
4. Complete
work 4.3. Tools and equipment are checked and Page 70
processes stored according to workplace
procedures
Page 71
4.4. Workplace documentation is processed
according to workplace procedures
iv
Knowledge Evidence
MAPPING
KNOWLEDGE OUTCOMES
INFORMATION
 Work health and safety (WHS) and occupational health Page 2

and safety (OHS) requirements relating to diagnosing and
repairing light vehicle steering systems, including
procedures for working with high pressure and high
temperature steering systems
 Environmental requirements, including procedures for Page 6

trapping, storing and disposing of power steering hydraulic
fluid released from steering systems
 Operating principles of light vehicle steering systems and

associated components, including:
o manual steering systems Page 33
o power steering systems Page 39
 Application, purpose and operation of the following

components of light vehicle steering systems and
components, including:
o steering wheels, including clock springs Page 27
o steering columns Page 29
o manual steering systems, including:
 rack and pinion Page 33
 steering boxes Page 35
o hydraulic power steering systems, including:
 integral piston Page 43
 power assisted rack and pinion Page 44
 electronically controlled power steering systems Page 45
o electric steering systems, including steering angle Page 48

sensors
v
 Identification, function and basic operating principles of

steering angles, including:
o steering angles:
 toe-in and toe-out Page 25
 toe-out on turns Page 25
 caster Page 23
 camber Page 24
o Ackermann principle of steering Page 22
o steering axis inclination Page 26
 Diagnostic testing procedures for light vehicle steering

systems, including:
o operational testing Page 51
o hydraulic steering system testing Page 51
o electronic and load sensing steering testing Page 52
o analysing component wear analysis Page 54
 Repair procedures for light vehicle steering systems, Page 57

including procedures for removing, replacing and
adjusting the systems
 Post-repair testing procedures for light vehicle steering Page 68

systems.
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Table of Contents
1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 1
2 Hazards and safety............................................................................................ 2
2.1 Work health and safety (WHS)............................................................................. 2
2.2 Hazard identification and risk assessment .......................................................... 3
2.2.1 Safety precautions while working on steering systems ...............................................3
2.2.2 Safety while working on high pressure and high temperature steering systems ...4
2.2.3 Safety with compressed air and air operated equipment........................................5
2.3 Environmental requirements ................................................................................ 6

2.4 Safety..................................................................................................................... 7
2.4.1 Personal safety ...................................................................................................................7
2.4.2 Tools and equipment safety ............................................................................................9
2.4.3 Safety while using hoists and jacks .............................................................................. 12
2.4.4 Work area safety ............................................................................................................. 13
3 Diagnosis preparation and planning .......................................................... 14

3.1 Diagnostic process ............................................................................................. 14
3.2 Sources of information for vehicle inspection .................................................. 15
3.3 Selection of tools and equipment .................................................................... 18
3.4 Tools and equipment related to steering system ............................................. 20
4 Light vehicle steering systems ....................................................................... 22

4.1 Ackermann principle of steering....................................................................... 22
4.2 Steering angle geometry ................................................................................... 23
4.2.1 Caster ................................................................................................................................ 23
4.2.2 Camber............................................................................................................................. 24
4.2.3 Toe ..................................................................................................................................... 25
4.3 Steering axis inclination (SAI) ............................................................................. 26

4.4 Components of steering system ........................................................................ 27
4.4.1 Steering wheel ................................................................................................................. 27
4.4.2 Steering columns............................................................................................................. 29
4.4.3 Clock springs .................................................................................................................... 30
4.4.4 Steering linkage............................................................................................................... 31

4.4.5 Steering knuckle .............................................................................................................. 31
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5 Manual steering system .................................................................................. 33

5.1 Rack and pinion systems.................................................................................... 33
5.1.1 Principle ............................................................................................................................ 33
5.1.2 Operation ......................................................................................................................... 34
5.2 Steering boxes .................................................................................................... 35

5.2.1 Rack and pinion steering boxes................................................................................... 35
5.2.2 Manually operated Rack and pinion assembly ....................................................... 36

5.2.3 Recirculating ball steering system ............................................................................... 36
5.2.4 Steering variable ratio .................................................................................................... 37
6 Hydraulic power steering systems ................................................................ 39

6.1 Operating principle ............................................................................................ 39
6.2 Components of power steering ........................................................................ 39
6.2.1 Power steering pump ..................................................................................................... 40
6.2.2 Power steering pump drive belts ................................................................................. 40
6.2.3 Electric power steering .................................................................................................. 41
6.2.4 Flow control and pressure relief valves ....................................................................... 41

6.2.5 Power steering gearbox ................................................................................................ 41
6.2.6 Power steering hoses...................................................................................................... 42
6.3 Types of power steering systems ....................................................................... 43

6.3.1 Integral piston system..................................................................................................... 43
6.3.2 Power assisted rack and pinion steering system....................................................... 44

6.3.3 Operating principle at different steering wheel positions ...................................... 44
6.4 Electronically controlled power steering systems ............................................ 45

6.4.1 Four-wheel steering ........................................................................................................ 46
6.4.2 Steer-by-wire system....................................................................................................... 46
7 Electric steering systems ................................................................................. 48

7.1 Electrically powered hydraulic steering ........................................................... 48
7.2 Electrically assisted steering............................................................................... 49
7.3 Electric power steering system .......................................................................... 49
7.4 Steering angle sensor ......................................................................................... 50
8 Diagnostic testing procedures for light vehicle steering systems.......... 51

8.1 Operational testing for hydraulic power steering system ............................... 51
8.2 Inspecting the fluid leakages ............................................................................ 51
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8.3 Procedure for electronic and load sensing steering testing ........................... 52
8.4 Power steering fluid pressure test ...................................................................... 53
8.5 Diagnosing of steering faults ............................................................................. 54
9 Repair procedures for light vehicle steering systems ............................... 57

9.1 Power steering oil level....................................................................................... 57
9.2 Manual steering box oil level ............................................................................. 57
9.3 Steering system overhaul ................................................................................... 57
9.3.1 Steering rack overhaul ................................................................................................... 58
9.3.2 Tie rod end replacement .............................................................................................. 61
9.3.3 Power steering pump overhaul .................................................................................... 62

9.3.4 Steering box overhaul .................................................................................................... 64
9.3.5 Steering columns............................................................................................................. 66
9.4 Removal and replacement of air bag system ................................................. 66
10 Final procedure of vehicle servicing ........................................................... 68

10.1 Road test ......................................................................................................... 68
10.2 Post-repair inspection of the vehicle ............................................................. 68
10.3 Clean up after inspection .............................................................................. 69
10.4 Storage of tools and equipment ................................................................... 70
10.5 Documentation ............................................................................................... 71
11 References ........................................................................................................ 75
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1 Introduction
Steering system is designed to enable the driver to precisely control the direction of
the vehicle with the minimum effort. Steering systems use a steering wheel and
linkages to allow the driver to turn the front wheels of the vehicle to the desired
direction.
Figure 1: Steering wheel in a vehicle
Steering systems are also designed to –
 Provide the vehicle with directional stability. This ensures that the vehicle will track
evenly along the road and will not pull to one side.
 Prevent the vehicle tyres from scrubbing under normal driving conditions.
Ackermann principle of steering is the basis of all motor vehicle steering systems. The
department of transport and regional services, the national transport commission
and representatives from the automotive industry in each state have developed
performance and design rules for motor vehicle safety, emissions and/or anti-theft.
The main Australian Design Rule (ADR) that relates to steering is –
ADR 10 – The function of this Australian Design Rule is to minimise crushing or

penetrating injuries to drivers due to the ‘steering column’ as a result of frontal
impact.
As vehicle technology has progressed, steering systems have gone through a

number of refinements to enhance vehicle safety, handling, and even fuel
economy.
1
2 Hazards and safety
2.1 Work health and safety (WHS)
Work health and safety (WHS) govern the safety, health and well-being of people
involved in work or employment. Irrespective of the nature of work, employees must
be able to carry out their responsibilities in a safe and secure working environment
which is free from hazards.
Figure 2: Work health and safety
The objectives of WHS are to:
 ensure the health, safety and welfare of employees and other people at work;
 protect the public from the health and safety risks of business activities;
 eliminate workplace risks at the source; and
 involve employers, employees and the organisations that represent them in the
formulation and implementation of health, safety and welfare standards.
WHS play an important role in providing a safe workplace for both employers and
employees.
 Work health and safety act 2004 seek to improve the health, safety and welfare
of employees in automotive industry.
 WHS Regulations 2017 involves the safe operation of major hazard facilities,
training for high risk work, managing and removing asbestos and licenses for
specific activities
For more information about WHS regulations, visit
www.worksafe.vic.gov.au/automotive.
2
2.2 Hazard identification and risk assessment
Hazard identification is an important step in the safety management process. This

helps in identifying, assessing every hazard related to work in order to control and to
find the solution at the earliest.
Hazard control is an active program of preventing the risk. While performing a task,
the technician should assess the possible hazards and risks in the task and should
understand the severity of the hazard to take the necessary action.
The following are the possible hazards while working on the light vehicle steering
system:
 Manual handling
 Slip trip and fall hazards
 Steering oil hazards
 Environmental hazards
 Electrical hazards
 High-pressure system hazards
 High temperature system hazards
 Compressed air and equipment hazards.
Identify all the possible hazards and evaluate the risk of the hazard created. Prioritize
the appropriate control measures and do the needful.
2.2.1 Safety precautions while working on steering systems
 When working with steering systems, always wear correct PPE such as safety
glasses and gloves, and beware of high pressure and hot oil.
 During the bleeding operations, the steering should not be held on full lock for
more than a few seconds at a time.
 Knowledge of airbags is essential before working on the parts of a vehicle that

have airbag equipment
 Airbags will deploy if the crash sensors are disturbed, so always disconnect air bag
system before working on steering wheel
 Never adjust the position of steering wheel while the vehicle is in motion to avoid
vehicle’s loss of control
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 Never remove key from ignition while vehicle is in motion as the steering system
will lock and steering of the vehicle will cease
 Always use appropriate tools while removing steering system components
 When cleaning steering system components, always clean in well-ventilated area

and never allow cleaning solvents to come in contact with any heated source
 The manufacture’s workshop manual and torque settings must be consulted

when carrying out steering system repair
 Ensure that all protective guards, cowlings and safety features are in place.
Figure 3: Inflation of tyres
2.2.2 Safety while working on high pressure and high temperature

steering systems
The fluids and oils used for the steering system are very hazardous and leads to
irreversible damages. It is important to use proper kind and well-known brand of
steering fluid.
Hazards include –
 High pressure is generated in the steering system when inappropriate fluid is used
as various fluids respond separately to pressure and temperature variations.
 Inappropriate fluid results in spraying the fluid with greater pressure on the engine
causing a dangerous fire.
 Power steering pump and pressure lines will be affected when improper steering
fluids are used.
 Control on steering is lost because of high pressure and temperature which results
in accidents.
4
Safety measures
 When replacing or topping up power steering fluid, you must ensure that the
correct type and brand of fluid is used. If the wrong type or brand is used, serious
damage to the power steering pump and lines can develop, creating a
potentially dangerous situation
 Different fluids react differently to pressure and temperature changes. Using the
incorrect fluid may result in the creation of excessive pressure within the system,
bursting the high-pressure lines and potentially spraying fluid at high pressure all
over the engine, creating a severe fire hazard. It would also cause a loss of
steering assist, which could result in an accident.
Safety measures also include –
 The important factor to consider while working on vehicle steering system is the
kind of steering fluid to be used.
 Steering fluid must be of a known label and should be specific for the vehicle.
 Clean the steering system components in well-ventilated area.
 Wear appropriate PPE such as safety glasses and gloves to avoid contact with
high pressure and temperature oils.
 The power steering fluid must be cleaned up immediately as it is considered as a

fire hazard.
Figure 4: Sample power steering fluid
 Replace the power steering hose if there is any damage.
2.2.3 Safety with compressed air and air operated equipment
Compressed air is used to operate air-powered machinery and to inflate tyres.
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 When using this machinery, avoid skin contact as the compressed air is under
extreme pressure and would cause severe pain and possibly death, if it enters the
blood stream.
 Do not allow any part of the body to contact with the moving parts of air
powered machinery to avoid injuries.
 Never over-inflate a tyre or a tube. Use the manufacturer’s recommended

inflation pressures. Tyres and tubes can explode if over-inflated.
 When using air-powered equipment, shield your eyes in order to avoid dust flying
particles.
 Ensure that the PPE such as overalls, goggles and ear muffs are always worn when
using air-powered equipment.
2.3 Environmental requirements
Trap
Always collect the waste and contaminated power steering fluid in an approved
container.
Store
Always store the contaminated fluids under cover on a concreted area surrounded
by a bunded area of at least 100mm height. The bunded area should be 10 per
cent more than the maximum capacity of the stored Fluids and oils
Figure 5: Bunded area to store hazardous liquids
Dispose
Waste fluid can be recycled. Storage containers should be regularly emptied by a

licensed contractor or recycler.
6
Label must be clearly placed on all waste oil and fluid materials
2.4 Safety
In the automobile service, it is very important to follow the safety practices as we

work with many hazards, some are expected and some are not expected. So, one
working on the diagnosis of vehicle should be capable of risk assessment and risk
management.
The safety in the WHS is classified into 4 categories, namely:
 Personal safety
 Tools and equipment safety
 Vehicle safety
 Work place safety
Figure 6: Personal protective equipment
2.4.1 Personal safety
Personal protective equipment (PPE) is designed to protect the technician or the

person working on the vehicle systems from specific hazards. Some of the
equipment is supposed to be mandatory before entering the shop floor and the rest
are used for specific operations.
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The types of personal protective equipment are below listed ones:
PPE Purpose Image
Safety glasses and face To protect from splashes and

shields any damage to the eyes
To protect from inhalation of

Air respirators and face
harmful gases, asbestos,
masks
brake dusts, etc.
To protect from any head

Safety helmets injury or impact or
penetration
To protect from any

Safety shoes or steel damage to the foot due to
toed boots heavy materials, chemicals
at high temperatures
To avoid any contact with

Workshop uniforms or
hot and toxic fluids or from
overalls
fire sparks.
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To avoid high decibel noises

Ear plugs or muffs from the machinery which
may affect hearing abilities
To avoid contact with hot

Safety rubber gloves or
fluids or from high current
sleeves
shocks
2.4.2 Tools and equipment safety
An automotive technician must adhere to the following shop safety guidelines when
using tools and equipment.
a) Hand tool safety
Hand tools such as wrenches, screwdrivers, and hammers must be carefully used to
prevent any accidents. The following tips must be considered while using hand tools:
Figure 7: Hand tools
 Keep the tools away from the oil and grease as these may turn slippery and may
cause injuries while working.
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 Inspect the tools for the cracks or damages and never use the tool if found faulty.
 Use the appropriate tools for the purpose they are designed.
 Make sure the tool is of appropriate size and of professional quality.
 When using an air impact wrench, always use impact sockets.
 Never use a wrench or pliers as a hammer.
 Always be aware of striking an object with the full-face hammerhead.
 Be careful when using sharp or pointed tools.
 Do not place sharp tools or other sharp objects into pockets.
 If a tool is supposed to be sharp, make sure it is sharp as dull tools can be more
dangerous than sharp tools.
b) Power tool safety
Power tools are operated by an outside power source, such as electricity,

compressed air, or hydraulic pressure. Improper use may result in serious injury.
Always wear safety glasses when using power tools. Never try to use a tool beyond
its stated capacity.
c) Electrical tool safety
Electrical tools are powered by electricity. Electrical equipment that is not properly
earthed or maintained can lead to electric shock, serious burns or even death.
 Always read and follow the operating procedures before using electrical
equipment’s.
 Ensure that the electrical tools are properly grounded before operating.
 Check the wiring for insulation cracks, as well as bare wires, before using it.
 Avoid contact with electrical tools using wet hands and water surrounding as it
leads to electrical shock. Also, when using electrical power tools, never stand on
a wet or damp floor.
 Before plugging in an electric tool, make sure its switch is in the off position.
 Always turn off the tool before unplugging the tool.
 Keep your hands, loose gloves, and loose clothing away from moving parts of
electrical tools.
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Figure 8: Diagnosing vehicle with electric tools
 Never leave a running power tool unattended.
 When using a bench or floor grinding wheel, check the machine and the grinding
wheels for signs of damage before using them. If the wheels are damaged, they
should be replaced before using the machine.
 Although the safety guards are designed to prevent injury, one should still wear
safety glasses and/or a face shield while using the machine.
 Make sure there are no people or parts around the machine before starting it.
 Keep hands and clothing away from the moving parts.
 Maintain a balanced posture while using the machine.
d) Compressed air tool safety
Power tools that use compressed air are called pneumatic tools.
 Pneumatic tools must always be operated at the pressure recommended by the

manufacturer.
 Before using a pneumatic tool, check all the hose connections for leaks. Also,
check for airline damage.
 When using an air nozzle, always wear safety glasses or a face shield as the dirt
particles and metal pieces blown by high-pressure air can penetrate the skin or
get into eyes.
 Never use compressed air to blow dirt from clothes or hair or to clean the floor or
workbench.
 Never spin bearings with compressed air. If the bearing is damaged, one of the
steel balls or rollers might fly out and cause serious injury.
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Figure 9: Pneumatic tools
2.4.3 Safety while using hoists and jacks
 Ensure that the hoist is suitable for the operation and functioning properly
 Ensure the weight does not exceed the maximum safe work load.
 Align the vehicle in the centre of the hoist and drive slowly into position.
 Ensure that the lifting arms are located to the vehicle jacking point.
 Always wear appropriate PPE.
 Ensure there is sufficient ceiling clearance.
 Remove all the tools and equipment from the area below the vehicle before
lowering the vehicle.
 Stand well clear when raising or lowering a vehicle.
 While using the jacking equipment, locate the jacking points and place the jacks.
 Do not work under a vehicle supported on the jack without an axle stand.
 Make sure the jacks are placed on the hardened and levelled ground surface.
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2.4.4 Work area safety
 The floor and benchtops of the work area must be kept clean, dry and orderly.
 Any oil, coolant, or grease on the floor can make it slippery and can result in
serious injuries.
 To clean up oil, use commercial oil absorbent.
 Keep the water off the floor as water is slippery on smooth floors, and electricity
flows well through water.
 Aisles and walkways should be kept clean and wide enough to easily move
through.
Figure 10: Adding absorbent to clean oil spill
 Make sure the work areas around machines are large enough to safely operate
the machine.
 Keep an up-to-date list of emergency telephone numbers clearly posted next to

the telephone. These numbers should include a doctor, hospital, fire and police
departments.
 The work area should have a first-aid kit and eye flushing kits readily available.
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3 Diagnosis preparation and planning
Figure 11: Diagnosing the vehicle
The diagnostic preparation and requirements make the job easy and quick. This
involves:
 Service and diagnostic information
 Tools and equipment for the diagnosis
 Hazards and safety analysis
 Diagnostic process and methods.
3.1 Diagnostic process
Diagnostics is an important part of an automotive technician’s work. The concept of

diagnostics depends on one’s knowledge of a vehicle systems combined with use of
logical and analytical process for determining the fault. The technicians must also be
aware of the manufacturer and service information.
Diagnostic flow chart
The step by step flow in diagnosing a complaint is very important for quick diagnosis;
this is also called as diagnosis routine.
 Collect the information about the problem - Find out when and where the
problem happened and what exactly happened.
 Verify the problem - Take the vehicle for a road test and try to duplicate the
problem, if possible.
 Thoroughly define what the problem is and when it occurs - Pay strict attention to
the conditions present when the problem happens. Pay attention to the entire
14
vehicle; another problem that was not evident to the customer may be evident
to you.
 Research all available information to determine the possible causes of the

problem. Try to match the exact problem with a symptoms chart or think about
what is happening and match a system or some components to the problem.
 Separate the problem by testing. Narrow down the probable causes of the
problem by checking the obvious or easy-to-check items and eliminate the
possibility of problem with them.
 Continue testing to pinpoint the cause of the problem. Once you know where the
problem could be, test until you find it!
 Locate and repair the problem, then verify the repair. Never assume that your
work solved the original problem. Make sure the problem is resolved before
returning it to the customer.
Figure 12: Diagnostic flow chart
3.2 Sources of information for vehicle inspection
The manufacturer specifications, workplace procedures and other technical

information relating to vehicle repair and diagnosis in a workplace can be obtained
from the organization’s website or Manager’s office.
In order to diagnose and inspect the faults on vehicles, technicians should be able
to access the information. There are several sources to check the vehicle
specifications such as –
15
 Vehicle service history records
 Workshop manuals
 On the vehicle
 The internet
Others include –
a) Service and tune-up guides
b) Product guides
c) Vehicle owner’s handbook
Vehicle service history records
It is very important for the technician to check the service history of the vehicle in
case of unusual problems. A previous repair may lead to the current problem or the
previous problem which is not attended to and carried forward can also be tracked
in the service history. This record simplifies the current diagnosis and repairs.
Service history records are maintained by the workshop or service department for a
specified time period to comply with federal law.
Service manuals
Factory and aftermarket service manuals, also called as workshop manuals contain
vehicle specifications and service procedures. Factory service manuals cover one or
more models of the same vehicle for a year, while aftermarket service manuals
cover multiple years and/or models in one manual.
Figure 13: Service manuals and records
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Service manuals include the following:
 Capacities and recommended specifications for all fluids
 Specifications including engine and routine maintenance items
 Testing procedures
 Service procedures including the use of special tools when needed
 Component location information.
 Diagnosis symptoms and flow charts.
While some factory service manuals are printed in one volume, most factory service
information is printed in several volumes due to the amount and depth of
information presented. The typical factory service manual is divided into 2 sections.
a. General information
General information includes topics such as:
 Warnings and cautions
 Vehicle identification numbers on the engine, transmission/transaxle and body

parts
 Fastener information and Lock cylinder coding
 Decimal and metric equivalents
 Abbreviation and standard nomenclature.
b. Technical service bulletins
The manufacturer provides information to technician or service personnel on

unexpected problems, updates, or changes in the repair procedures that occur with
a particular vehicle system, part, or component as an update in a bulletin called the
Technical service bulletins (TSBs).
The TSB consists of the algorithm of service and diagnostic procedures to understand
and identify the fault to perform the effective repair.
Technical service bulletins are different from the service information and the repair
procedure as service information and repair manuals are prepared by the
manufacturer while manufacturing the vehicles and include the information of
service requirements of the vehicle. TSB consists of the service procedures of the
unexpected failures which need the changes in the service procedure.
17
On the vehicle
The information about tyre size, recommended pressures, exhaust emissions and
engine adjustments are present on the vehicles. The information can be seen on
decals or stickers that are fixed onto the vehicle.
Figure 14: Information on vehicle
Internet
This is the most popular source of information. The information regarding the
products and services are shared by all vehicle manufacturers, tool and equipment
manufacturers, and product suppliers on the internet.
All these sources can be used when inspecting the vehicle for road safety. These
manuals will provide information whether the vehicle has been properly diagnosed
and repaired or not.
3.3 Selection of tools and equipment
Tools and equipment are very useful to test and diagnose the fault with the vehicle
or system. So, the diagnosis and test equipment or tools are linked. In most of the
cases, it is difficult to interpret the results of the test. Hence, the comparison of the
test result is being done with the manufacturer’s recommendations.
The following are some of the diagnostic tools:
 Hand tools: the basic tools like spanners, wrenches, the sockets, screwdrivers etc.
 Special tools: the special tools are tools which are used for the specific job.
 Precision of test equipment: the test equipment is used for specific purpose of
measuring and testing. These may include measuring tools like ruler dial gauge
and some analysing tools like engine analyser.
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Figure 15: Tools and equipment at automotive workshop
 Dedicated test equipment: these are also similar to special tools but these are
dedicated to a single operation in the system. These are similar to the diagnostic
tools or scan tools which are meant to diagnose an individual component.
 Accuracy test equipment: these are free from the clutter of regular instruments
and have very precise work standards.
Usage of tools
Using tools effectively comes only by practice and cannot be acquired just by
reading or references. However, the general guidelines outlined here will certainly
help with recommendations from the manufacturers. There is a wide range of tools
available that can be harmful. The manufacturer can assist with general advice on
using hand tools.
 Tools should be used only for a suitable purpose.
 Use the right tool for the right job.
 Follow the manufacturer’s instructions for better performance.
 Take care of your tools; they will take care of you.
 Never use a broken tool or wrong tool for the repair.
Precision of test equipment
For every diagnosis, there should be a definite point to understand the precision of
the measurement or the limit of the job to be done. Hence the precision measuring
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equipment play a prominent role in comparing the manufacturer's inputs and the
different outcomes during the job.
If the diagnosis is done precisely and cautiously, without any mistakes and errors,
then it is said to be accurate. This should follow the values of the manufacturer
requirements. This sort of diagnosis or actions need some special equipment called
the accurate test equipment.
3.4 Tools and equipment related to steering system
Tools and equipment used on the mechanical components of the steering system
include a power steering system pressure tester and various measuring devices, such
as dial indicators and belt tension gauges.
The mechanical components need to be removed and replaced, requiring tools

such as a tie-rod puller, pickle forks, a pitman arm puller, tie-rod sleeve adjusting
tools, inner tie-rod socket tools, inch-pound and foot-pound torque wrenches,
hammers, air hammers, and pry bars.
Figure 16: Tools related to steering system
The following tools and parts are used in servicing the power steering system:
Tools Usage
Floor jacks
Jacks are used to lift a vehicle, and the safety stands provide
and safety
stability while working on a raised vehicle.
stands
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Lever used to apply pressure for testing purposes or to move

Pry bar
various components.
Pitman arm This heavy-duty puller is made especially for removing the
puller pressed-on pitman arm from the sector shaft
Dial indicators are used to measure the runout or movement on

Dial indicators
different parts of the steering system, such as play in tie-rod ends.
Tie-rod end This tool is used to pull the tapered shaft on a tie-rod end from its
puller mating steering component.
Tie-rod sleeve This tool has a tab designed to grab the slot in the sleeve and is
adjusting tool used to turn the sleeve when adjusting the toe setting
This U-shaped wedge is used for separating tie-rod ends and is

operated by hammer or air hammer. This tool will usually destroy
Pickle fork
the dust boot during the process, so it is not the best tool to use on
tie-rods that will be reused.
Inner tie-rod
This tool is used to loosen and tighten inner tie-rod ends.
end tool
This tool includes a pressure and flow gauge set with various
Power steering
fittings to attach in line with the power steering pump. It is used to
system
check the volume of fluid flow, maximum pressure, and leaks
analyser
internally to the steering gear.
This tool is designed to measure the amount of flex in a drive belt.

Belt tension
Some manufacturers require the use of this tool to adjust proper
gauge
belt tension.
This tool is used to pinpoint fluid leaks. The dye is added to the fluid
Black light and
of the leaking system, and the black light makes the dye glow
dye kit
fluorescent.
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4 Light vehicle steering systems

Every driver thinks that turning the steering wheel steers the wheels, which steer the
vehicle. But there are many components that are installed between the steering
wheel and the road wheels that steer the vehicle.
The steering system provides –
a) Control over the vehicle’s direction of travel by changing the position for parking
the vehicle.
b) Smooth recovery from turns to the straight-ahead position.
c) Minimal transmission of road shocks from the road surface through the steering
wheel.
4.1 Ackermann principle of steering
The Ackermann principle angles the steering arms toward the centre of the vehicle,
such that imaginary lines drawn from the centre of the steering knuckle pivot points,
through the centre of the outer tie-rod ends, intersect at the centre of the rear axle.
This angle is what allows the wheels to navigate a corner without scrubbing. Steering
geometry and suspension geometry must be within the manufacturer’s
specifications for the vehicle to operate correctly. If it is not correct, it is usually due
to worn or bent components that the technician will have to diagnose and
ultimately repair to restore proper operation.
Figure 17: Ackermann steering system
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4.2 Steering angle geometry
Steering geometry involves the wheel alignment which consists of adjusting the
angles of the wheels so that they are perpendicular to the ground and parallel to
each other. The purpose of making these adjustments is to achieve maximum tyre
life and to ensure that the vehicle tracks straight when travelling along a straight
level road.
Figure 18: Steering angle geometry
4.2.1 Caster
Caster (Positive and negative)
Caster can be defined as the forward or rearward tilt of the steering axis at the top
when viewed from the side. A tilt towards the rear of the vehicle will result in a
positive caster reading and tilt to the front of the vehicle will result in a negative
caster reading.
By increasing caster toward positive the directional stability and steering effort will be
increased. By decreasing caster toward negative, the directional stability and
steering effort will be decreased.
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If the caster is out of adjustment, it can cause problems in straight-line tracking. If the
caster is different from side to side, the vehicle will pull to the side with the less
positive caster.
If the caster is equal but too negative, the steering will be light and the vehicle will
wander and be difficult to keep in a straight line. If the caster is equal but too
positive, the steering will be heavy and steering wheel may kick when the vehicle
hits a bump. Caster has little effect on tyre wear.
Figure 19: Caster steering angle
Caster dimension is an angle that is formed from the rearward lean of the strut that
creates a trailing effect on the road wheel to provide directional stability and a self-
centring effect on the steering system.
4.2.2 Camber
Camber can be defined as the inward or outward tilt of the steering axis at the top
as viewed from the front. Camber angle is measure in degrees.
Figure 20: Camber steering angle
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Camber (Positive and negative):
If the top of the wheel is leaning out from the centre of the car, then the camber is
positive. If the top of the wheel is leaning in, then the camber is negative.
If the camber is out of adjustment, it will cause tyre wear on one side of the tyres
tread. If the camber is too negative, then the tyre will wear on the inside of the
tread.
If the camber is different from side to side, it can cause a pulling problem. The
vehicle will pull to the side with the more positive camber. Excessive camber will
cause premature wear to the wheel bearings. Camber is generally set to a slightly
negative angle to increase vehicle stability and improve handling.
4.2.3 Toe
Toe is the distance comparison of a horizontal line drawn through both wheels of the
same axle. It measures the difference in the distance between the front and back of
the tyres.
Toe is measured in fractions of an inch or in degrees. It is usually set close to zero

which means that the wheels are parallel with each other.
Figure 21: Toe steering angle
Toe-in
Toe-in means that the front of the wheels is closer to each other than the rears. An
incorrect toe-in will cause rapid tyre wear to both tyres equally. Toe-in counteracts
the tendency of cambered wheels to roll outwards. A small degree of toe-in on non-
driving wheels (rear wheel drive) neutralises this effect.
Identification: Toe in will cause tyre to wear on the outer side.
Toe-out
When the front wheels of the vehicle pointing away from the centre line is Toe out or
Negative toe. It is to increase the straight-line stability of the vehicle. It reduces under
steering issues in the vehicle with rear wheel drive.
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Identification: Toe out will cause the tyre to wear on the inner side.
Toe-out on turns
Toe-out on turns, also known as turning radius angle, is the amount the front wheels
toe-out when turning corners. As the vehicle goes around a turn, the inside tire must
travel in a smaller radius circle than the outside tire. To accomplish this, the steering
arms are designed to angle several degrees inside of the parallel position. The exact
amount depends on the tread and wheelbase of the vehicle and on the
arrangement of the steering control linkage. Toe-out on turns is NOT an adjustable
angle. If the angle is incorrect, it is an indication of damaged steering components.
Toe-out on turns can also be explained as –
The toe-out-turns is the number of degrees by which the inner wheel exceeds that of
the outer wheel for any particular turn. It is usually measured with the outer wheel on
a turn 20°, but other angles may be specified. Toe –out-on turns is also referred to as
steering geometry. If the angles are incorrect, then scuffing of tyres will occur on
turns.
4.3 Steering axis inclination (SAI)
Steering axis inclination (SAI) causes both front wheels to gain positive camber as
they steer away from centre.
The ‘Steering Axis’ is the axis around which the wheel assembly swivels as it turns to
the right or left. It’s formed by drawing a line through the upper and lower ball joint
pivots. This axis is not necessary centred on the tyre contact patch.
Figure 22: Steering angle inclination
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The inclination angle between the steering axis and the centreline of the wheel.
Steering Axis Inclination (SAI) is also known as King Pin Inclination (KPI).
Tracking – Tracking refers to the position of the front wheels in relation to the rear
wheels.
Included angle – Included angle is created when the steering axis inclination is
added to the camber. If the camber is positive, the included angle will be greater
than the SAI and if it is negative, the included angle will be less than the SAI. The
included angle can be used to diagnose bent suspension components.
Scrub radius – Scrub radius is a measurement of the distance between the centre of
the tyre and the point at which the SAI intersects the ground. If this distance is not
the same from side to side, the vehicle will pull strongly. A vehicle will show a positive
scrub radius when the scrub radius is toward the inside of the tyre tread. Vehicle
shows a negative scrub radius when the scrub radius is towards the outside of the
tyre tread.
Bump steer – Bump steer is the term used for the tendency of a wheel to steer as it
moves upwards into jounce. This happens when the wheel is pushed up when going
over a bump in the road. The wheel then rebounds back to settle in its normal
position.
Thrust line and angle – The thrust angle is defined as the deviation between the
bisector of the total rear toe angle of the vehicle (thrust line) and the vehicle
centreline (longitudinally).
Wheel base – Wheel base is a measure of the distance between the centre of the
front wheel and the centre of the rear wheel.
Jounce and rebound – Jounce describe the moment when the suspension
compresses when driving over a bump, while rebound is the moment when it springs
back.
4.4 Components of steering system
The main components of steering system include –
4.4.1 Steering wheel
The steering wheel is attached to one end of the steering column by tapered spline,
securing nut and lock washer. This allows the driver to turn the vehicle as required.
Steering wheels are of many different types and varieties.
Steering wheels incorporate cushioning which helps to absorb impact and lessen
injuries in the event of an accident. Modern steering wheels are now usually fitted
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with an airbag. They are also designed to reduce heat absorption from the sun and
to provide a comfortable, firm grip for the driver.
Figure 23: Steering wheel
It is important that the steering wheel is level when driving straight ahead. If the
steering wheel is not level, the steering linkages should be inspected for bends
and/or damage. If no damage is evident, it will be necessary to carry out a wheel
alignment.
Operation & Purpose
It helps to control and turn the vehicle in the required direction it is connected to the
steering main shaft. Which can be operated by the driver without removing his hand
from the wheel, also fitted with a safety device called air bag in the middle of the
steering behind the horn pad.
Application: Passenger cars, trucks, sports car, commercial vehicles
The steering wheel should be checked to ensure that each of the following is within
specifications –
 Free rotation
 Up and down movement
 Side to side movement
 In and out movement.
Air bags
Air bag is a large nylon bag that is inflated and deflated rapidly upon vehicle
impact to reduce the risk of injury to occupants during accidents.
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The air bag will deploy from the centre of the steering wheel during certain frontal
collisions. Deployment of the air bag is automatic i.e. the driver does not control the
operation or activation of the system.
The air bag system uses a set of sensors to monitor the deceleration rates of the
vehicle. The minimum force required is equivalent to head-on contact between the
vehicle and a barrier or other stationary object.
Figure 24: Deployment of air bag during a crash
The functions of air bag include –
a) Recognising the accident
b) Ascertaining the severity of the accident
c) Triggering the air bag at exactly the right moment
4.4.2 Steering columns
Steering column transfers the turning force of the steering wheel to the intermediate
shaft and rack and pinion steering assembly. With the help of flexible joint, steering
column is connected to the input shaft of the steering gear. The smooth turning of
the steering wheel is allowed by the flexible joint as the steering column is mounted
at a different angle than the steering box.
Figure 25: Steering column
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The steering column also decreases the transmission of road shocks to the driver. The
universal joints present on the intermediate shafts in some steering columns prevent
the impact force from being transferred directly to the column during collisions.
The steering column also comprises of several switches which are separate for
different functions like light switches, wipes, cruise control and turn signal indicator.
Operation & Purpose:
Steering column is the cylindrical tube inside which the steering shaft is mounted
connecting to the steering wheel at one end. Other parts are also connected to the
steering column those are combination switch, steering lock, lower cover and upper
cover for the lock, steering adjustable mechanism.
Application: Passenger cars, trucks, commercial vehicles, sports cars Passenger cars
4.4.3 Clock springs
Clock spring is a special rotary electrical connector. It is situated between the

steering wheel and the steering column which controls a constant electrical
connection with the wiring during the turning of vehicle’s steering wheel.
Figure 26: Clock spring
Through the clock spring, the wires from the air bag and its electrical system connect
to maintain constant electrical contact. This is done by coiling and uncoiling as the
wheel is turned. Make sure that the clock spring wire is not damaged when the
steering wheel is removed. An SRS code will set when the clock spring wire is
damaged and the SRS light will be turned on. Clock spring must be replaced if it is
damaged.
The clock spring allow for electrical contact to the air bag module at all times. the
clock spring is designed to provide voltage to the module regardless of steering
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wheel position. The clock spring is located between the steering wheel and the
steering column.
Application: Passenger cars, trucks, commercial vehicles, sports cars
4.4.4 Steering linkage
Figure 27: Steering linkage
The steering linkage transfers the linear steering effort to the wheels by connecting
the steering box to the steering arm on each of the steering knuckles. The steering
knuckles pivot on the ball joints, allowing the wheels to steer the vehicle.
To make the wheels turn, the rotatory motion of the steering wheel is converted into
lateral motion of the steering linkages. The steering wheel is made of interconnected
parts that move every time the steering wheel is turned.
4.4.5 Steering knuckle
Steering knuckles are strong components that connect the wheels to the suspension
and steering systems. They provide a stub axle upon which the wheel bearings ride
or a hub-style wheel bearing assembly that is pressed or bolted onto the steering
knuckle.
Figure 28: Steering knuckle
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The steering arm either is integrated into the casting of the steering knuckle or is
bolted on. Either way, it transmits the steering force from the steering linkage to the
wheel and tyre assembly.
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5 Manual steering system
5.1 Rack and pinion systems
5.1.1 Principle
The steering wheel is attached to the steering column main shaft. Steering
movement is transferred through the main shaft and intermediate shaft to the
steering box. When the steering wheel is turned, rotary movement is transferred by
the shaft to the pinion in the steering box. The pinion teeth are meshed with the
teeth of the rack, so pinion rotation moves the rack from side to side. The end of the
rack is connected to the steering arms by the tie rods, so rack movement pivots the
knuckles and turns the wheels at an angle for steering.
Figure 29: Rack and pinion system
The following are the components of the rack and pinion mechanism:
Components Function
Steering column Transfers the turning force of the steering wheel to the
intermediate shaft and the rack and pinion assembly.
Steering intermediate shaft Connects the steering column to the pinion shaft,
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flexible Couplings are fitted at each end of the shaft
Flexible coupling Drives and rotates the pinion shaft
Pinion shaft Rotates the pinion gear on the steering rack shaft
Pinion housing Houses the pinion shaft
Rack housing Houses the steering rack shaft
Flexible rubber housing This is a dust seal to protect the steering rack
mechanism
Tie rod arm Connects the tie rod and the steering rack
Tie rod end A ball joint that swivels to move the spindle
Spindle Turns the stub axle
Stub axle Mounts the wheel bearings, hub disc and the road
wheel and transfers steering actions to the hubs and
wheels
Steering hub Mounts the wheel bearings drive shafts front disc and
the road wheels and transfers steering action to the
wheels.
5.1.2 Operation
 As the steering wheel is rotated the steering shaft through a series of universal
joints.
 The steering shafts transmit this rotational motion to the steering gear rack and
pinion, through universal joints and an intermediate shaft.
 The steering gear rack and pinion converts the rotational motion of the pinion into
the side-to-side motion of the rack. This conversion occurs as the pinion teeth
mesh with the teeth on the rack gear.
 The side-to-side motion of the rack is transferred to the tie rods, through the inner
ball sockets located at each end steering rack. For example, as the steering
wheel is turned to the right, the right tie rod moves outwards and the left tie rod
moves inwards.
 Ball sockets also connect the tie rods to the steering knuckles. The steering
knuckles are supported by the stub axle.
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 The steering knuckles create rational movement of the spindle.
 The spindle controls the movement of the wheels for steering.
Advantages of Rack and pinion steering system include –
a) Compact unit taking up little space when installed
b) Contains fewer parts than other steering systems
c) It is relatively light weight
d) Allows precise manoeuvrability with little effort
5.2 Steering boxes
A small gearbox connected between the steering main shaft and the linkage of the
steering system is called a steering box. Front wheels can be rotated from side to
side with the help of gearings. The gearing also prevents shocks from being
transmitted to the driver while travelling.
Figure 30: Steering box
For light vehicles, there are two basic designs of steering boxes –
 Rack and pinion gearing Ex – Rack and pinion steering system
 Worm gearing Ex – Recirculating ball steering system
5.2.1 Rack and pinion steering boxes
The components of the rack and pinion steering box include housing, the toothed
rack and the pinion. The steering box is in mesh with the teeth of the rack and so the
movement of the rack is from side to side.
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Manually operated Steering box:
Steering system have screw and nut recirculating ball mechanism the steering
column turns a large screw which meshes with nut by recirculating balls. The nut
moves a sector of a gear, causing it to rotate about its axis as the screw is turned an
arm attached to the axis of the sector moves the pitman arm.
The pitman arm connected to the idler arm by linkages to wheels. The connection
with the vehicle movement and feel of the performance was very accurate due to
simple structure This construction can withstand large loads.
Application: Trucks, Utility vehicles
5.2.2 Manually operated Rack and pinion assembly
The rotation movement of the steering wheel is converted to linear motion to

change the direction of the road wheels. The gear reduction on the pinion makes
the wheel turn easier.
The rack and pinion are housed in a metal tube with two ends of the rack is
extended outside the outer tube on either side which is connected to a tie rod of
the wheel knuckles on each side.
Application: Light vehicle. Sports car
5.2.3 Recirculating ball steering system
With the manual recirculating ball steering gear, turning forces are transmitted
through ball bearings from a worm gear on the input shaft to a sector gear shaft
allowing the steering linkages to be activated.
Operation
 As the steering wheel is rotated, the input shaft rotates
 The input shaft incorporates a worm thread that is supported by upper and lower
bearings for rotation
36
Figure 31: Recirculating ball steering system
 The worm is threaded into a ball nut rack by means of ball bearings that are
positioned into the grooves of the thread
 As the worm gear is rotated, the ball bearings roll along the grooves and slide the
ball nut rack along the worm. Ball return guides are used to keep the ball bearings
within the limits of the thread and to allow the ball bearings to recirculate from
one end of the ball nut rack to the other
 As the ball nut rack moves along the worm gear, the teeth on the outer edge of
the ball nut rack mesh with and rotate the teeth on the sector gear
 The sector gear rotates the pitman arm connected to the bottom of the shaft
 The bottom of the pitman arm is connected to one end of the drag link via a ball
joint
 The other end of the drag link is connected to a steering idler arm that is generally
bolted to the chassis with bushes that allows the steering idler arm to swivel from
side to side
 One end of each tie rod arms is connected to the drag link via ball joints
 The other end of each tie rod arm is connected to a spindle
 The spindles are generally bolted to each stub axle and wheel hub.
5.2.4 Steering variable ratio
The steering variable ratio refers to the designs of the teeth that are machined into
the rack shaft or sector shaft of the steering box. The teeth in the centre of the
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steering rack or sector shaft are machined close together to provide for more direct
steering when the wheels are in the straight-ahead position.
The teeth at both ends of the steering rack or sector shaft are also close together to
provide assistance when turning the steering wheel at low speeds on full lock. In
between the centre and the outside teeth of the steering rack or sector shaft, the
teeth are machined wider apart to allow for accelerated steering when cornering.
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6 Hydraulic power steering systems

Power assisted steering reduces the effort required by the driver for steering. With
power steering, more rapid response is available when required. When the power
steering wheel is operated, hydraulic pump supplies oil under pressure to boost the
turning effort exerted by the driver.
6.1 Operating principle
Hydraulically assisted power steering uses hydraulic fluid under pressure to assist the
driver in steering the wheels. This design is especially helpful at slower vehicle speeds
when the steering wheel turning effort is much higher.
Figure 32: Hydraulic power steering system
An engine-driven hydraulic pump delivers hydraulic fluid to the power unit at the
steering gearbox, or rack-and-pinion assembly, through the control valve and
connecting hoses and tubes. The fluid reservoir can be mounted on the pump, or it
can be remotely mounted.
With the engine running, fluid flows continuously from the power steering pump to
the steering gear control valve and back to the power steering pump. With the
steering wheel in a neutral position, nominal pressure is needed to maintain fluid
flow, and nominal engine power is needed to operate the system.
6.2 Components of power steering
Components of the power steering give hydraulic power that drives the system. The
components include –
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6.2.1 Power steering pump
The power steering pump is driven by a drive belt connected to the crankshaft. The
housing and the internal components of the pump operate when submerged in oil.
The reservoir is sealed against the pump housing, leaving the housing face and shaft
hub exposed.
Figure 33: Power steering pump
There are four basic types of power steering pump. They are –
 Roller
 Vane
 Slipper
 Gear
6.2.2 Power steering pump drive belts
Figure 34: Power steering pump belt
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Power steering pumps are driven by a belt. The belt connects the crankshaft pulley
to the power steering pump pulley. All the belt-driven components are driven by this
belt. A spring-loaded automatic belt tensioner present in the serpentine belt
removes the periodic belt tension adjustments. Full pressure is not acquired by the
power steering pump if the belt is slipping.
6.2.3 Electric power steering
Figure 35: Electric power steering
An electric motor is used in the electric power steering which gives power to steer. A
12-42 Volt electric motor is placed in the steering gear. The electric motor applies
torque to the steering shaft with the help of worm gearing and friction clutch.
6.2.4 Flow control and pressure relief valves
The pressure output from the pump is regulated by the pressure relief valve. The relief
valves are required for their constant steering ability in all modes i.e., from idle to
road speeds and also for variations in engine rpm.
The valve is mounted in a chamber where it is exposed to supply hose pressure at

one end and pump outlet pressure at another end. At the supply pressure end, a
spring is placed which helps in maintaining the balance.
6.2.5 Power steering gearbox
Integral power steering systems have the power cylinder and valve mechanism built
into the steering box.
Hydraulic oil flows from the power steering pump into the power section of the
steering box at a regulated constant flow rate of approximately 9 litres per minute.
Adjustments to the power steering box are made in the manual section of the power
steering box.
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Figure 36: Power steering gearbox
Spool valves or rotatory valve are used to control the direction of hydraulic pressure
in response to steering wheel rotation. This hydraulic pressure is applied to the
hydraulic piston which pushes on and rotates the sector shaft.
6.2.6 Power steering hoses
Power steering hoses are used to carry power steering fluid from the pump to the
steering gear. This is the high-pressure hose and is usually made of the flexible, high-
pressure hose material. The return hose runs from the steering gear back to the
pump reservoir and carries fluid under much lower pressure. These hoses must also
allow movement between the engine and chassis, so they must be flexible.
Figure 37: Power steering hose
The hydraulic pressure is controlled by a rotary valve located on the input shaft of
the steering gear. When the steering wheel is turned, the rotary valve directs fluid to
one side or the other of a piston attached to the steering gear. The pressure then
increases as required to provide steering assistance.
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6.3 Types of power steering systems
Light vehicles have several types of power steering systems. The widely used systems
are –
6.3.1 Integral piston system
The integral piston system is the general power steering system which is used world-
wide. The components include –
 Power steering pump
 Reservoir
 Power steering pressure
 Return hose
 Steering gear
Power cylinder and control valve are placed in the same housing as the steering
gear.
Operation
The integral piston power steering system has the hydraulic piston mounted inside
the steering gear box. It is a common type of power steering system. It consists of a
power steering pump, hydraulic lines, and a special integral power-assist gearbox.
Purpose:
For a right turn, the control valve routes oil to the left side of the power piston. The
piston is pushed to the right in the cylinder to aid pitman shaft rotation.
For a left turn, the control valve routes oil to the right side of the power piston. The
piston is pushed to the left in the cylinder to aid pitman shaft rotation.
In both left and right turns piston movement forces oil on the no pressurized side of
the piston back through the control valve and to the pump.
Application: There are three major power steering types in which it is used those are
Integral piston
External piston
Rack and pinion
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6.3.2 Power assisted rack and pinion steering system
Operation:
When the steering wheel is turned, the weight of the vehicle causes the front tire to
resist turning. This action moves the control valve and aligns the specific oil
passages. Fluid pressure is then allowed to flow through the control valve and acts
on the piston and the piston assists in pushing the rack and front wheels for turning
Purpose:
Power assisted rack and pinion steering uses hydraulic oil pressure to assist the
operator in moving the rack and front wheels.
Application: Small trucks, SUVs, Passenger cars
Figure 38: Power assisted rack and pinion steering system
6.3.3 Operating principle at different steering wheel positions
a. Steering straight ahead
The control valve is in a neutral position. Fluid from the pump circulates through the
flow-control valve, then through the control valve and back to the reservoir. There is
fluid on each side of the piston, but there is no pressure in power cylinder and as a
result, there is no power assistance.
b. Steering on a turn
Steering wheel has been turned and so the control valve has also turned. The
control valve directs pressure oil to one side of the power cylinder and connects the
other side to the return line. The fluid on the pressure side of the piston assists rack
movement, while fluid displaced on the other side goes back to the reservoir
through the return line.
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c. Steering wheel held turned
When the steering wheel has been turned and held in position, the control valve will
return to the neutral position. The pressure in the power cylinder will be relieved and
there will be no power assistance.
6.4 Electronically controlled power steering systems
The electronic control has two functions:
 Motor management and control management. Motor management regulates

the voltage at the motor and controls the motor speed. It also monitors the motor
temperature.
 Control management switches between the standby mode and the operational
mode.
The electronic control also has a safety function that continually monitors the system
and can return it to normal operation if a possible malfunction is detected. If there is
a fault with the power system, the steering system of the vehicle will remain
operational but there will be no power assistance.
Figure 39: Electronically controlled power steering system
The components of EPS system include –
a) Power steering gear box
b) Power steering oil pump
c) Pressure hose
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d) Return hose
Solenoid valve controls the amount of hydraulic fluid flow that is used to boost
steering. Solenoid valve is the pressure control valve (PCV) in the EPS system.
Operation
The electronically controlled power steering system’s PCV is exposed to plunger

force on the bottom and spring tension on the top. The plunger slips inside an
electromagnet. The upward force exerted by the plunger can be differed
depending on its performance against the opposing spring by varying the electric
current. Based on the vehicle road speed, the current flow to the electromagnet
changes. To equalize the vehicle’s road speed, the current flow is provided.
6.4.1 Four-wheel steering
Four-wheel steering also referred as wheel steering is where all four wheels of the
vehicle are turned to improve steering response, increase vehicle stability at high
speed and to reduce the turning radius at low speed for parking and manoeuvring.
The two main types of four-wheel steer systems are –
Active four-wheel steering
With this system, the rear wheels are physically turned by a steering rack mounted at
the rear suspension system. This system is opened by steering shafts which run from
the front to the rear. This is to provide an understeer effect at higher speeds and to
give a tighter turning radius for parking and manoeuvring.
Passive four-wheel steering
With this system, the rear wheels are turned slightly by the action of vehicle weight
movement when cornering, which distorts suspension bushes in a specific way to
achieve the desired turning effect. At low speeds, there is very little bush distortion
and therefore, no turning effort on the rear wheels.
6.4.2 Steer-by-wire system
Steer-by-wire is a technology used to operate with as many mechanical steering

components as possible. Some advantages of completely replacing the
conventional steering system with steer-by-wire are –
 Simplifies the vehicle interior
 Can be designed and fitted as a modular unit
 Steering system characteristics can easily and infinitely be adjusted to optimise

the steering response and feel
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 Allows much better space utilisation in the engine compartment
 Without mechanical connection between the steering wheel and the road
wheel, it is less likely that the impact of a frontal crash will force the steering wheel
to intrude into the driver’s survival space.
A fail-safe steering device which includes a fail-safe electronic control unit for
steering back up in case of a failure in the main electronic control unit occurs.
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7 Electric steering systems

The use of electronics in automotive steering systems enables much more
sophisticated control to be achieved. The electric steering is more economical to
run and easy to install than conventional hydraulic power steering systems. It also
reacts faster to quick steering changes from the driver.
Figure 40: Electric steering system
Typically, electric and electrohydraulic power steering systems are lighter and more
compact than conventional hydraulic power steering systems. Both the electric
power steering system and the electrohydraulic power steering systems are now
considered as viable alternatives to conventional hydraulic power steering systems
because of their energy efficiency and size.
7.1 Electrically powered hydraulic steering
Electrically powered hydraulic steering (EPHS) replaces the customary drive belts
and pulleys that drive a power steering pump in a conventional rack-and-pinion
steering system with a brushless motor.
This system still uses a pump, but it is driven by an electric motor to reduce power
drawn from the engine. Pump speed is regulated by an electronic controller to vary
pump pressure and flow. This provides steering efforts tailored to different driving
situations.
The pump can be run at low speed or shut off to provide energy savings during
straight-ahead driving. An EPHS system is said to use only 20% of the engine power
used by a standard belt-driven pump and improves fuel economy by approximately
10%.
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The engine still contributes power to the steering system through electrical demand
on the alternator of the vehicle, but it is greatly reduced from that of hydraulic
power steering systems.
7.2 Electrically assisted steering
Electrically assisted steering is a complete electrically powered power-assist system

that eliminates all hydraulic components and fluid. An electric motor replaces the
hydraulic pump. EAS or direct electric power steering completely eliminates
hydraulic fluid and the accompanying hardware from the power steering system,
creating a fully electric power steering (EPS) system.
Figure 41: Electrically assisted steering
The reduction of components saves weight and reduces drag on the engine, vastly
improving fuel economy. The EPS system is said to require only 2% of the engine
power that a standard belt-driven power steering pump uses. However, a small
amount of power is taken from the engine in the form of electrical energy which is
produced by alternator.
7.3 Electric power steering system
Operation:
Power steering is mounted by the electronic control unit. This receives road-speed
signals from the speedometer and engine-speed signals from the ECU. When the
steering wheel is turned, the ECU also receives signals from the torque sensor which
indicates the direction and degree of turn. It uses these signals to determine the
torque needed to assist the driver to turn the steering wheel.
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7.4 Steering angle sensor
The steering angle sensor is used to determine where the front wheels are pointed,
and it helps to measure the dynamics of the vehicle. The steering angle can be
measured with optical sensors, by assessing Hall Effect and through other
technologies. Theses sensors measure the movement of the steering wheel in
degrees.
The information given by the sensor is processed by the ESP control unit of the
vehicle to increase the safety and comfort for the passengers in the vehicle
Figure 42: Steering angle sensor
The steering angle sensors must be recalibrated after an alignment has been
performed or after the replacement of steering system components.
The three types of reset procedures include –
a) self-calibration
b) recalibration with a scan tool
c) pressing specific wires or buttons
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8 Diagnostic testing procedures for light vehicle

steering systems
8.1 Operational testing for hydraulic power steering system
Play and hard steering are the common issues that occur in the steering system.
Hydraulic power steering system must be checked for the following issues –
 Check for wear in the connection between parts
 Inspect too much clearance in the steering gearbox
 Examine low tyre pressure
 Inspect tight adjustments in the steering gearbox
 Check the power steering which is not working appropriately
 Check for bent or damaged linkage
 Check or measure the play of the steering system
 Check for rattling noise
 Inspect the unwanted noise coming from vehicle when steered from one end to
another at idle position.
Inspecting for oil leaks
 Clean away any oil from the area of the suspected leak this could be at the
pump the pipe connections or the steering box.
 Start the engine and move the steering from lock to lock several times.
 Stop the engine and check the various parts of the system of oil that has leaked
out. Leaks may be easier to locate when the fluid is hot.
8.2 Inspecting the fluid leakages
Power steering fluid is important for the appropriate operation of the steering system.
Fluid leakage is required to be repaired immediately. Therefore, it is important to
inspect the vehicle regularly. Mostly, the fluid leakages are seen at the steering
pump, pipe connections or at the steering box.
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Figure 43: Fuel leakage
 Inspect the entire steering system on regular basis
 Inspection of the leaks is easy in the presence of hot fluids
 Examining the leaks is done by cleaning all power steering fluid off the vehicle
and then passing the fluid through the system. Re-examine for leaks by turning on
the vehicle
 Standard fluorescent dyes can also be used to inspect the leaks. Add proper
amount of dye to the power steering system by following the manufacturer’s
specifications.
 Check the vehicle with black light which illuminates the fluorescent dye. This helps
in identifying the leaks easily.
8.3 Procedure for electronic and load sensing steering testing
 The electric power assist system must be tested if there is an issue with the steering
i.e., either hard or loose steering.
 Start the vehicle and check the operation of the steering wheel by examining the
EPS warning lamp.
 If the power steering is normal and if the warning lamp is not working, perform a
road test and inspect the functioning of the steering system.
 Road testing the vehicle will provide the information regarding faults.
 A visual inspection must be performed if the EPS warning lamp is not working.
 Check the vehicle components like tyre pressure, tie rods, tyres, steering column
and rack bushings for unwanted play or damage.
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 A scan tool is used if there is damage in EPS lamp. Connect the scan tool to the
vehicle’s data link connector.
 The scan tool accesses the vehicle’s onboard computer and retrieves the data. It
recognizes the diagnostic trouble codes (DTCs).
 Manufacturer’s manual is checked to identify the DTCs from which the correct
problem can be known.
 Manual can be checked to know the procedure for repair and replacement.
8.4 Power steering fluid pressure test
Hydraulic steering system testing:
 Check for any visible power steering fluid leaks visually
 Make sure the steering oil level in the reservoir is up to the mark in cold and hot
condition
 Check the high pressure hoses and there clamps for looseness.
 Inspect for abnormal noise from the power steering pump using with
stethoscope.
Pressure test
Figure 44: Testing pressure using pressure gauge
 With the engine off, place a drain pan under the vehicle in order to catch any
power-steering fluid.
 Disconnect the pressure hose at the pump
 Install the pressure gauge between the pump and the steering gear and bleed
the system.
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 Run the engine for about 2 minutes, and then stop the engine and add fluid to
the power-steering pump if necessary.
 Restart the engine and allow it to idle.
 Turn the steering wheel and briefly hold it against the steering stops in order to
release any trapped air form the system.
 Observe the pressure reading. The readings should be about 30 to 80 psi (200 to
550kPa). If the pressure is low, the pump may be faulty. If the pressure is too high,
the problem may be restricted hoses. Flow control valve is suspect, remove and
inspect it. If there are any burrs or scratches on the valve, replace it.
After testing and verifying the repairs, remove the gauge, reconnect the lines, refill
the system, bleed it, and refill it again.
The following tests will determine the course of action the technician should take to
repair power steering faults.
 Place a thermometer in the power steering reservoir.
 Start the engine and raise to 1500 rpm.
 Rotate the steering wheel from lock to lock until the temperature reading reaches
50-60°C.
 Observe the pressure gauge reading while turning the steering wheel from lock to
lock and compare reading with manufacturer’s specification.
 If the steering rack pressure is below the recommended pressure, the rack will
need to be removed and overhauled.
Power steering pump test
 Close the equipment shut off valve and start the engine.
 Raise the engine speed to 1500 rpm and compare the reading on the pressure
gauge with manufacturer’s specification. If the reading is below specification, the
power steering pump needs to be overhauled.
8.5 Diagnosing of steering faults
Symptom Possible causes
Loose steering  Incorrect front-wheel bearing adjustment
 Loose linkage ball joints
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 Loose steering box mounting
 Wear or mal-adjustment of steering box
 Worn or loose idler arm
Steering and suspension  Loose linkage connections

rattles
 Loose mountings
 Loose suspension joints
 Broken spring
Heavy steering  Power steering inoperative
 Incorrect front wheel alignment
 Incorrect tyre pressure
 Lack of lubrication
 Tight steering box adjustment
Steering shimmy  Out of balance wheels
 Loose linkage connection
 Incorrect front-end alignment
Vehicle pulls to one side  Tyre pressures uneven
 Front-wheel alignment incorrect
 Sagging or broken spring
 Mismatched tyres
Tyre squeals on turn  Incorrect wheel alignment
 Low tyre pressure
 Bent steering arm
Wander from side to side  Loose steering connections

of road
 Loose steering box adjustment
 Sagging spring
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 Incorrect tyre pressure
 Uneven tyres
 Incorrect wheel alignment
For instance, analysing the possible causes for heavy steering
 Pump noise:
o Observe the pump noise by placing the stethoscope on the pump.
o If the noise is from the pump, it indicates that internal components are worn
out.
o If the pump is not producing enough pressure, it indicated the pump internal
wear or pump failure.
 Reduced power assistance:
If the piston seal is worn out, it would allow pressure fluid to leak past the piston to the
non-pressure side of the power cylinder. Due to this there will be reduced power
assistance and the steering would be heavier than normal.
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9 Repair procedures for light vehicle steering systems
9.1 Power steering oil level
The power steering fluid level should be checked during a routine service. To check
the power steering fluid level –
 Ensure that the engine is switched off
 Clean the surrounding areas of the power steering reservoir
 Withdraw the dipstick from the reservoir filler tube and wipe clean with a rag or
paper towel
 Reinsert the dipstick
 Withdraw the dipstick again and observe the power steering fluid level. The fluid
level should be between the high and low marks on the dipstick
 If a top up is required, use the recommended power steering fluid
 Reinsert the dipstick in the filler tube, taking care not to damage the seal on the
dipstick
 Check the power steering hoses, pump and steering system for oil leaks.
9.2 Manual steering box oil level
The steering box oil level should be checked and topped up as necessary. Lack of
oil will result in heavy steering and damage to the bearings and gears.
 To top up the oil level in manual steering box, remove the steering box oil level
plug located on the top plate of the steering box.
 Fill the steering box using the manufacturer’s recommended lubricant.
 Refit the steering box oil level plug.
9.3 Steering system overhaul
After carrying out a thorough inspection of the steering system, it may be necessary
to remove, repair and/or replace and reassemble steering system components.
It is important that the technician refers the workshop manual to carry out the
overhaul according the vehicle manufacturer’s specifications.
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Steering systems and components that may require repair or adjustment include –
a) Manual and power steering racks
b) Power steering hoses and pumps
c) Manual and power steering boxes
d) Steering column
e) Wheel alignment
9.3.1 Steering rack overhaul
Figure 45: Repairing steering rack
Removal
 Raise and support the front of the vehicle and remove the tyres
 Remove the split pin and castellated nut from both outer tie-rod ends
 Separate the tie-rod ends from the tapered holes in the steering arms
 Disconnect the intermediate steering column shaft from the steering rack pinion
shaft
 In the case of power assisted steering racks, remove both power steering pump
hoses from the pinion housing and drain the power steering fluid
 Remove the two steering rack mounts and withdraw the steering rack from the
vehicle.
Steering rack dismantle procedure
 Secure the steering rack housing in a vice. Use soft jaws to prevent damage to
the housing
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 Mark the tie-rod and lock nut position onto each tie rod arm and tie rod end
 Slacken both tie rod end lock nuts and unwind each tie rod, taking note of the
number of turns each tie rod requires to be removed
 Disconnect each tie-rod arm from the rack shaft
 Remove the pinion housing from the rack and withdraw the pinion shaft
 For power steering racks press out the pinion shaft and seal assembly.
 Remove the steering rack pad adjusting yoke, spring and spacers
 Withdraw the rack shaft from the housing
 Clean, inspect and replace any faulty components
The following steering rack components must be repaired or replaced if there is

evidence of cracking, splitting, leaking, corrosion or excessive wear –
 Oil pipes
 Rubber or metal brackets
 Tie rod ends and tie rod arms
 Boots and boot clips
 Rack and pinion housings
 Springs, snap rings, locknuts
 Bushings, collars, spacers and shims
 Oil seals, O-rings
 Bearings
 Rack and pinion shafts
 Pressure plate
Steering rack assembly
 For power steering racks, install new sealing O-rings and Teflon seals using the
manufacturer’s recommended lubricant and tools to the rack and pinion
housings and rack and pinion shafts
 Lubricate and install the steering rack shaft into the rack housing and install the
rack lock rings and seals
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 Lubricate and install the pinion shaft into the rack pinion housing aligning the
pinion shaft teeth with the rack teeth
 Install the pinion housing securing bolts and/or bearings and seals and secure the
housing to the recommended torque
 Lubricate and install the pressure pad, tension spring and adjustment nut to the
rack housing
 Set the steering rack shaft to the centre of the rack housing and secure the
pressure pad adjusting nut to the recommended torque setting and sequence
 Secure the pressure pad adjusting nut lock ring to specification
 Lubricate and install both tie rod arm ball, seat and tension springs to the steering
rack shaft
 Using a pull scale connected to the tie rod arm, adjust the rack and pinion
preload. The adjusting nut is located at the rear of the pinion and can be turned
until the pull scale indicates the manufacturers recommended tension.
 Secure the lock nut
 Install both the steering rack boots, tie rods and lock nuts
 Carry out a vacuum test to confirm that the Teflon seals and O-rings are sealing
correctly and have not been damaged while installing.
 Connect a vacuum gauge and hose fittings to the rack housing inlet fittings and
apply at least 50kPa. If the vacuum pressure is not held for at least 30 seconds, the
steering rack will need to be dismantled for reinspection.
 Install the power steering hoses between the pinion and rack housings.
Steering rack installation
 Centralise the vehicle steering wheel and the steering rack shaft in the rack
housing and align the pinion shaft with the steering intermediate shaft.
 Secure the steering rack mounting bushings and brackets to the baulk head
 Reconnect both tie rod ends to the steering hubs
 Connect power steering hoses to the power steering pump and fill the reservoir
with the recommended power steering fluid
 Crank the engine over for short periods, without allowing it to start, giving time in
between for the air bubbles to return to the surface of the reservoir.
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 Top up the reservoir constantly. If air bubbles are in the power steering oil, the
system will be noisy and damage may occur to the pump.
9.3.2 Tie rod end replacement
Tie rod ends that are worn or have split dust boots must be replaced.
Figure 46: Replacing tie rod
 Mark the position of the tie rod thread on the tie rod
 Loosen the lock nut on the tie rod shaft
 Remove the split pin from the castellated nut
 Remove the castellated nut
 Using a tie-rod removing tool, remove the tie rod from the tapered hole in the
steering arm
 Unwind the tie-rod end leaving the tie-rod lock nut in its original position on the tie-
rod. Count the number of turns required to remove the tie rod end.
 Thread the new tie rod onto the tie rod arm by the same number of turns as
required during removal
 Install the tie rod end into the steering arm and secure to the recommended
torque setting
 Install a split pin to the castellated nut and secure the tie rod end lock nut
 Refit the road wheel and lower the vehicle
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 The toe-in angle must be checked and adjusted on a wheel alignment machine
prior to road use to prevent rapid tyre wear.
9.3.3 Power steering pump overhaul
The following components must be repaired or replaced if there is evidence of

clogging, cracking, splitting, leaking, corrosion or excessive wear.
 Pressure switch assembly
 Control valve
 O-rings, seals, gaskets, bushes and dowel pins
 Cam ring, rotor, blades and main shaft
 Pump body and end plate
 Pulley
A rotary control valve is used to cover and uncover oil ports located in the pump
stationary housing to direct power steering fluid under pressure to the steering rack
or steering box.
The steering rack/box is divided into two sealed chambers. When pressure is applied
to one chamber, the other chamber is not pressurized and the fluid is redirected
back to the power steering reservoir.
Power steering pump removal
Figure 47: Removal of power steering pump
 Remove the pump pulley from the steering pump shaft
 Remove the pump reservoir from the pump
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 Remove the pump control valve and pressure switch from the pump body
 Create an alignment mark on both the pump housing and the end plate to
ensure correct alignment for reassembly
 Remove the end plate securing bolts and plate from the pump assembly
 Remove the pump cam rings, blades, rotor and main shaft from the pump body
 Remove the rotor, main shaft bearing plate and seal from the pump body
 Wash all components except oil seals in a chlorinated solvent and dry off with
compressed air.
Power steering pump reassembly
The power steering pump components must be assembled using the manufacturer’s
recommended power steering fluid and torque settings.
 Lubricate and install O-rings, seals, bearings to the main shaft
 Install the rotor, vanes, cam ring and main shaft assembly into the pump body.
Note that the pump vanes are machined with a rounded edge. Ensure that the
rounded edge comes into contact with the cam ring surface.
 Ensure that the cam ring installation marks is facing upwards
 Reassemble the end plate to the pump body ensuring that the alignment marks
are in line and secure the bolts to the manufacturer’s recommended
specifications
 Refit the pressure control valve and pressure switch to the pump body (refit power
steering reservoir to the pump body as required)
 Rotate the main shaft and verify that it rotates smoothly
 Refit the front pulley to the pump main shaft and torque to the manufacturer’s
recommended torque setting.
Power steering pump installation
 Position the power steering pump onto its mounting bracket and install the
securing bolts but do not secure full
 Refit the power steering belt and adjust the belt tension. Secure the securing bolts
 Install the pressure hose and the return line to the steering pump
 Fill the pump with the recommended steering fluid
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 Start the vehicle turning the steering wheel from lock to lock to bleed the air from
the system, while topping up the fluid until air is bled from the system
 Refit the wheels and lower the vehicle to the ground
9.3.4 Steering box overhaul
The recirculating ball steering box is the most common type of steering box fitted to
modern motor vehicles. The following procedure is an example of a disassembly
procedure for a recirculating ball steering system.
Steering box removal
 Raise and support vehicle and remove the front wheels and centre the steering
wheel
 Remove the steering box coupling bolts from the steering column
 Remove the steering linkage from the pitman arm.
 For power assisted models, remove the pressure and return line hoses from the
power steering box and drain the power steering fluid
 Remove the steering box mounting bolts and withdraw the steering box from the
vehicle
Figure 48: Removal of steering box
Steering box disassembly
 Rotate the input shaft to the centre point of its travel and remove the steering
column flexible coupling
 Create alignment marks on the pitman arm and sector shaft and remove using
the recommended pulley
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 Remove the sector shaft adjusting screw and cover plate from the steering box
housing and remove the sector shaft
 Remove the input shaft top plate seal and pre-load adjusting shims from the
steering box and withdraw the input shaft and ball nut rack from the housing.
 Remove the ball guides from the ball nut rack and remove the balls from the ball
nut by rotating the input shaft until all the balls have been removed.
 Press the input shaft lower bearing from the housing
 Clean all steering box components and prepare for inspection
Steering box reassembly
 Install the sector shaft bearings and seals to the steering housing
 For a power steering box, use the manufacturer’s recommended lubricant and
tools to install new Teflon seals to the input shaft
 Install the balls into the ball nut rack and input shaft assembly by rotating the input
shaft to enable all of the balls to completely locate into the nut rack assembly
 Install the input shaft and ball nut rack assembly into the steering box housing
 Install the input shaft top plate, shims and seal and secure the top plate to the
housing.
 To achieve the manufacturer’s recommended input shaft pre-load, adjust the

number of shims between the top plate and the housing or by rotating an
adjustment screw to achieve pre-load setting.
 Slide the sector shaft into the housing and mesh the sector shaft teeth with the
ball nut rack teeth
 Install the sector shaft top cover and gasket and secure the cover. Install the
sector shaft adjusting screw.
 Refit the steering column flexible coupling and attach a pull scale to the flexible
coupling.
 Rotate the sector shaft adjustor screw until the manufacturer’s recommended pull
scale pre-load is achieved
 Re-install the steering box to the vehicle and top up with manufacturer’s
recommended lubricant.
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9.3.5 Steering columns
Generally, the steering column will only need to be removed from the vehicle for
repair if the vehicle has been involved in an accident (whether major or minor) or to
allow access to other components under repair.
Overhaul is carried out if there is evidence of the following –
a) Excessive steering wheel movement up and down
b) Excessive steering wheel side to side movement
c) Clonking or scrapping is heard while operating the steering wheel
Steering column alignment
 Remove the lower steering column rubber bushing or cover plate away from the
floor pan by sliding the bushing or cover plate up the steering column.
 Raise the front of the vehicle to allow for free rotation of the steering wheel
 Loosen the steering column mounting bolts from the dash panel frame
 Ensure that the steering shaft is centrally located at the lower end of the steering
column and the hole in floor pan and secure the steering column mounting bolts
 Rotate the steering wheel from lock to lock, checking for free rotation of the
steering assembly
 A full steering column overhaul may be necessary if the alignment check proves
to be ineffective.
9.4 Removal and replacement of air bag system
When air bag is fitted, the air bag has to be removed and the clock spring electrical
connections disconnected before the steering wheel nut is accessible.
The following procedure is generally used for removing a steering wheel with air bag
system
1. Place the front wheels facing straight ahead
2. Disable the SRS
3. Remove the steering pad and air bag
4. Remove the steering wheel assembly set nut
5. Put alignment marks on the steering wheel and the steering main shaft
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6. Disconnect the connectors from the clock spring cable
7. Using the correct puller, remove the steering wheel assembly
The following precautions must be taken while working on steering wheels with air
bags
1. Disconnect battery negative terminal and wait for few seconds before working
on Airbag system
2. Disable air bag system before removing
3. Remove the air bag system carefully and carry the assembly by pointing inflator
away from the body
4. Never carry inflator assembly by wires
5. Always place air bag inflator assembly facing up.
6. Do not attempt any repairs or supply power except as specified
Figure 49: Replacing air bag
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10 Final procedure of vehicle servicing
10.1 Road test
The post-repair inspection plays a major role in ensuring the right work is done on the
vehicle and the customer does not face any problems. If any problems are found
during the vehicle inspection, the necessary repairs can be performed before
delivering the vehicle to the customers. The post-repair inspection involves the
following tests:
a) Visual inspection: Visually inspecting the vehicle as part of post-repair inspection

involves checking the repaired components, mating; looseness and play in the
replaced components, any leakages in the system, etc.
b) Electronic system inspection: This includes the inspection of the system using a
scan tool for the fault codes and DTC and understanding the live data by
comparing the manufacturers specification.
c) Road test: Road test after the repairs is important for certain repairs in order to
inspect the noise, vibration, rough drive of the cars. The road test must be
conducted as per the manufacturer’s manual.
10.2 Post-repair inspection of the vehicle
After completion of steering system service
While vehicle in the workshop -
 Check the tightness of all bolts.
 Check for power steering fluid level.
 Check the power steering hoses for looseness.
 Check for any leakages.
 Start the car and check the steering wheel play and rotate from lock to lock and
check for smooth rotation.
During road test
 Check for steering operation.
 Check for conditions like pulping in either direction, harshness or noise or excess
steering effort.
 Check that steering does not rattle, vibrate or shudder when driving.
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 Check for steering and suspension control.
 Check steering wheel for smooth return to centre from either direction
10.3 Clean up after inspection
After vehicle inspection, the work space must undergo routine cleaning and
maintenance process.
 The drip trays used to catch liquids, clean up oil and chemical spills must be
carefully handled.
 All spills must be cleaned up immediately. They should never be hosed down the
drains, driveways or stormwater.
 Refer relevant safety data sheet (SDS) to clean up the spills.
 Store all waste generated from the spill clean-up in sealed vessels. Keep these
vessels in a bunded and covered area. This minimises the emission of volatile
compounds.
 Contact a waste contractor who is licensed to dispose the absorbents used in the
spill clean-up.
10.3.1 Waste segregation
Segregate the different type of wastes after the completion of the inspection. Waste
is categorised into 2 types – recyclable and non-recyclable waste.
Recyclable waste includes – Paper or cardboard, glass, metals, plastic and

prescribed industrial waste.
Non-recyclable waste includes - air filters, oil filters, O-rings, anti-freeze etc.
Disposal of waste and non-recyclable material
Hazardous wastes cannot go to landfill or be discharged into the sewer. They can
never go in the stormwater system. It is the responsibility of the supervisor to ensure
that hazardous waste is transported to a facility that is licensed to receive and treat
that type of waste.
 Place only dry solid waste in the industrial waste bin. Do not put liquid or
hazardous waste in the general waste bin.
 The hazardous waste must be transported by a licensed contractor to a facility

that is licensed to receive or treat that type of waste.
 Oil filters must be drained and then crushed.
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 Make sure that the disposed radiator coolant is stored in appropriate containers.
Keep the stored containers and drums on a sealed, bunded and undercover
area.
10.4 Storage of tools and equipment
Tools and equipment should be correctly stored in the designated areas. Damage
to tools and equipment may lead to a decrease in productivity, increased costs and
inconvenience to the customer, and expensive cost of repairs/replacement for the
workshop.
Various hand tools are used in automotive like wrenches, files, cutters, pliers, striking
tools, hammered tools, screwdrivers etc. The main function of these hand tools is to
enable safe, accurate and quick work. All the workers must also be trained on
handling the tools.
Figure 50: Properly arranged tools at workshop
a) The tools used in an automotive workshop should be cleaned, maintained and

returned to their respected storing area after use. This will provide easy access for
everyone.
b) The tools and equipment should be kept in safe working order so that they are
readily available for use.
c) Make sure to repair the damaged tools. Replace the tools if they cannot be
repaired.
d) Ensure that tools are kept clean and free from grease or oil. This will prevent the
grease or oil from being transferred to the customer's vehicle and will also assist
the technician to maintain a firm grip of the tool.
70
10.5 Documentation
Documentation plays an important role in workshop. They include all the details like
the problem of the vehicle, tests performed, recommendations etc. Customers
always ask the technicians for the documentation. It helps in presenting the details in
a formal and systematic manner.
Figure 51: Documenting the diagnosis and repair process
Documentation must be simple and clear so that everyone can understand by a

glance.
Repair Order (RO)
A repair order (RO) is written for every vehicle brought into the shop for service. ROs
are also called as service or work orders. ROs contains information about the
customer, the vehicle, the customer’s concern or request, an estimate of the cost for
the services, and the time the services should be completed.
RO is a legal document used for many other purposes, such as payroll and general
record keeping. Legally, RO protects the shop and the customer. Every shop may
enter different information onto the original RO. Most ROs contain the following
information:
 Complete customer information
 Complete vehicle identification
 The service history of the vehicle
 The customer’s complaint
 The preliminary diagnosis of the problem
 An estimate of the amount of time required for the service
 An estimate of the costs of the parts involved in the service
71
 The time the services should be completed
 The name or other identification of the technician assigned to perform the

services
 The actual services performed with their cost
 The parts replaced during the services
 Recommendations for future services
 The total cost of the services
Figure 52: Sample repair order
Diagnostic reports
The documentation process involves a diagnostic report. Diagnostic report

consists of the following information –
 Complete vehicle information
 The service history of the vehicle
72
 Concern being diagnosed
 The diagnosis tool and equipment used
 The technician’s observations
 The procedure involved
 The conclusion and summary of the diagnosis.
Figure 53: Sample diagnostic report
Importance of documentation
 The technician can keep track of the process e.g. the details of the tests and their
results.
 The technician can see the build-up of information which will help them
eventually recognize the fault.
 The documentation helps both the customer and the technician to know the
exact issue and presenting the issue respectively.
73
 The business can obtain authority to repair at the appropriate stages as the
procedure is worked through.
 The documentation can be used if there are any legal issues in future.
74
11 References
Automotive mechanics eBook 10e by May and Simpson
www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au
Erjavec, J. Automotive Technology: A Systems Approach. [Cengage]. Retrieved

from https://cengage.vitalsource.com/#/books/9781337794404/
Automotive technology, principles, diagnosis and service eBook by James

D.Halderman
Automotive mechanics eBook 10e by May and Simpson
Automotive service, inspection, maintenance, repair sixth edition by Tim Gilles
* All images are taken from Google and clipart
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AURLTD004 Diagnose and Repair Light Vehicle Steering Systems PDF

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Diagnose and repair

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Elements and Performance Criteria

1.1. Job requirements are determined from Page 15

1.2. Diagnostic information is sourced and Page 15

1.5. Diagnostic tools and equipment are Page 18

2.1. Diagnostic tests are performed Page 51

2.2. Faults are identified from diagnostic test Page 51

3.1. Repair information is sourced and Page 57

3. Repair 3.2. Repair options are analysed and those Page 57

3.3. Repair tools, equipment and materials Page 57

3.4. Repairs and component replacements Page 57

3.5. Post-repair testing is carried out Page 68

4.1. Final inspection is made to ensure work is Page 68

4.2. Work area is cleaned, waste and non- Page 69

 Work health and safety (WHS) and occupational health Page 2

 Environmental requirements, including procedures for Page 6

 Operating principles of light vehicle steering systems and

o manual steering systems Page 33

o power steering systems Page 39

 Application, purpose and operation of the following

o steering wheels, including clock springs Page 27

o steering columns Page 29

o manual steering systems, including:

 rack and pinion Page 33

 steering boxes Page 35

o hydraulic power steering systems, including:

 integral piston Page 43

 power assisted rack and pinion Page 44

 electronically controlled power steering systems Page 45

o electric steering systems, including steering angle Page 48

 Identification, function and basic operating principles of

 toe-in and toe-out Page 25

 toe-out on turns Page 25

o Ackermann principle of steering Page 22

o steering axis inclination Page 26

 Diagnostic testing procedures for light vehicle steering

o operational testing Page 51

o hydraulic steering system testing Page 51

o electronic and load sensing steering testing Page 52

o analysing component wear analysis Page 54

 Repair procedures for light vehicle steering systems, Page 57

 Post-repair testing procedures for light vehicle steering Page 68

2.3 Environmental requirements ................................................................................ 6

2.4.3 Safety while using hoists and jacks .............................................................................. 12

2.4.4 Work area safety ............................................................................................................. 13

3 Diagnosis preparation and planning .......................................................... 14

4 Light vehicle steering systems ....................................................................... 22

4.3 Steering axis inclination (SAI) ............................................................................. 26

4.4.3 Clock springs .................................................................................................................... 30

4.4.4 Steering linkage............................................................................................................... 31

5 Manual steering system .................................................................................. 33

5.2 Steering boxes .................................................................................................... 35

5.2.2 Manually operated Rack and pinion assembly ....................................................... 36

6 Hydraulic power steering systems ................................................................ 39

6.2.4 Flow control and pressure relief valves ....................................................................... 41

6.2.6 Power steering hoses...................................................................................................... 42

6.3 Types of power steering systems ....................................................................... 43

6.3.2 Power assisted rack and pinion steering system....................................................... 44

6.4 Electronically controlled power steering systems ............................................ 45

7 Electric steering systems ................................................................................. 48

8 Diagnostic testing procedures for light vehicle steering systems.......... 51