THE LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION IN ANIMAL COMPLEXITY

An organism is made up of 6 levels of organization namely:

I. Chemical
II. Cell
III. Tissue
IV. Organ
V. Organ system
VI. Organism

Level I. Cell

Cells are the basic and smallest unit structure of life. Any living organisms (animals, plants,
bacteria, fungi etc.) are composed of one (unicellular) or more cells (multicellular). Cell can be
classified depending on the presence of nucleus.

 Prokaryotic cells (without nucleus)

Living organisms that are prokaryotic in nature are called prokaryotes.
Examples: bacteria, archaea (single-celled organism)

 Eukaryotic cells (with nucleus)

Living organisms that are eukaryotic in nature are called eukaryotes.
Examples: animals, plants, protists, fungi

Level II. Tissue

Group of similar cells of the same origin and function are called tissues. There are four
different types of basic animal tissue namely:

 Connective tissues (bones, adipose tissues or body fat,

blood)
 Muscle tissues (muscles)
 Epithelial tissues (skin)
 Nervous tissues (nerves)
Level III. Organs

An organ is a structure made up of different tissues that perform specific bodily functions.

Organs contain tissues mainly:

Parenchyma is a functional tissue of an organ as distinguished in between the connective and
supporting tissue found in most animals and plants.
Examples: ground level tissues in plants, brain parenchyma, lung parenchyma

Stroma or interstitium is a functional tissue that supports and gives structure to organs.
Examples: connective tissues, blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, nerves, ducts

Epithelium is a functional tissue that forms the covering the surfaces of the body, body lining
cavities and hollow organs.
Examples: epidermis (outer layer of skin), stomach lining, glandular epithelium

Organs may be solid or hollow and vary depending in size and complexity. The heart, lungs,
brain, kidney and stomach are examples of organs.

Solid organs are organs that are intact or compact. (liver, pancreas, spleen kidney)
Hollow organs have cavities or spaces. (stomach, intestines, rectum, bladder)

Level IV: Organ system

An organ system is a collection of organs that work together to perform a similar function.

There are eleven (11) different organ systems in the body, each with its own specific functions.

1. Digestive/Excretory system
2. Cardiovascular/Circulatory system
3. Respiratory system
4. Urinary/Renal system
5. Nervous system
6. Muscular system
7. Skeletal system
8. Reproductive system
9. Integumentary system
10. Endocrine system
11. Lymphatic/Immune system
 Some animals may exhibit special organs, structures or systems. Changes to these
structures and physiological aspects can be attributed to adaptability, evolutionary history and
taxonomic classification which will be discussed on the latter part.

Examples:

Flatworm has no heart Roundworm has false stomach or coelom

Jelly fish has a lot of nerves and neurotoxins. Chitin (exoskeleton) in insects, shrimps and fungi

EVOLUTION: A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

Pre-Darwinian theories of change

ARISTOTLE (Immutability of organisms)

Aristotle (384-322 BC)

The theory of immutability, or the idea that living things were created and are not
subject to change, was put out by Aristotle. He believed that the order thus proposed
responded to a "vital force" and that nothing could cause fundamental changes in people.

BUFFON (comparative anatomy)

Comte de Buffon (1707-1788)

 “living things do change through time”

 He also suggested that humans and apes are related.

ERASMUS DARWIN (believed in common ancestry)

Erasmus Darwin (1731-1802)

Grandfather of Charles. He thought that humans had evolved, along with other living
things, but he had only hazy theories about what might have caused this shift.

He wrote of his ideas about evolution in poems and a relatively obscure two volume
scientific publication entitled Zoonomia; or, the Laws of Organic Life (1794-1796)

LAMARCK (animal classification)

Jean Baptiste Chevalier de Lamarck (1744-1829)

Lamarck was the first evolutionary theorist to very publicly proclaim his ideas about the
processes leading to biological change.
 Lamarckianism

Lamarck: An early proponent of Evolution

Lamarck claimed that an organism utilized a body component in such a way that it
eventually underwent a change during its existence and that this acquired change might be
passed down to its offspring.

Change Through Use And Disuse

The organs that the organism uses regularly develop, while the traits that are only
seldom employed disappear in successive generations. When a giraffe bends its neck to
swallow leaves, for instance, "nervous fluid" would flow through its neck, causing it to grow
larger. With time, the organs that the organisms are no longer using will shrink.

Early development of Darwin’s idea of evolution

Voyage of HMS Beagle in 1831

From 1831 to 1836, Charles Darwin traveled the world in the HMS Beagle as a
naturalist. He developed the hypothesis of evolution through natural selection as a result of his
experiences and observations.
On December 27, 1831, Charles Darwin boarded the HMS Beagle in Plymouth,
England. The journey lasted for almost five years, and on October 2, 1836, the ship sailed
back to Falmouth, England.

GEOLOGY
Charles Lyell’s book “principles of geology”
 In his three volume book Principles of Geology, Charles Lyell (1797–1875) argued for
the gradual change of the earth and its climate over very long periods of time.

Theory of uniformitarianism
Geological theory known as uniformitarianism discusses how the planet and the
universe were formed. It claims that consistent, ongoing processes that are still in motion now
have caused changes in the earth's crust throughout recorded history.

Uniformitarianism, a concept rejecting catastrophism, asserts that the present is the key to
the past, recognizing that great disasters like earthquakes, asteroids, volcanoes, and floods
are part of Earth's regular cycle.

Catastrophism- theory that claims that repeated cataclysmic events and repeated fresh
creations are to blame for the variances in fossil forms found in different stratigraphic levels.
Baron Georges Cuvier (1769–1832).

The Evolution of Uniformitarianism Theory

 The two major scientists in the advancement from catastrophism towards
uniformitarianism were the 18th-century Scottish framer and geologist James Hutton
and the 19th-century British lawyer-turned-geologist Charles Lyell.
 Hutton's theory posits that slow natural processes, such as stream erosion and
sediment accumulation, require millions of years to shape the Earth into its
contemporary form.

Fossil evidences:
TOXODON (hippopotamus like)

Charles Darwin discovered fossil specimens of Toxodon on HMS

Beagle, influencing 19th-century evolution debates by indicating South
American mammals differed from European ones. Toxodon looked like a
little rhinoceros. An expansive, well-developed snout is indicated by nasal
apertures on the top of the head.

THOATHERIUM (horse like)

An extinct genus of litoptern animals from the Early Miocene of
Argentina is called Thoatherium. The Santa Cruz Formation in Argentina
has been the site of the discovery of the genus' fossils.
Galapagos Islands 
The Pacific Ocean's Galápagos Islands are a group of
islands most recognized for their amazing diversity of plant and
animal species.
In the eastern Pacific Ocean, there is an archipelago of
islands known as the Galápagos Islands. They are a part of the
South American nation of Ecuador. About 966 kilometers (600
miles) off the coast of Ecuador are the Galápagos Islands.

THEORY OF EVOLUTION BY NATURAL SELECTION

 Thomas Malthus’s book “principle of population”
 Thomas Malthus’s book explained that the human population grows more rapidly than
the food supply. Population increases while the food supply decreases.
 The shortage of food indicates an increasing population, basically the law of supply and
demand, if the supply decreases the demand will increase and vice versa.

 THEORY OF NATURAL SELECTION

1. All organisms have far greater reproductive potential.
 Animals, plants, and even single-celled living organism have the potential to
outgrow if there is no threat during reproduction.
2. Inherited variations arise by mutations.
 Animals mutate throughout the years they adapt to the changes of environment
to survive. 
3. Resources are limited, so survival is a constant struggle.
 Because of the limited resources, surviving is a struggle that’s why daptive
animals have a high chance to survive.
4. Adaptive traits are perpetuated in next generations.
 Animals that have ability to adapt and mutates have a high chance to survive and
multiply. 

DARWIN'S THEORY
Three theories of evolution have different facts to support Variation, Inheritance,
Selection, and Time.  
 Darwin’s theory is represented by the color green.  Updated information supporting the
“Modern Synthesis” is highlighted in blue. Updated information supporting the “Integral Model”
is highlighted in purple. 
Darwin's greatest accomplishment was to create a powerful framework for
understanding how species change over time. He proposed the law of variation, inheritance,
and selection, and acknowledged the need for long periods of time.

Neo-Darwinism

Neo-Darwinism, the modern version of Charles Darwin's theory of evolution by natural

selection, incorporates the laws of Mendelian genetics and emphasizes the role of natural
selection as the main force of evolutionary change.
August Weismann's neo-Darwinism incorporated his theory of the germ plasm into
Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection, allowing for the rediscovery of Mendel's laws
of inheritance.
The neo-Darwinian theory of evolution was accepted and integrated into different
biological disciplines, such as population genetics, comparative anatomy, zoology,
biogeography, paleontology, and systematics.

ECOLOGY: PRESERVING THE ANIMAL KINGDOM

Ecology is the study of the relationships of organisms to their environment and to other
organisms

Animals and Their Abiotic Environment

Habitat: includes all living and nonliving of the animals environment

Tolerance Range: the range of values in which animals live
Range of Optimum: Defines the conditions under which an animal is most successful
Limiting Factor: when factors necessary for an animal's survival and reproduction in out of
range
Taxis: when an animal orients itself to an abiotic factor
Energy: the ability to work.
Heterotrophic: an organism that eats other plants or animals for energy and nutrients
Autotrophic: organism carry on photosynthesis or other carbon- fixing activities that supply of
an animal's total
Energy Budget: the specification of the uptake of energy from the environment by an
organism (feeding and digestion) and of the use of this energy for the various purposes:
maintenance, development, growth and reproduction.
TEMPERATURE
Torpor: a time of decreased metabolism and lowered body temperature that may occur daily
Hibernation: a time of decreased metabolism and lowered body temperature that may last for
weeks or months.
Aestivation: is a period of inactivity in some animals that must withstand extended periods of
drying.

OTHER ABIOTIC FACTORS

Other important abiotic factors for animals include: moisture, light, geology, and soils.

Moisture: all life's processes occur in the watery environment

Light: the amount of light and the length of the light period in 24- day is an accurate index of
seasonal change.
Geology & Soils: often directly or indirectly affect organisms living in an area.

The texture, amount of organic matter, fertility, and water holding ability directly
influence the number and kinds of animals living in or on the soil.

Biotic Factor: Population

Biotic characteristics of a habitat include interactions that occur within an individual's
own species as well as interactions with organisms of other species

Populations: are groups of individuals of the same species that occupy a given area at the
same time and have unique attributes
 Population Growth
 Exponential growth: the population increases by the same ratio per unit time.
 Environmental resistance: the constraints that climate, food, space, and other
environmental factors place on a population
 Carrying capacity: the population size that a particular environment can support 
 Logistic population growth: growth curves assume a sigmoid, or flattened S shape.

Population Density

Density- independent factors: influence the number of animals in a population without regard
to the number of individuals per unit space.
Density- dependent factors: when population density is higher than they are other density.

INTRASPECIFIC COMPETITION
Intraspecific competition: competition among members of the same species.
 Biotic Factors: Interspecific Interactions
Herbivory and Predation: animals that feed on plants by cropping portions of the plant,
but usually not killing the plant are herbivores.
Interspecific Competition: When members of different species compete for resources,
one species may be forced to move or move or become extinct, or the two species may
share the resource and coexist.
Coevolution: when species are competing for the same resources or during predatory-
prey interactions in the evolution of predator- prey relationships.
Symbiosis: two or more distinct organisms living together for the benefit of one or both

Common form of Symbiosis

Parasitism: which one organism lives in or on a second organism called host.
Parasitism: which one organism lives in or on a second organism called host.
Mutualism: that benefits both members.

Other Interspecific Adaptations

Crypsis: it includes all instances of animals avoiding detection.
Camouflage: occurs when an animal's color patterns help hide the animal, or a
developmental stage, from another animal.
Cryptic coloration: is a type of camouflage that occurs when an animal takes on color
patterns in its environment to prevent the animal from being seen by other animals.
Countershading: is a kind of camouflage common in frog and toad eggs.
Aposematic coloration: warning patterns on animals
Mimicry: when a species resembles another species and gains protection.

Communities
Community: all populations living in an area.
Dominant species: are responsible for establishing community characteristics.
Community diversity: a variety of animals in a community

The Ecological Niche

Ecological Niche: an important concept of community structure. The niche of any

species includes all the attributes of an animal's lifestyles: where it looks for food, what it
eats, where it nests, and what conditions of temperature and moisture it requires. 

Community Stability
As with individuals, communities are born and they die. Between those events is a time
of continual change.
 In one model community change, the dominant members of the community change a
community in predictable ways in process are called SUCCESSION
Pioneer Community: is the first community to become established in an area.
Successional stage: seral stage
Successional sequence: sere
Climax Community: is the final community

Trophic Structure of Ecosystems

Ecosystems: communities and their physical environment.

Energy: the power to do work

Primary Production: the total amount of energy converted into living tissues in a given area
per unit time.
Biomass: the total mass of all organisms in an ecosystem.
Food Chain: the sequence of organisms through which energy moves in an ecosystem
Trophic level: organisms grouped according to the form of energy used.
Producers (autotrophs): obtain nutrition (complex organic compounds) from inorganic
materials (such as carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus) and an energy source. 

Consumers (heterotrophs): it eats other organisms to obtain energy. 

 Herbivore (Primary Consumers): eat producers
 Carnivores (Secondary Consumers): eat herbivores
 Carnivore (Tertiary Consumers): eats the carnivores that ate the herbivores.
 Decomposers: breaks down dead organisms and feces by digesting organic matter
extracellularly and absorbing the products of digestions.

Cycling within Ecosystem

Biochemical Cycle: or more generally a cycle of matter, is
the movement and transformation of chemical elements and
compounds between living organisms, the atmosphere and
the earth's crust.
Ecological Problems

Human Population Growth: is the root of virtually all environmental problems or tend
to grow exponentially
Environmental Pollution: defined as the undesirable change in physical, chemical and
biological characteristics or our air, land and water.

ANIMAL CLASSIFICATION, PHYLOGENY, ORGANIZATION

Classification 
Is a process in which closely resembling organisms are placed in a group. The groups
which have similarities are placed into larger groups. The various grouping levels or ranks in
classification are known as taxonomic categories. Let’s learn more about taxonomy in the
section below.
Systematics
Systematics in biology is concerned with the classification systems and nomenclature of
organisms. It is a branch of biological science that studies the distinctive characteristics of
species and how they are related to other species through time. Thus, it is the basis used to
understand the evolution of life.
Taxonomy
Taxonomy is the science of naming, describing and classifying organisms and includes
all plants, animals and microorganisms of the world.
Difference Between Taxonomy and Systematics
Taxonomy Systematics
Discipline of classifying organisms into taxa Broad field of biology that studies the
diversification of species

Governs the practice of naming, describing Governs the evolutionary history and phylo
indentifying and specimen preservation relationship in addition to taxonomy

Classification + Nomenclature= Taxonomy Taxonomy + Phylogeny= Systematics

Carolus Linnaeus
 Swedish botanical taxonomist 
 The first person to formulate and adhere to a uniform system for defining and naming the
world's plants and animals.
 Came up with the binomial system of nomenclature, in which each species is identified by a
generic name (genus) and a specific name (species).
 He applied this system of nomenclature to animals.

Robert Harding Whittaker

 American plant ecologist, active in the 1950s to the 1970s.

 He was the first to propose the five kingdom taxonomic classification of the world's biota
into the Animalia, Plantae, Fungi, Protista, and Monera in 1969.

Eukaryota refers to all the organisms living on earth (but neither a bacterium nor an
archaeon). Nevertheless, they are more related to Archaea Domain.
Archaea include single-celled organisms that are evolutionarily close to bacteria and make
habitats in mild or extreme places.
Bacteria include all the bacteria (single-celled microorganisms) found in a large number than
all animals and plants on the earth.
The Eukarya are subdivided into the following four kingdoms:
1. Protista Kingdom: Protista are simple, predominately unicellular eukaryotic organisms
andmicroscopic in size.
Examples includes slime molds, euglenoids, algae, and protozoans.
2. Fungi Kingdom: Fungi are unicellular or multicellular organisms with eukaryotic cell
types. The cells have cell walls but are not organized into tissues. They do not carry out
photosynthesis and obtain nutrients through absorption. Examples include sac fungi,
club fungi, yeasts, and molds.
3. Plantae Kingdom: Plants are multicellular organisms composed of eukaryotic cells.
The cells are organized into tissues and have cell walls. They obtain nutrients by
photosynthesis and absorption. Examples include mosses, ferns, conifers, and
flowering plants.
4. Animalia Kingdom: Animals are multicellular organisms composed of eukaryotic cells.
The cells are organized into tissues and lack cell walls. They do not carry out
photosynthesis and obtain nutrients primarily by ingestion. Examples include sponges,
worms, insects, and vertebrates.
8 Taxonomic Categogries

Domain
Domain as a taxonomic level or rank was added in the taxonomic hierarchy in 1990 after 250
years of Linnaean taxonomy classification development. The early taxonomists did not
taxonomically add the Domain yet. Moreover, the taxonomic level includes three life domains,
such as Eukaryota, Archaea, and Bacteria.
Kingdom
This is the first category of the biological classification. The kingdom is the category of closely
related organisms. The kingdom is broadly classified into Plantae, Animalia, Fungi, Protista
and Monera.
Example: All the animals share some common features like a multicellular organization,
heterotrophic mode of nutrition, and collagen in the cell wall. Therefore, the animals belong to
the kingdom Animalia.
Phylum
It is the second category of the biological classification, which is a group of closely related
organisms.
Example: Animals along with the birds, mammals will belong to the same phylum Chordata, as
both share a common feature of having a spinal cord.
Porifera – Marine animals more commonly known as sponges and found in every
ocean on earth.
Cnidaria – Mostly marine animals that include over 11,000 species. Examples include
coral, jellyfish, and anemones
Platyhelminthes – Typically parasitic flatworms. Lacking in any respiratory or
circulatory system, oxygen passes through their bodies instead in a process known as
diffusion. Examples include tapeworms and flukes.
 Annelida – More complex than Platyhelminthes, these are segmented and symmetrical
worms containing a nervous system, respiratory system, and sense organs. Examples
include the common earthworm and leeches.
Mollusca – The second largest phylum by species count, and the largest marine
phylum. Invertebrates with soft unsegmented bodies. It is estimated almost a quarter of
marine life falls in this category. Examples include clams, mussels, and snails
Arthropoda – Invertebrate animals with an exoskeleton and segmented bodies.
Contains insects, crustaceans, and arachnids. This is the largest phylum by species
count. Examples include scorpions, butterflies, and shrimp
Chordata – Vertebrates. Animals that develop a notochord, a cartilaginous skeletal rod
that supports the body in the embryo and can often become a spine. Most animals we
are familiar with, including dogs, horses, birds, and humans fall into this category.
Class
The class is the third category of the biological classification, which comprises of one or more
related order.
Example: Like Mammalia is the class that comprises of related order like:
 Marsupialia (includes kangaroos)
 Cetacean (includes Whale)
 Carnivora (includes lion, tiger etc.)
 Primata (includes apes and human)

All these four orders, i.e. Marsupialia, Cetacean, Carnivora and Primata, share some common
features like the presence of mammary gland and hair on the skin.
Order
The order is the fourth category of the biological classification, which comprises of one or more
related families. The carnivorous animals have a common feature like small collar bone,
strong senses, and strong teeth.
Example: Felidae (a family that includes dog) and Canidae (a family that includes a cat, fox,
wolf etc.) are placed in the same order, i.e. Carnivora (by sharing a common feature of having
a carnivorous diet).
Family
It is the fifth category of the biological classification. The family comprises a group of the
related genus. Here, a term (family) indicates the organisms of the same community those
have correlated characters.
Example: The genus of cat is Felis, and the genus of the lion is Panthera, whereas both
belong to the same family Felidae due to their hyper carnivorous behaviour.
Genus
The sixth category of the biological classification includes some closely related species that
show some similarities among the species of the same genus but differs from the other genus.
Example: Mucor is the genus comprising multiple species that will somehow relate to each
other but differ from the other genus like Rhizopus.
Species
It is the last category of the biological classification. Species are highly diversified in nature.
One species can be differentiated from the other by observing differences in morphology and
chemical and physical properties. Therefore, each species will show some distinctive feature
that will discriminate one species from the other.
Example: Bacillus is a genus that comprises species like Bacillus subtilis, and Bacillus
anthracis, which cause different effects on the body.

Category versus Taxon

The category is an abstract term that simply represents a rank or a level. Taxon represents a
biological object and is assigned to a category. For example, taxon of birds is aves and the
category is class. Taxonomy of sponges is peripheral and the category is phylum. On
classifying an organism in a  particular taxon, we should have basic knowledge of characters
of the individual group.
Important Terms in the Taxonomic Category
Taxonomy: Taxonomy can define a term where the different groups of organisms can be
classified and arranged into the various taxa.
Taxa: The taxonomy unit comprises different categories to place a particular group of
organisms into a particular category.
Example: Taxa of birds is Aves.
Category: A category can define the rank or level of the organism placed in the binomial
classification. It includes a hierarchy of seven obligate categories.
Example: The category of bird is Chordata (Organisms possess backbones).
Binomial Nomenclature
Binomial nomenclature proved to be essential in the scientific community. Through this
system, taxonomists from all around the world can identify a species in unison. Unlike
the common names that can differ from one language to another, a scientific name proved to
be more consistent.
 The International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN)
 The first name is always the Genus
 he second name is always the Specie
Phylogeny
The history of the evolution of a species or group, especially in reference to lines of
descent and relationships among broad groups of organisms.

Phylogenic Tree
a diagram that depicts the lines of evolutionary descent of different species, organisms,
or genes from a common ancestor.

Parts of Phylogenetic Tree

Root: The oldest common ancestor of all the species in
the phylogenetic tree.
Nodes: Illustrates divergence from a common ancestor
Branch: This is where they split node into two different
group of species
Taxon: Singular of Taxa, which groups that are more
closely related to each other, than either is to any other
group on the phylogenetic tree
Clade: A group of species that are descendants to a
common ancestor; thus a clade includes an ancestor
and all descendants of that common ancestor

3 Types of Clade
Monophyletic
Groups that includes common ancestor and all of that common ancestor descendants
Paraphyletic
Groups that includes some but not all descendants of a common ancestor
Polyphyletic
Groups that members don't share a recent common ancestor

Patterns of Organization
Patterns of an animal organization that are recognizable. In a very broad context, these
patterns could replicate trends in biological processes.
Animal Symmetry
the repetition of the parts in an animal or plant in an orderly fashion.
Asymmetry
The arrangement of body parts without a central axis. Ex. Sponges
 Sponge (Aplysina archeri)
Bilateral Symmetry
The arrangement of body parts such that a single plane, between the upper and lower
surface and through the longitudinal axis of an animal, divides the animal into right and left
mirror images. Ex. Vertebrates (animals with backbones)

Fox (Vulpes)

Radial Symmetry
Arrangement of body parts such that any place passing through the oral-aboral axis
divides the animal into a mirror image. Ex. Cnidarians

(Phylum Coelenterate)

Other Patterns of Organization

Unicellular (Cytoplasmic) Level of Organization
Organisms whose bodies consist of single cells or cellular aggregates display the
unicellular level of organization. Ex. All bacteria, protists, and some algae

Diploblastic Organization
-Cells are organized into tissues in most animal phyla.
-Diploblastic, “diplóos, twofold “blaste”, to sprout”
-It is the simplest tissue-level organization.
Ectoblast provides rise to the cuticle, the outer layer of the body wall.
 Entoderm provides rise to the gastrodermis, the tissue that lines the gut cavity.
Mesoglea - Between the cuticle and the gastrodermis could be an acellular layer
referred to as the mesoglea.
Triploblastic Organization
-“tries” three, “blaste”, to sprout
-Their tissues are derived from 3 embryological layers (ectoderm, endoderm, and mesoderm)
-Animals that have organ-system and body cavities are triploblastic.

Three Patterns of Triploblastic Organization

The triploblastic acoelomate pattern

Triploblastic animals whose mesodermally derived tissues type a comparatively solid
mass of cells between ectodermal and endodermal derived tissues are referred to as
acoelomates.
The triploblastic pseudocoelomate pattern
Body cavity not entirely lined by mesoderm. No muscular or connective tissues are
related to the gut tract; no mesoblastic sheet covers the inner surface of the body wall; and no
membranes suspend organs within the body cavity.
The triploblastic coelomate pattern
A coelom is a body cavity fully enclosed by a mesoblast or the mesoderm. A thin
mesoblastic sheet, the serous membrane, lines the inner body wall and is continuous with the
membrane that lines the surface of visceral organs.

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• https://www.palomar.edu/anthro/evolve/evolve_1.htm
• https://warbletoncouncil.org/teorias-evolutivas-5163
• https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/hms-beagle-darwins-trip-around-world/
• https://www.bl.uk/collection-items/charles-lyells-principles-of-geology
• https://www.britannica.com/science/catastrophism-geology
• https://www.britannica.com/animal/Toxodon
• https://prehistoric-fauna.com/Thoatherium
• https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/galapagos-islands/
• https://tse1.mm.bing.net/th?id=OIP.JiW9VFBGzBBIGOuVTm3hyQHaD5&pid=Api\
• https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/reptiles/facts/galapagos-tortoise
• https://www.gannett-cdn.com/presto/2020/01/13/USAT/06af1d5b-907e-4e8b-98e1-f024d28a28a5-
EPA_ECUADOR_GALAPAGOS.JPG?crop=3983,2240,x1,y297&width=3200&height=1800&format=pjpg&auto=webp
• https://galapagosconservation.org.uk/wildlife/darwins-finches/
• https://www.britannica.com/animal/Galapagos-finch/images-videos
• https://animalia.bio/cocos-finch
• https://byjus.com/biology/malthusian-theory-of-population