Evolution: A Historical Perspective

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Pre-Darwinian theories of change

ARISTOTLE (Immutability of organisms)

Aristotle (384-322 BC)

- The theory of immutability, or the idea that living things were created and are not subject
to change, was put out by Aristotle. He believed that the order thus proposed responded
to a "vital force" and that nothing could cause fundamental changes in people.

This insisted on the "immutability" and eternal perfection of the species, as well as the existence
of an ascending, or progressive, hierarchical order, at the "summit" of which man was
positioned.

BUFFON(comparative anatomy)

Comte de Buffon
1707-1788

- “living things do change through time”

He assumed that this had something to do with environmental factors or perhaps chance. The
earth, in his opinion, must be substantially older than 6000 years.

- He also suggested that humans and apes are related

ERASMUS DARWIN (believed in common ancestry)

Erasmus Darwin
1731-1802

Grandfather of charles. He thought that humans had evolved, along with other living things, but
he had only hazy theories about what might have caused this shift.

- He wrote of his ideas about evolution in poems and a relatively obscure two volume
scientific publication entitled Zoonomia; or, the Laws of Organic Life (1794-1796)
LAMARCK (animal classification)

- Jean Baptiste Chevalier de Lamarck (1744-1829)

Lamarck was the first evolutionary theorist to very publicly proclaim his ideas about the
processes leading to biological change.

- Lamarckianism

He thought that the human race was the culmination of this purposeful progress. His theory,
now known as Lamarckianism, was founded on the conviction that the majority of the causes of
evolution were the passing down of acquired traits as organisms adapted to their
circumstances.

Lamarck: An early proponent of

Evolution

Lamarck claimed that an organism utilized a body component in such a way that it
eventually underwent a change during its existence and that this acquired change might
be passed down to its offspring.

- Lamarck believed that giraffes gained their long necks by reaching longer with
each generation to obtain leaves from trees, and that this change in body
structure was then passed down through the generations. Although tempting and
on the surface appearing to make sense, this theory—the inheritance of acquired
characteristics—is completely without foundation.

Change Through Use And Disuse

- The organs that the organism uses regularly develop, while the traits that are
only seldom employed disappear in successive generations. When a giraffe
bends its neck to swallow leaves, for instance, "nervous fluid" would flow through
 its neck, causing it to grow larger. With time, the organs that the organisms are
no longer using will shrink.

Early development of Darwin’s idea of evolution

Voyage of HMS Beagle in 1831

- From 1831 to 1836, Charles Darwin traveled the world in the HMS Beagle as a
naturalist. He developed the hypothesis of evolution through natural selection as
a result of his experiences and observations.

- On December 27, 1831, Charles Darwin boarded the HMS Beagle in Plymouth,
England. The journey lasted for almost five years, and on October 2, 1836, the ship
sailed back to Falmouth, England.

Most of the trip was spent sailing around South America. There Darwin spent considerable time
ashore collecting plants and animals. In South America, Darwin gathered bird specimens,
including finches from the Galapagos Islands. He noticed similarities between finches and
finches from the mainland, and his findings contributed to the development of the theory of
evolution by natural selection.

GEOLOGY

Charles Lyell’s book “principles of geology”

- In his three volume book Principles of Geology, Charles Lyell (1797–1875)

argued for the gradual change of the earth and its climate over very long periods
of time.

Theory of uniformitarianism
 - Geological theory known as uniformitarianism discusses how the planet and the
universe were formed. It claims that consistent, ongoing processes that are still in
motion now have caused changes in the earth's crust throughout recorded
history.

Uniformitarianism, a concept rejecting catastrophism, asserts that the present is the key
to the past, recognizing that great disasters like earthquakes, asteroids, volcanoes, and
floods are part of Earth's regular cycle.

Catastrophism- theory that claims that repeated cataclysmic events and repeated fresh
creations are to blame for the variances in fossil forms found in different stratigraphic
levels. Baron Georges Cuvier (1769–1832).

The Evolution of Uniformitarianism Theory

- The two major scientists in the advancement from catastrophism towards

uniformitarianism were the 18th-century Scottish framer and geologist James Hutton
and the 19th-century British lawyer-turned-geologist Charles Lyell.

- Hutton's theory posits that slow natural processes, such as stream erosion and sediment
accumulation, require millions of years to shape the Earth into its contemporary form.

Lyell's work on catastrophism led him to question Hutton's theories and travel Europe to prove
them. His work became influential, leading to Darwin's theory of evolution, which incorporated
biological uniformitarianism. William Whewell coined the term "uniformitarianism."

Fossil evidences

TOXODON (hippopotamus like)

- Charles Darwin discovered fossil specimens of Toxodon on HMS Beagle, influencing

19th-century evolution debates by indicating South American mammals differed from
European ones.
Toxodon looked like a little rhinoceros. An expansive, well-developed snout is indicated by nasal
apertures on the top of the head. There were wide spaces separating the incisors from one
another and from the cheek teeth. A huge, hefty body must have been supported by the
enormous skeleton. The three functional toes on the short, broad feet carried the majority of the
forces along their axis.

THOATHERIUM (horse like)

- An extinct genus of litoptern animals from the Early Miocene of Argentina is called
Thoatherium. The Santa Cruz Formation in Argentina has been the site of the discovery
of the genus' fossils.

The gazelle-like Thoatherium, which was 70 centimeters in length, was a little member of the
order Litopterna. Its lengthy legs suggested that it was a swift runner. Thoatherium only had one
hoof that resembled a horse, and its toes were noticeably shortened. Even the splint bones,
which are the remains of the second and fourth toes in contemporary horses, were absent from
Thoatherium. Thoatherium lived on tender leaves rather than tough grasses, judging on the
generalized, brachydont teeth it had.

Galapagos Islands

- The Pacific Ocean's Galápagos Islands are a group of islands most recognized for their
amazing diversity of plant and animal species.

In the eastern Pacific Ocean, there is an archipelago of islands known as the Galápagos
Islands. They are a part of the South American nation of Ecuador. About 966 kilometers (600
miles) off the coast of Ecuador are the Galápagos Islands.

The Galápagos archipelago is composed of thirteen large islands and a few smaller ones.
Isabela is the name of the largest island. It measures about 129 kilometers (80 miles) in length.
The steep mountainous terrain of the Galápagos Islands was shaped by several volcanic
eruptions.
Tortoises

COMMON NAME: Galápagos Tortoise

SCIENTIFIC NAME: Chelonoidis
TYPE: Reptiles
DIET: Herbivore
SIZE: Up to six feet
WEIGHT: Up to 573 pounds
SIZE RELATIVE TO A 6-FT MAN:
Galápagos tortoises are protected by Ecuadorian law and CITES, with Galápagos National Park
established in 1959 to safeguard their habitat.

Fourteen species of finches

Small land birds known as Darwin's finches—13 of which are unique to the Galapagos Islands—
were named after Charles Darwin. The Cocos finch, which is found on Cocos island in Costa
Rica, is the fourteenth finch. They are actually members of the tanager family and are not true
finches. Their nearest known relative and presumed ancestor is the drab-colored grassquit
found in continental South America.

1. Green warbler finch (Certhidea olivacea). Vulnerable. Until 2008, it was thought that
this was the same species as the grey warbler finch.
2. Grey warbler finch (Certhidea fusca). Least Concern. These finches are found mostly
on smaller, drier islands.
3. Mangrove finch (Geospiza heliobates). Critically Endangered. These rare finches are
only found in a small area on Isabela.
4. Woodpecker finch (Geospiza pallida). Vulnerable. This finch is well-known for its use of
tools. It can use a twig, stick or cactus spine to dislodge invertebrates from trees.
5. Large tree finch (Geospiza psittacula). Vulnerable. This species has a large, powerful
bill with a thick base and is found on a number of the islands.
6. Medium tree finch (Geospiza pauper). Critically Endangered. This finch is only found in
the highlands of Floreana.
7. Small tree finch (Geospiza parvula). Least Concern. These finches are small and have
distinctive short, curved beaks which they use to mostly feed on insects.
8. Large ground finch (Geospiza magnirostris). Least Concern. The largest of Darwin’s
finches both in size and beak size. They have large, short beaks for cracking large
seeds and nuts.
9. Medium ground finch (Geospiza fortis). Least Concern. These finches are found on a
number of the islands and feed mainly on seeds.
10. Small ground finch (Geospiza fuliginosa). Least Concern. One of the most common
species of finch, found throughout the Islands.
11. Large cactus finch (Geospiza conirostris). Least Concern. This finch is one of the most
variable of the finches in appearance and they feed on a range of foods including
Opuntia cacti.
12. Common cactus finch (Geospiza scandens). Least Concern. As their name suggests,
they feed mostly on Opuntia cacti. When the Opuntia are in flower, the finches feed
almost exclusively on pollen and nectar. During other times of the year, they will feed on
Opuntia seeds and fruit. They will also feed on a range of other vegetative foods and
invertebrates.
13. Sharp-beaked ground finch (Geospiza difficilis). Least Concern. Although most
populations feed mainly on seeds, those finches found on the small and remote islands
 of Wolf and Darwin often drink the blood of large seabirds, such as boobies. This has
given them an alternative name – vampire finch.
14. The Cocos finch or Cocos Island finch (Pinaroloxias inornata) is the only one of
Darwin's finches not native to the Galápagos Islands, and the only member of the genus
Pinaroloxias. Sometimes classified in the family Emberizidae, more recent studies have
shown it to belong in the tanager family, Thraupidae. It is endemic to Cocos Island,
which is approximately 360 miles (580 km) south of Costa Rica.

THEORY OF EVOLUTION BY NATURAL SELECTION

Thomas Malthus’s book “principle of population”
- Thomas Malthus’s book explained that the human population grows more rapidly than
the food supply. Population increases while the food supply decreases.
- The shortage of food indicates an increasing population, basically the law of supply and
demand, if the supply decreases the demand will increase and vice versa.

THEORY OF NATURAL SELECTION

1. All organisms have far greater reproductive potential.
- Animals, plants, and even single-celled living organism have the potential to
outgrow if there is no threat during reproduction.
2. Inherited variations arise by mutations.
 - Animals mutate throughout the years they adapt to the changes of environment
to survive.
3. Resources are limited, so survival is a constant struggle.
- Because of the limited resources, surviving is a struggle that’s why daptive
animals have a high chance to survive.
4. Adaptive traits are perpetuated in next generations.
- Animals that have ability to adapt and mutates have a high chance to survive and
multiply.

DARWIN'S THEORY

Three theories of evolution have different facts to support Variation, Inheritance, Selection, and
Time.

Darwin’s theory is represented by the color green. Updated information supporting the “Modern
Synthesis” is highlighted in blue. Updated information supporting the “Integral Model” is
highlighted in purple.

To make sense of the confusion surrounding the theory of evolution, it helps to know that the
theory of evolution is itself evolving. The table above shows three different models of
evolutionary theory. The first is Darwin’s model as described in Origin of Species. The second
model (featured in most textbooks and popular websites) is the Modern Synthesis, a model that
combined mid-20th-century genetics with Darwinian theory. The most recent model I call the
“Integral Model.” I discuss these three theories in more detail below.

Darwin's greatest accomplishment was to create a powerful framework for understanding how
species change over time. He proposed the law of variation, inheritance, and selection, and
acknowledged the need for long periods of time.

The theory of evolution is a shortened form of the term "theory of evolution by natural selection"
proposed by Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace in the nineteenth century. It dates back
to Anaximander of Miletus, a Greek philosopher who proposed that all life began in the sea.
Darwin and Wallace proposed that evolution occurs due to a phenomenon called natural
selection, which was not accepted until Charles Darwin published On the Origin of Species.
Neo-Darwinism

Neo-Darwinism, the modern version of Charles Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection,
incorporates the laws of Mendelian genetics and emphasizes the role of natural selection as the
main force of evolutionary change.

August Weismann's neo-Darwinism incorporated his theory of the germ plasm into Darwin's
theory of evolution by natural selection, allowing for the rediscovery of Mendel's laws of
inheritance.

The rediscovery of Mendel's work led to a critique of Darwin's theory of evolution, with the
Mendelians believing that differences in discrete traits were too big to fit into Darwin's theory.
The biometricians opposed the view of the Mendelians and studied small differences in
quantitative traits. R. A. Fisher solved the controversy between Mendelians and biometricians
by showing that Mendelian inheritance and gradual changes in phenotypes were not
incompatible.

The neo-Darwinian theory of evolution was accepted and integrated into different biological
disciplines, such as population genetics, comparative anatomy, zoology, biogeography,
paleontology, and systematics.

Mini game:
answer:
SOURCES:

https://byjus.com/biology/lamarckism/

https://www.scienceprofonline.com/evolution/pre-darwinian-evolutionary-theory-lamark-cuvier-
hutton-lyell.html

https://www.palomar.edu/anthro/evolve/evolve_1.htm

https://warbletoncouncil.org/teorias-evolutivas-5163

https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/hms-beagle-darwins-trip-around-world/

https://www.bl.uk/collection-items/charles-lyells-principles-of-geology

https://www.britannica.com/science/catastrophism-geology

https://www.britannica.com/animal/Toxodon

https://prehistoric-fauna.com/Thoatherium
https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/galapagos-islands/

https://tse1.mm.bing.net/th?id=OIP.JiW9VFBGzBBIGOuVTm3hyQHaD5&pid=Api\

https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/reptiles/facts/galapagos-tortoise

https://www.gannett-cdn.com/presto/2020/01/13/USAT/06af1d5b-907e-4e8b-98e1-
f024d28a28a5-EPA_ECUADOR_GALAPAGOS.JPG?
crop=3983,2240,x1,y297&width=3200&height=1800&format=pjpg&auto=webp

https://galapagosconservation.org.uk/wildlife/darwins-finches/

https://www.britannica.com/animal/Galapagos-finch/images-videos

https://animalia.bio/cocos-finch

https://byjus.com/biology/malthusian-theory-of-population

https://www.encyclopedia.com/earth-and-environment/ecology-and-environmentalism/
environmental-studies/modern-synthesis#:~:text=The%20Modern%20Synthesis%20describes
%20the,in%20the%201930s%20and%201940s.