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Brief review on plasma propulsion with neutralizer-free systems

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 Plasma Sources Science and Technology

Plasma Sources Sci. Technol. 25 (2016) 043001 (14pp) doi:10.1088/0963-0252/25/4/043001

Topical Review

Brief review on plasma propulsion with

neutralizer-free systems
D Rafalskyi and A Aanesland
Laboratoire de Physique des Plasmas (CNRS, Ecole Polytechnique, Sorbonne Universités,
UPMC Univ Paris 06, Univ Paris-Sud), Ecole Polytechnique, 91128 Palaiseau, France

E-mail: dmytro.rafalskyi@lpp.polytechnique.fr

Received 4 October 2015, revised 8 February 2016

Accepted for publication 18 March 2016
Published 18 May 2016

Abstract
Electric space propulsion is an intensively developing field addressing new demands and
challenges for long-term spacecraft operation. Many novel plasma propulsion concepts aim
to find new acceleration principles, use alternative propellants, upscale or downscale thrusters
for large thrust or for very small spacecrafts etc. In this work we review the neutralizer-
free concepts, where both positive and negative particles are extracted and accelerated from
plasmas. We can divide these concepts into three main categories, defined by their acceleration
principle: (i) neutral beam generation, (ii) plasma acceleration/expansion and (iii) bipolar
beam acceleration. We describe the basic physical principles and evaluate the main advantages
and drawbacks in view of general space applications. We also present here further detail on
a recent concept where RF voltages are used to accelerate quasi-simultaneously positive ions
and electrons from the same source.
Keywords: space propulsion, plasma thruster, ion extraction from plasma, plasma acceleration,
neutralizer-free propulsion

(Some figures may appear in colour only in the online journal)

1. Introduction generating a thrust in a given direction. A strong advantage

Electric space propulsion (EP) was first proposed more than
100 years ago by Goddard and Tsiolkovskiy [1, 2], and used
in space since the 1960s. Electrostatic thrusters (like the Hall
and ion thrusters) are increasingly popular in the space indus-
try and are now used in about 20% of the commercial satel-
lites for attitude and altitude control [3]. However, intensive
development is still going on with the focus on new con-
cepts addressing demands and challenges for long-term and
highly manoeuvrable spacecraft operation not possible with
the existing systems. New systems often focus on providing
a suitable engine for precise orbit control or formation flying,
orbit transfers, interplanetary EP-powered missions, small
spacecraft control etc [3, 4].
Electric propulsion systems convert electrical energy into
directed kinetic energy of a propellant stored onboard, thus
of electric propulsion comparing to other propulsion systems
(such as chemical or cold gas propulsion) follows from a
direct well-controlled acceleration of the propellant to very
higher velocities [4]. With higher exhaust velocities, the same
amount of propellant can produce a higher velocity gain ΔV
of the spacecraft, as given by the ‘ideal’ rocket equation [2]:
∆V = Vex ln(m 0 /m1),
(1)
where Vex is the propellant exhaust velocity and m0 and m1
are initial and final or dry mass of the spacecraft, respectively.
Since in electrostatic thrusters the exhaust velocity is
given directly by the applied electric field, this velocity is
theoretically limited to the speed of light c due to relativ-
istic limitations. However, practical limitations are more
important and limited by for example the electrical power
available and various technical and engineering constrains.

0963-0252/16/043001+14$33.00 1 © 2016 IOP Publishing Ltd  Printed in the UK

Plasma Sources Sci. Technol. 25 (2016) 043001
The typical exhaust velocity range for existing electric pro-
pulsion systems is about 5–50 km s−1 (<0.000 02c) [4]. This
velocity corresponds to an acceleration voltage ranging from
hundreds to thousands of volts in classical electrostatic accel-
eration of xenon ions.
Electric propulsion systems have usually two common
features: propellant ionization and ion acceleration. Most of
the space-proven technologies use a plasma discharges for the
propellant ionization and electrostatic field for the ion accel-
eration. Some new concepts apply a direct plasma-free ion
emission from liquid metals and have been successfully tested
[5]. These devices have small dimensions and mass, do not
require neutralizer and external fuel tank, and already reached
high technology readiness level [5]. Nevertheless, in this work
we constrain ourselves to consider only plasma-based electric
propulsion systems, and we refer to them below as ‘plasma
propulsion’ systems.
The most powerful plasma propulsion systems in opera-
tion today are based on broad-beam ion sources. In all these
sources the ions are accelerated by electrostatic fields, where
the acceleration voltage is applied between a set of conduc-
tive grids terminating the plasma source (‘ion thrusters’) or
between the anode and external cathode (‘Hall thrusters’).
Using an ion source in space applications requires neutraliza-
tion or compensation of both the ion positive space charge
and the ion current to avoid charging and beam stalling [4].
Commonly, the neutralization is achieved with electrons being
injected from an external neutralizer into the downstream
beam. The neutralizer is a dedicated device usually based on
a hollow cathode (HC) or other types of discharges. For the
moment, most popular concepts are thermoionic and plasma
bridge neutralizers where hollow DC or radio frequency (RF)
discharges are used [4]. In addition to this, cold neutralizers
with field emission from micro-machined array are under
development [6]. Note here, that a neutralizer acts sometimes
as a main discharge cathode (for example in Hall thrusters
[4]), ensuring both ionization and neutralization [4].
Independently on type, the neutralizer requires an addi-
tional power supply and gas injection system [4] (see fig-
ure 1). Although much progress on neutralizer technology has
been achieved over the last decade, it is still a fragile part of
the system, in particular during launch, it is difficult to scale
up and down and difficult to operate in other gases than xenon
[4, 7–9]. Moreover, the neutralizer is indirectly responsible for
some undesired effects in space, such as spacecraft charging,
solar array degradation, communication interference (through
a phase shift) etc [4]. The main reason is that the neutralizer
acts as an additional source of background plasma, ejecting
isotropic electrons, slow ions and neutrals [4]. The initial
velocities and spatial distributions of the accelerated ions and
the neutralizing electrons are not matched; this allows forma-
tion of relatively dense background plasma around the space-
craft. The potential of this plasma is hard to control, especially
in the presence of unshielded large area solar arrays [4]. As a
result of all the issues mentioned above, a significant part of
the novel plasma propulsion concepts aims to provide external
neutralizer-free systems by generating a quasi-neutral acceler-
ated flow at the thruster exit [10–13].
2
Topical Review
Figure 1.  Simplified structure of the common plasma-based electric
propulsion system.
Another motivation for novel concepts comes from the
increasing interest in small spacecraft (from 1–500 kg total
mass) [8, 10]. Miniaturization of the spacecraft requires
downscaling of all the sub-systems, including the propulsion
system. While the thruster itself can be relatively easily down-
scaled, the efficiency of these systems is very low, comparing
to the larger systems [8]. Note that the electrical power, pro-
pellant consumption, system mass and dimensions are very
critical parameters for miniaturized spacecraft [8].
In addition to challenges in downscaling, space propul-
sion struggles with propellant storage problems. Xenon gas
used traditionally as the propellant needs to be stored in high-
pres­sure tanks. High-pressure storage is complicated in both
very small systems as well as for very large systems (includ-
ing orbit transfer applications). As a motivation to get rid of
using xenon, solid and liquid propellants with low vapour
pressure at ambient temperature are proposed due to cost, high
mass density and reduced explosion risk. Direct replacement
of xenon by solid iodine (I2) has recently been proposed by
research groups from the USA and France [14, 15]. Iodine pro-
pellant is already tested as a propellant for ion and Hall thrust-
ers, as well as for a neutralizer-free concept called PEGASES
[15, 16]. Other alternative propellants are also under invest­
igation, including adamantine, fullerene-based mixtures (C60),
different noble gases (Kr, Ar), light gases as H2 and metals
(Al, W, Bi etc) [17, 18]. Alternative propellants are required
by some of the neutralizer-free systems [14, 18]. Hence, neu-
tralizer-free propulsion could reply to various challenges in
the modern space industry.
Common motivation for the novel plasma propulsion con-
cepts are to find new acceleration principles to allow missions
not possible with existing systems, such as providing orbit
control and long lifetime for very small spacecraft, as light
as 1 kg, to increase lifetime, robustness etc. In this work we
give an overview of neutralizer-free concepts, representing the
majority of novel space propulsion concepts.
Plasma Sources Sci. Technol. 25 (2016) 043001
Figure 2.  Classification of plasma-based neutralizer-free electric
propulsion concepts.
2.  Neutralizer-free electric propulsion
Figure 2 shows an illustration of the different techniques that
can be used to achieve a neutralizer-free acceleration. We
separate the systems into three subgroups via the acceleration
method: (i) neutral beam generation, (ii) plasma acceleration
and (iii) bipolar beam acceleration. Below we consider these
groups separately.
3.  Propulsion with a neutral beam
The first possibility of charge-free acceleration is based on a
neutral beam generation, similarly to the neutral beam sources
for confined thermonuclear fusion [19]. This propulsion prin-
ciple can be achieved by accelerating initially ionized propel-
lant species (heavy ions) and neutralizing them on the way
through the extraction system.
A neutral beam thruster prototype called CXT (‘charge
exchange thruster’) has recently been developed and tested at
the University of Sydney [20, 21]. The CXT thruster schematics
and picture of the operating prototype are shown on figure 3.
A long discharge tube sustains a HC discharge, and the thruster
nozzle is formed by a cylindrical cathode surrounded by an
additional hollow anode ring. High pressure of H2 gas inside
the discharge tube (30 mTorr) ensures efficient neutralization
of the ions by charge exchange collisions. The exper­imental
measurements using Doppler spectroscopy show the presence
of very fast neutral hydrogen atoms (up to 3 · 105 m s−1). The
total thruster efficiency is still low and remains one of the cru-
cial parameters to be significantly improved.
4.  Plasma acceleration concepts
Generation of quasi-neutral accelerated plasma flows has
been considered as a prospective space propulsion method
for at least the last 50 years [22]. The idea consists in direct
electro­magnetic, electrodynamic or electrostatic accelera-
tion of plasma generated using the propellant stored onboard.
3
Topical Review
Figure 3.  Schematics of the neutral beam thruster (top) and
photo of the operating prototype (bottom) [21]. Reproduced with
permission from [21]. Copyright 2015 The Japan Society of Plasma
Science and Nuclear Fusion Research.
The main fraction of the thrust is produced by accelerated
positive ions; co-directed electrons provide space charge neu-
tralization such that the flow is quasi-neutral.
In general, quasi-neutral plasmas can be accelerated as a
whole from a source using various physical mechanisms such
as high intensity laser radiation, constant and pulsed electri-
cal fields, electrodynamics effects, magnetic nozzles, etc [13,
22–25]. Besides, plasma accelerators are well known devices
used in a wide area of applications, varying from fundamental
physics [26] to surface modification [27]. Although, as illus-
trated in figure 4, only two plasma acceleration principles are
relevant in electric propulsion: (i) J  ×  B plasma acceleration
by Lorentz force and (ii) plasma expansion (by volume or
magnetic nozzles) where the ion acceleration is provided by a
self-consistent ambipolar field.
4.1.  J  ×  B plasma thrusters
Two basic configurations of J  ×  B plasma thrusters are shown
on figure 5. These devices have typically a coaxial geometry.
In the ‘magnetoplasmadynamic’ (MPD) thrusters [22, 28],
which are very similar to quasi-stationary plasma accelerators
[24], the electric current is driven through the plasma between
the central and outer electrodes (cathode and anode), and the
magnetic field is created by external sources or self-induced
by the cathode current. Various configurations have been pro-
posed and tested over the long history of MPD [28]. The main
barrier for the MPD implementation is due to special concept
limitations, such as very high power required in steady state
(up to megawatt range), high erosion rates, short lifetime, low
to moderate efficiency range etc [28].
Plasma Sources Sci. Technol. 25 (2016) 043001
Figure 4.  Two common principles of plasma acceleration that
can be used in space applications: J  ×  B acceleration (a) and
acceleration by ambipolar field (b).
Figure 5.  MPD (top) and RMF (bottom) plasma propulsion
concepts. Reproduced with permission from [11]. Copyright 2015
The Japan Society of Plasma Science and Nuclear Fusion Research.
Recent plasma propulsion concept with rotating magnetic
field (RMF) may eliminate some of the limits of MPDs by
using an electrode-less configuration [11]. The system (see
figure  5(b)) uses two pairs of RF coils (antennas) powered
by two RF generators with a π/2 phase-shift. The system is
therefore similar to an asynchronous motor, where the plasma
replaces the conductive rotor. The RF antennas play two roles
in the system operation. Firstly, they couple power to the
plasma providing propellant ionization as in usual inductively
coupled plasma discharges (ICP). Secondly, they create a RMF
B that induces an azimuthal electron current in the plasma
jθ. As a result, the Lorentz force Fz  =  jθ  ×  B accelerates the
4
Topical Review
Figure 6.  Schematics of (a) the PPT (b) VAT and (c) photo of the
VAT plume. Reproduced with permission from [29]. Copyright
2010 JET Propulsion Laboratory.
plasma towards the system output, and thus provides thrust to
the spacecraft. Recent experimental measurements show that
ion velocities of a few km s−1 can be achieved [11]. This is
however not yet enough to justify replacing existing less com-
plicated cold gas or chemical thrusters that provide similar
exhaust velocities.
4.2.  Pulsed expansion thrusters
The second group of plasma acceleration concepts use plasma
expansion. One ‘pioneering’ concept based on this principle
is the pulsed plasma thruster (PPT). The PPT was the first
electric propulsion system ever sent to space onboard the
soviet spacecraft Zond 2 in 1964 [10]. The PPTs are com-
mercialized and currently operated on a few spacecrafts. The
principle of the PPT is based on ablating Teflon insulation by
pulsed surface arc discharge, with following plasma expan-
sion reinforced by J  ×  B acceleration (similar to the MPD)
(figure 6(a)). A strong advantage of the PPT compared to
other concepts follows from a solid fuel storage integrated
into the thruster and simple and robust configuration allowing
long term stable operation. The PPTs are space proven, easy
to integrate in different platforms and downscale, while the
efficiency is still very low (<5%) [8, 10, 29].
Plasma Sources Sci. Technol. 25 (2016) 043001
Figure 7.  (a) Coaxial ECR thruster with microwave ECR discharge and magnetic nozzle; (b) inductively coupled electromagnetic (ICE)
thruster with magnetic-free configuration and liquid propellant (water). Reproduced with permission from [32, 35, 36]. Copyright 2015 ERPS.
A vacuum arc thruster (VAT) is a concept similar to PPT
but promises higher efficiency while keeping the main advan-
tages [8, 10, 29]. In a VAT system, the vacuum arc is ignited
between two metal electrodes (see figures 6(b) and (c)). The
thrust is fully controlled by the repetition frequency of the arc
pulses. The propellant ionization and acceleration principle
are similar to the PPT, but the Teflon propellant rod is replaced
by ablating the electrode material which can be Al, W, Bi or
many other conductors, that also change the acceleration pro-
cess [8, 10]. The choice of cathode material affects the pulse
duration, which allows a better control of the ablation process.
Some investigations promise ~20% efficiency for the VAT
systems (including the power processing unit (PPU)) [30].
4.3.  Steady state expansion thrusters
A relatively low level of thrust (μN range), low efficiency and
pulsed operation of the state-of-the-art PPT and VAT con-
cepts limit the area of their applications. A concept based on
steady-state plasma expansion allows well controlled thrust to
be achieved in a mN range with significantly higher efficiency
(see figure  7). In these concepts, ambipolar electric field
formed across the plasma source is used for the acceleration
of quasi-neutral plasma [13, 31]. The propellant ioniz­ation
and plasma heating can be achieved by using microwave elec-
tron cyclotron resonant discharge (coaxial electron cyclotron
resonance (ECR) thruster [12]), ICP discharge (ICE thruster
[32]), helicon discharge (‘helicon double-layer thruster
(HDLT)’ [13], ‘CubeSat ambipolar thruster (CAT)’ [33]) and
capacitive RF discharge (‘pocket rocket’ [13]). Some concepts
assume double stage plasma heating, as helicon and ion cyclo-
tron resonant (ICR) heating in the Variable Specific Impulse
Magnetoplasma Rocket (VASIMR) concept [34].
Independent of a discharge type, the operational principle
for all these concepts is very similar: propellant ionization by
plasma discharge and free plasma expansion accompanied
5
Topical Review
by self-acceleration due to potential fall at the thruster exit.
In order to localize the acceleration process and control plume
divergence, the magnetic nozzles are often used [13, 28, 31].
Despite system simplicity, theoretical description of the
expansion plasmas is quite complicated due to the problem of
electron dynamics at the thruster exit. There are several mod-
els on expansion thrusters’ operation available in the litera-
ture [31, 37–40]. In models based on polytropic expansion,
the electron dynamics is estimated from polytropic expansion
law [40]:
Te /Te0 = (n e /n e0 )γe− 1,
(2)
where Te and ne are electron temperature and density, Te0 and
ne0 are the electron temperature and density at the thruster exit
plane, and γe is the polytropic coefficient. This allows maxi-
mum ion energy Emax to be obtained:
Emax /Te0 = 1/2 + γe /(γe − 1).
(3)
The most important drawback of the polytropic models
is that the coefficient γe is a free parameter, varying in the
range about 1.1–1.4 according to the results of different works
[31, 41, 42]. Therefore, accurate performance estimation with
these models is complicated.
Recent progress on expansion thruster modelling is repre-
sented by the current-free non-polytropic plasma expansion
model by Lafleur et al [31], experimentally validated for both
magnetic and non-magnetic thruster configurations in a broad
range of parameters. This model considers potential wall for-
mation assuming that the plasma is ambipolar at any radial
position, and that electron velocity distribution in the plasma
source is Maxwellian with strong high-energy depletion. The
maximal ion energy at thruster exit is obtained as [31]:
Emax /Te0 = 1/2 [1 + ln(m i /2πm e )] ,
(4)
where mi and me are the ion and electron mass. For Xe it gives
Emax / Te0  ≈  5.8. The thrust T can be estimated as:
Plasma Sources Sci. Technol. 25 (2016) 043001
Figure 8.  Ratio of the ionization rate factor to the Bohm velocity
Kiz/uB, as a function of electron temperature for Xe. Reproduced
with permission from [31]. Copyright 2015 IOP Publishing.
T = η D m′iVex,
(5)
where ηD is divergence efficiency and m′i is the ion mass flow
rate. Divergence efficiency coefficient is about 0.55 for non-
magnetic expansion and 0.7–0.85 for more efficient systems
with magnetic nozzles [31, 39].
As follows from equations  (3) and (4), ion energy for
expansion thruster is inversely proportional to the electron
temperature in the discharge. Thus, there is a limit for ion
energy and consequently for the exhaust velocity that can be
achieved because there is a maximum ionization rate factor
(see figure 8) [31]. As recently shown by [31] the maximum
achievable exhaust velocities for the plasma expansion thruster
with or without the magnetic nozzle are about 25 km s−1
for Xe and 45 km s−1 for Ar. It should be noted that these
values are comparable to the performances given by standard
Hall and ion thrusters.
Requirement of high electron temperature for efficient
plasma acceleration stays in some contradiction with energy
loss minimization requirement. As a result, unavoidable extra-
losses of energy in plasma expansion thruster should be well
balanced with propellant losses due to non-efficient accelera-
tion. An example of good balance between power and pro-
pellant utilization efficiency is demonstrated by miniature
ECR coaxial thruster (ONERA, France) (figure 7(a)) [12].
Recent investigation shows 16% of total thruster efficiency
and about 10 km s−1 of exhaust velocity for Xe propellant.
Corresponding thrust is about 1 mN and adsorbed power is
only 30 W [12].
Although in principle all plasma expansion concepts pro-
vide long term neutralizer-free operation, the demonstrated
performances such as specific impulse and thrust efficiency are
generally lower than the performances provided by the tradi-
tional electric propulsion concepts (ion and Hall thrusters [4]).
However, these thrusters can be easily downscaled, require
simple control onboard and minimal number of subsystems,
which makes them very attractive for the small spacecrafts [8].
6
Topical Review
5.  Beam acceleration concepts
This category of concepts is represented by devices based on
simultaneous, alternate or quasi-simultaneous acceleration
of positive and negative ions or positive ions and electrons
extracted from the plasma and accelerated using the polar-
ized grids. Such devices may provide a time averagely quasi-
neutral beam, while the ion flux and energy can be controlled
separately in a simple way, because the propellant ionization
and acceleration are independent. Another advantage of these
concepts compared to others is similarity with space-proven
gridded ion thrusters allowing technology heritage.
Evidently, simultaneous electrostatic acceleration of oppo-
sitely charged particles extracted from the plasma is not a triv-
ial problem. Possible solutions include1: (i) spatial separation
of the oppositely charged particle acceleration; (ii) temporal
separation of positive and negative acceleration from the same
source and (iii) quasi-simultaneous acceleration, where con-
tinuous acceleration of heavy positive ions is accompanied by
periodical injection of electrons from the same source.
5.1.  Spatial separation
Hence, the first possibility to solve the bipolar acceleration
problem consists in a space separation of positive and negative
acceleration. In this case, the acceleration system consists of
two (or multiple) separated parts or segments allowing accel-
eration of positive and negative particles extracted from two
primary plasmas. It is important to mention that two sepa-
rated plasma sources should be used in this system due to the
requirement of an equipotential boundary at the extraction
system exit. Otherwise, formation of an enclosed current loop
between oppositely charged particle sources can be expected
[43]. Necessity to use two or more plasma sources with dedi-
cated extraction systems makes this concept quite similar to
standard propulsion systems with positive ion acceleration
and electron neutralizer. However, since a ‘neutralizer’ in a
conventional sense is eliminated, we briefly describe these
systems below.
There are two examples of space-oriented exper­
imental realization of the spatial separation principle; the
first ‘PEGASES’ (plasma propulsion with electronegative
GASES) thruster [14] and fullerene-based thruster [18] (see
figure 9). Both concepts are based on positive and negative ion
extraction and acceleration using electrostatic grids, without
any external electron source needed for beam neutralization.
Despite the apparent simplicity, these concepts struggle
with the problem of efficient broad negative ion beam extrac-
tion with low electron fraction. This problem is well known
in the negative ion source community, though the solution is
always compromising [19, 44]. The most important require-
ment for efficient negative ion extraction is very high plasma
electronegativity, such that the electron density is a few orders
of magnitude lower than the negative ion density. A so-
called ion–ion or electron-free plasma is formed in this case,
1
This classification is initially proposed by Prof S Dudin in private conver-
sation at Kharkiv National University, Ukraine (2012).
Plasma Sources Sci. Technol. 25 (2016) 043001 Topical Review

Figure 9.  PEGASES (top) and fullerene-based (bottom) thruster

concepts. Bottom part of the figure is reproduced with permission
from [18]. Copyright 2015 ERPS.

providing equal fluxes of oppositely charged ions to the grids.

In this case, broad negative ion flow can be accelerated with-
out extra losses and plasma disturbance [45]. The efficiency
for negative ion acceleration can even reach the same values
as for positive ions [45].
High plasma electronegativity requires strongly electroneg-
ative non-standard propellants, such that electrons can attach
to the neutral molecules. The propellant can be halogens such
as SF6 (electron affinity Ea  =  2.6 eV) and I2 (Ea  =  2.42 eV)
or heavy fullerenes C60 (Ea  =  2.65 eV), C78 (Ea  =  3.05 eV)
or very electronegative C60F48 (Ea  =  4.06 eV). Note, that all
these propellants may have certain advantages in space due
to much easier storage than Xe gas; SF6 is easily liquidized Figure 10.  Series plasma systems allowing generation of
(critical pressure is 37.59 bar), I2 and fullerenes are solids at ion–electron ((a), (b)) and ion–ion quasi-neutral ((c), (d)) beams.
normal conditions. However, proof-of-principle is already Reproduced with permission from [46, 47]. Copyright 2014, 2004
AIP Publishing.
demonstrated only for I2, SF6 and C60 propellants [15, 16, 45].
In addition to initially space-oriented concepts with spatial
separation, few other original concepts with spatially sepa- the exit system. There is no information in the literature avail-
rated extraction exist [46, 47]. These concepts use a ‘series able about possible application of these concepts to the space
connection’ of two plasma sources, separated by the extraction propulsion, though they can be considered as neutralizer-free
and acceleration system, and one additional extraction system thruster candidates.
at the source exit. In the cases shown in figures  10(a)–(d)
the electrons [46] or negative ions [47] are accelerated
5.2.  Temporal separation
together with positive ions. Particles of one sign of charge are
extracted from the upstream plasma source and accelerated Temporal separation of positive and negative acceleration can
toward the downstream source. After passing the downstream be another option for reaching bi-polar propulsion. In this
plasma the initially accelerated particles reach the exit extrac- case, the generated beam can only be time averagely quasi-
tion system where they are decelerated. The exit extraction neutral, while time-resolved beam parameters such as space
system accelerates the oppositely charged particles extracted potential, particles density and energy, oscillate.
from downstream plasma. Due to acceleration–deceleration To our knowledge there is only one propulsion concept
scheme, equal energies of both positive and negative species based on this principle, which is the second version of the
can be achieved but with two times higher acceleration volt­ PEGASES concept [45]. The PEGASES II thruster uses elec-
age applied to the middle acceleration system compared to trostatic grids to accelerate alternately positive and negative

7
Plasma Sources Sci. Technol. 25 (2016) 043001
Figure 11.  Explanation to the alternate ion extraction from ion–ion plasma ((a), (b)) and schematic view on the PEGASES II thruster
prototype (c). Reproduced with permission from [45]. Copyright 2014 AIP Publishing.
ions applying a square voltage waveform to the plasma grid
as shown on figure  11 [45, 48]. At frequencies lower than
the ion plasma frequency the extraction phases are long
enough to be considered similar to a DC case, while transient
processes between the phases can slightly change the time-
averaged space charge [49]. During each extraction phase
a focusing plasma meniscus can be formed in front of the
extraction apertures when the appropriate voltage is applied.
The thickness of the space charge sheath located between the
plasma edge and second grid can be estimated using a modi-
fied Child law [49].
Due to a negligible amount of electrons and almost equal
mass of the ions, the positive and negative acceleration peri-
ods are very similar. Experimental measurements show that
positive and negative extraction at similar conditions in SF6
plasma leads to very similar positive and negative ion beam
formation [45, 48]. This is demonstrated in figure 12(a) show-
ing measured velocity distribution functions of positive and
negative ions when 600 V p–p alternate voltage is applied to
the extraction system.
Slight difference in the mass of positive and negative ions
is leading to different ion currents being extracted during the
positive and negative extraction phases. Examples are shown
on figures 12(b) and (c) where the extracted currents of positive
and negative ions (different products of SF6) are plotted as a
function of applied positive and negative acceleration voltages
and duty cycle (the frequency is fixed at 200 kHz). Despite the
observed difference in extracted currents, the amount of emit-
ted charge (or level of neutralization) can easily be controlled
by changing the waveform symmetry relatively to zero volt­
age and/or by controlling the duty cycle. Due to electron-free
plume [44] the PEGASES II thruster may be promising for
8
Topical Review
scientific missions and other applications requiring weak per-
turbations to the spacecraft environment.
5.3.  Quasi-simultaneous extraction from plasma
Quasi-simultaneous extraction from plasma is based on using
significant difference in mass between positive and negative
species in electropositive plasma, leading to different response
of ions and electrons to the time-oscillating electric field. The
idea of ‘quasi-simultaneous’ ion–electron acceleration using a
RF biased gridded plasma source has been firstly proposed in
the 1990s at Kharkiv University (Ukraine) [50, 51].
The system is schematically shown on figure 13 and oper-
ates as follows. The source combines RF inductive and capac-
itive discharges with RF antenna and biased electrodes. RF
power delivered to antenna controls plasma density and ion
flux towards the extraction system. Two RF-biased electrodes
of different areas have an electrical contact with plasma,
besides the smaller electrode is made as a conductive grid
(mesh). RF voltage is applied through a capacitor blocking
the DC current in the system, and RF frequency is set between
ion plasma and electron plasma frequencies (normally few to
hundreds MHz range). With RF voltage applied to the elec-
trodes, space charge sheathes in front of electrodes form a
structure close to capacitive divider, where each space charge
sheath plays a role of capacitor, while plasma electrically con-
nects these capacitors. As a result of the different electrode
areas, equivalent sheath capacitance is also different for two
electrodes, and most of the applied RF voltage drops over the
space charge sheath formed in front of the smaller electrode.
Different response time of ions and electrons to the oscillat-
ing field leads to rectification of the sheath voltage (so called
Plasma Sources Sci. Technol. 25 (2016) 043001
Figure 12.  (a) Positive and negative ion energy distribution
functions; (b) positive and negative ion beam currents as a function
of acceleration voltage; (c) positive and negative ion fluxes from the
thruster as a function of the duty cycle at 200 kHz frequency and
600 V p–p acceleration voltage. Reproduced with permission from
[45, 48]. Copyright 2014, 2013 AIP Publishing.
self-bias effect) [51]. As a result, massive ions are accelerated
in front of the gridded electrode by averagely positive poten-
tial difference and leave the system through the extraction
holes. At the same time, much lighter electrons responding to
almost simultaneous electrical field are extracted from plasma
in short bursts when oscillating plasma potential approaches
zero values. Finally, the presence of a blocking DC capacitor
in the system ensures the absence of any DC current, thus the
total amount of extracted ions and electrons is time-averagely
equal. This produces a well-compensated beam composed of
continuously accelerated ions and pulsed electrons [51]. Due
to the high mobility of electrons, the produced plume serves
9
Topical Review
Figure 13.  Schematic view on the single grid system with quasi-
simultaneous ion/electron extraction (top) and equivalent electrical
circuit (bottom).
as a charge capacitor, efficiently smoothing space potential
oscillations [52].
The system can work in principle with any propellants, and
allows separate control of exhaust velocity and ion flux. In
addition, the presence of only one grid increases robustness
and eliminates the possibility of inter-grid breakdowns and
similar faults. However, this system, initially proposed as a
new etcher for microelectronic, was not investigated yet con-
sidering any thruster-related applications. One of the reasons
is the number of disadvantages and limitations considering
propulsion applications, namely: (1) ion acceleration in front
of the grid causes sputtering and limits lifetime; (2) high ion
energy range (>300 eV) cannot be easily achieved due to very
intense sputtering in this case; (3) focusing plasma meniscus
in front of the apertures is replaced by defocusing meniscus
due to acceleration scheme, which decreases efficiency; (4)
neutral gas and ion transparencies of the extraction system are
equal (in the best case), thus propellant utilization efficiency
is lower than for classical ion thrusters [51, 53].
5.4.  Self-bias within the double-grid system
Recently, a new quasi-simultaneous plasma propulsion con-
cept has been proposed [54, 55]. Here ions and electrons are
also co-extracted from plasma, but capacitive divider and self-
bias effects are achieved within the double-grid extraction
system (see figure  14). In fact, when RF voltage is applied
only between two closely spaced grids being in contact with
plasma, the equivalent circuit is very similar to the single-grid
Plasma Sources Sci. Technol. 25 (2016) 043001
Figure 14.  Illustration of the double grid propulsion concept with
RF acceleration scheme. Time moments t0 and t1 correspond to the
minimum and maximum values of the instantaneous electrical field.
case considered above. Electrical asymmetry required for the
capacitive divider effect follows from partial screening of the
second grid from plasma by a first one [55].
In contrast to a single-grid system, this concept is free
of sputtering problems since ion acceleration is localized
between the grids. In addition, focusing plasma meniscus in
front of the first grid can be formed, similarly to classical dc
thrusters. Another important feature of the RF acceleration
follows from the reduced positive space charge between the
grids, due to periodical electron injection. The space charge
limited current density JCL can be estimated using the modi-
fied Child–Langmuir law [56]:
⎛ 2e ⎞1 / 2 V 3 / 2
JCL = ξ ⎜ 0 ⎟
(6) , 0.6 and an aperture diameter of 2.5 mm; the intergrid distance
⎝ mi ⎠ d2
4 200
ξDC = ≈ 0.44, ξRF =
(7) = 0.82,
9 243
where V is the average value of a voltage waveform, d is the
distance between the grids and ξDC and ξRF are proportional
coefficients for the pure DC and RF ion acceleration cases [56].
10
Topical Review
Figure 15.  Schematic view of the experimental setup (a) and image
of the plume (b).
As follows from expression (6), the space charge limited cur­
rent is almost doubled in the RF case comparing with the DC
case for the same average value of acceleration voltage and
distance between the grids. This means that the thrust per area
ratio can be almost doubled using the RF acceleration prin-
ciple, which is very promising for propulsion technologies.
The concept is proposed in 2014 and proof-of-concept
has recently been achieved for Ar and N2 gases, where it was
found that the RF ion acceleration has the same efficiency as
traditional DC acceleration [55]. The floating potential of the
beam is found to be lower than in the case of DC acceleration
with neutralizer, which can be explained by highly directional
extraction of electrons with RF acceleration scheme. Below
we present recent experimental results, where the thruster
proto­type was installed on a 1 m scale vacuum tank.
The experimental setup is schematically shown on figure 15.
The thruster prototype called Neptune is made as a metallic rec-
tangular parallelepiped with size 8  ×  12  ×  12 cm. The plasma is
generated using an RF antenna supplied by a 4 MHz 200 W RF
power. A set of two grids is placed at the source exit. Both grids
are made of stainless steel and have an optical transparency of
is 2 mm. The extraction system is a rectangle with dimensions
65  ×  105 mm. An RF distribution and matching system is intro-
duced to allow matching of the RF generator with the plasma
load and to distribute the RF power between the ICP antenna
and extraction grid system. The first grid in contact with the
plasma is biased with RF voltage via a blocking capacitor and
the applied RF voltage amplitude is controlled in the range
Plasma Sources Sci. Technol. 25 (2016) 043001
Figure 16.  (a) Voltage waveform of the first grid when 200, 400
and 600 V p–p RF voltage is applied. (b) Ion and electron EDFs
measured simultaneously in the downstream of the Neptune thruster
with 200 V p–p RF acceleration voltage. (c) Waveform of the plume
potential.
0–600 V p–p. The second grid is grounded. The Neptune proto­
type is attached to a 1 m long cylindrical test chamber, where
the propagating beam is analyzed. The main diagnostics con-
sists of a rotating RF-compensated double grid retarding field
energy analyzer (RFEA), the beam target, Langmuir and planar
probes, and collimated Faraday probe. The collimated probe
has aspect ratio 10 and can be rotated around the axis. The Ar
gas at 20 sccm mass flow is used, the pressure in the prototype
is about 2 mTorr, and in the test chamber is 0.2 mTorr.
11
Topical Review
Figure 17.  Angular distribution of the collimated Faraday probe
current measured for different RF acceleration voltages.
As mentioned above, when only the RF voltage is applied
to the acceleration grids a plasma self-bias effect leads to
the DC voltage generation. This effect is demonstrated on
figure 16, where the experimentally measured voltage wave-
forms are plotted for different RF voltages applied to the grids
(note, that the second grid is grounded). It is seen that the self-
generated DC component of the grid voltage is similar to the
amplitude of the RF voltage applied.
The time-averaged ion and electron energy distribution
functions (EDF) simultaneously measured by a RFEA are
shown on figure  16(b). It is seen that the ion EDF is multi-
peaked in the range 70–250 eV, while the electron EDF is
situated at low energy. Plume potential oscillations are shown
on figure 16(c) for different cases of acceleration RF voltage
applied. It is seen that the plume potential oscillates on a quite
small level (few volts) comparing to the applied RF accelera-
tion voltage (hundreds volts). Electron extraction moments
correspond to the plume potential minima, and between these
moments the plume potential increases with approximately
80 V μs−1 slope for the highest acceleration voltages.
The ion beam was further characterized by measuring
beam divergence angle. Figure 17 shows angular distributions
of the collimated Faraday probe current measured at three dif-
ferent acceleration voltages. Calculated half-divergence of the
beam reaches 14 degrees for the highest acceleration voltages,
which is comparable to other ion thrusters [4].
In order to investigate the directionality of emitted elec-
trons, the EEDFs have been measured in the beam down-
stream at different radial positions of RFEA and with
different angular orientation with respect to the beam direction
(0 and 90 degrees). Figure  18(a) presents radial distribution
of the electron fluxes measured along the beam direction, and
perpendicular to it (the RF voltage amplitude is 200 V). The
electron flux has been deduced by integrating electron EDFs.
For comparison, figure  18(b) shows the same curves meas-
ured with a DC powered system and a neutralizer installed.
As follows from figure 18, the electron flux is highly aniso-
tropic in the ion beam region for the RF case only, and is equal
in both directions (isotropic) at the beam periphery for both
RF and DC cases. Therefore, the electrons are directionally
Plasma Sources Sci. Technol. 25 (2016) 043001
Figure 18.  Radial distribution of the electron fluxes measured
along the beam direction and perpendicular to it with a RF-powered
acceleration system (a) and in a classical DC system with a
neutralizer (b).
Figure 19.  Ion currents extracted using the double grid RF biased
(a) and DC biased acceleration system.
co-extracted along with ions from the Neptune thruster
prototype.
Finally, the ion extraction efficiency has been compared
with the case of standard DC ion acceleration and a neutral-
izer installed. The same plasma source at the same ICP power
has been used in two experiments, where grids were powered
with RF or DC voltage. In the last case, the appropriate hot
filament neutralizer has been installed in the source proximity.
12
Topical Review
Results of measurement of the ion current as a function of the
DC voltage component are shown on figure 19. As seen from
the figure, the RF acceleration provides higher ion current,
being in good agreement with predicted reduction of a space
charge. It should be noted, that a similar result has been previ-
ously measured with a single grid RF biased source [54].
6. Summary
In this work we considered neutralizer-free electric space pro-
pulsion concepts, where neutral or both positive and negative
particles are extracted from plasma and accelerated using the
single system. These concepts have been classified by accel-
eration principle on three categories: neutral beam generation,
plasma acceleration and bipolar beam acceleration concepts.
We considered basic physical principles of operation for each
category of concepts, comparing the main advantages and
drawbacks.
The neutral beam propulsion concepts have the smallest
readiness level, being represented by only one system (CXT
thruster). In this system ions are accelerated from plasma and
converted into a fast neutral beam by charge-exchange pro-
cess. Despite the significant progress achieved, total thruster
efficiency remains one of the crucial parameters that needs
significant improvement.
Plasma acceleration concepts form the biggest group of
neutralizer-free plasma propulsion systems. This group is rep-
resented by the already tested in space PPT concept, by the
various prospective concepts based on free plasma expansion
and J  ×  B acceleration (coaxial ECR, RMF, HDLT, VAT, CAT
etc). The demonstrated performances such as specific impulse
and thrust efficiency for the plasma acceleration concepts are
generally lower than the performances provided by the tra-
ditional electric propulsion systems (ion and Hall thrusters).
However, these thrusters can be easily downscaled, require
simple control onboard and a minimal number of subsystems,
which makes them very attractive for many applications.
Beam acceleration concepts are represented by devices
based on simultaneous, alternate or quasi-simultaneous accel-
eration of positive and negative ions or positive ions and elec-
trons extracted from plasma using the polarized grids. The
strong advantage of beam acceleration concepts compared to
other neutralizer-free plasma propulsion systems follows from
strong technology heritage with existing ion thrusters. In this
work we briefly describe the Pegases and fullerene-filled ion–
ion thruster concepts, and ion–electron concepts based on RF
acceleration.
As shown here, a recent concept with RF acceleration
scheme seems to be one of the most prospective from novel
EP concepts. This concept assumes using the plasma self-bias
effect in the RF-powered gridded system, providing quasi-
simultaneous ion–electron acceleration. The first proof-of-
concept is already achieved, demonstrating similar efficiency
as for traditional gridded ion thrusters. The ion and electron
fluxes emitted by the source are equal helping to achieve much
better beam neutralization than in traditional systems with
neutralizers. The experiments show that the emitted flow of
Plasma Sources Sci. Technol. 25 (2016) 043001
electrons is highly directional, thus the thruster plume can be
precisely localized. Moreover, it is shown that the achievable
thrust per area ratio can be almost doubled using RF accelera-
tion principle.
Finally, we would like to mention that plasma propulsion
is an intensively developing field, addressing new demands
and challenges for long term efficient spacecraft operation.
Despite a variety of already proposed systems, there is still
room for new ideas and conceptions.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank Stephane Mazouffre and
Stanislav Dudin for useful scientific discussions and advice.
This work was supported by a Marie Curie International
Incoming Fellowships within the 7th European Community
Framework (NEPTUNE PIIF-GA-2012-326054). Also, the
work received financial state aid managed by the ANR as part
of the Program ‘Investissements davenir’ under the reference
ANR-11-IDEX-0003-02 (Project MINIATURE).
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