FULL PIC
END
Cytogenetics – is all about cells
 Looking at the cell, you will have 3 parts of it: cell
membrane, cytoplasm and genetic material
(sometimes a genetic material is RNA but most of
the time it’s the DNA)
 Our viruses contains RNA, so the RNA of the virus
the way it works is that the RNA will incorporate
towards..well some viruses would hinder some
aspect of cell metabolism by incorporating a certain
protein brought about by the RNA. So if they have
an RNA, this will trigger the cell to make more
copies of the virus so the RNA will program the cell
to make proteins, components of the virus and so
they would be a lot of viruses inside the cell and
eventually it will burst..so ganon yung idea non.
Now sometimes, it will also be delivering a certain
change in the DNA, all of which will be replication of
the virus.
 So kapag RNA magiging DNA, the virus can have a
reverse transcriptase para from RNA magiging DNA
and the DNA will be incorporated to the host cells
DNA.
 SO inside the genetics, we are going to tackle things
that are found in the cells. When you talk about the
cells, nasagitna siya or if you go down smaller
magiging molecular siya.
 If you go larger, it will be population genetics
We’re gonna review biochem concepts.
 We start off with the BASE. Base can be PYRAMIDIN
or PURINE.
 And if you add sugar + base, then you have form a
nucleoside
 If you add phosphate to sugar + as you will have a
nucleotide.
 Then, if you have nucleotides coming together, you
will have a nucleic acid. Nucleic acids is the series of
nucleotides
 Nucleic acids is composed of DNA/RNA
 So if you have your DNA and RNA you have a
particular sequence of DNA that will code for a
characteristic of an organism. So those are your
genes.
 So we have several genes, they are packed into
units in what we called chromosomes. Several
chromosomes coming together will form all of
genetic materials of an organism which we can say
it’s the genome of the organism.
 So it forms the base, nucleoside, nucleotide, genes,
chromosome, and a genome.
 So for us human, we have genome and we have
mapped already the complete human genome and
that’s the result of the Human Genome Project last
2001.
 After genome, you can have a variety, heredity,
wherein it shows your population differences. So
you have a human genome that makes up a specie.
 We have mutations all over the world. We also have
the advantages and disadvantages of variations.
Some mutations will be incomplete, some
mutations are seen right away. These are some
variations in the species which will lead to better
GENE POOL.
 Have you ever wondered baket pag nag asawa kahit
gaano ka panget ang isang Pilipino pero nakapag
asawa sya ng Amerikano, yung anak artistahin.
Baket kaya? Hmm..
 When it comes to genetics, it’s still probability. So if
you look at it yung mga artista pinaghalo at
maganda ang combination it’s because of the
VARIETY.
 People breed differently kapag na mix. When you
have variety in your gene pool, it will become
stronger. So when someone marries a Westerner,
that Westerner is actually giving variety to the gene
pool and the Asians/Filipino is also giving variety to
the gene pool of the Westerner.
 Bakit hindi kayo na iinlove sa kapatid ninyo? Kahit
kilalang kilala mo na.. you know their likes and
dislikes. Pero merong isang tao kahit na ayaw mo,
hindi mo alam bat ka na attract sakanya pero hindi
nangyayari iyon sa kapatid mo. IT’S BECAUSE OF
THE GENES. There’s something in us that if we are
similar to that person hindi tayo gaano attracted
especially to our kin because are genes are quite
similar to them.
 In nature, we are given something in us na
magbibigay saten ng sense of decision/discernment
kung sino ang pipiliin naten makakasama. It’s all
about survival. SO if you have more varied gene
pool, you will survive better.
 Kaya nga yung in breeding, for example laging
nagkakasakit because yung gene pool nila hindi na
nagbabago, same na lang ng same every
generation. So yung gene pool nila will be
weakened.
 So tayo, merong binigay saten na hindi dapat ito
ang maging partner naten. In nature, when we say
partner, it’s for procreation. It’s natural for us that
we picked someone that will give us offspring na
mabubuhay because that’s how nature works, and
we have inside us like special sensory na hindi ka
naattract sa isang tao because maybe we have
some similarities in our genetic make-up that if we
procreate maybe our offspring will not have a very
strong gene pool.
 Minsan ayaw na ayaw mo sa isang tao pero
attracted ka. Yun nga yung sinasabi na maybe it’s
because somehow you were actually putting out
pheromones. And those pheromones are parang
may relationship sa gene pool naten.
 5th degree separation, pwede ka na pala mag asawa
ng iyong kamag anak. The closer you are, the least
you will be allowed to marry according to science
and law.
 Magasawang pinsan, may malaking possibility na
yung lalabas na anak minsan may abnormalities.
 ‘MA, WE WILL HAVE A BETTER GENE POOL BAKA
MAGING ARTISTAHIN PA ANAK KO’
 Variety increases survival of the specie.
 We can go macro but still whatever happens in the
larger scale, it’s always governed by the smaller
scale which are your molecular genetics.
END
 DNA is a very long strand. And in order for it to be
contained inside the nucleus, we need to package
them into units, that’s why we have chromosomes.
 The DNA sequence is very very long but we only
have 46 chromosomes. So imagine how much
energy is put into packaging of the DNA.
Chromosome of monkey – 48
Human chromosome – 46
Paano magkakaron ng 46 chromosomes kapag 48 ka?
Tatanggalan mo ng dalawa? No, it’s not gonna happen
because one chromosome has several genes in it. So
many genes inside that if you take out one chromosome
alone, the organism might not survive.
So pano yan? Ang pwedeng mangyari is 44
chromosomes tapos may apat na nag fused together ng
monkey to humans.
Chromosome has this particular pattern. Telomere and FULL PIC
centromere at the center. And if this is true na meron
kayong na fused together, na yung 48 naging 46. Pwede
kayong magkaron ng pattern na kung saan magkakabit
tong dalawa so pwedeng.. ganito yung drawing..

END

So pag may nakita tayo gantong partner sa human

chromosome, we might say na dati tong dalawang
chromosome na nag fused together and they decided to
study these/search for these. So nakita nila na may
dalawa.
Sir Dino is someone who believes in evolution. Because We’re now tinkering with genes. So yung chromosomes
when you say human come from monkeys, it doesn’t naten, we have our body chromosomes and sex
mean that there was a monkey and then it went chromosomes. All of these chromosomes, if we modify
abnormal and became a human. NO, it’s just that for them, then we’re gonna change the body. And we may
each organism there is a relationship. Kunwari yung even change the sexual characteristic of the person.
mga isda ngayon at birds, ngayon their chromosomes And you can change the body in the sexual
they have some sort of relationship in the characteristic, you may change the behavior also. You
chromosomes from the dinosaur. So sasabihin mo ba na may also change the physical property of the person.
nagevolve yung bird sa dinosaur?
So yung idea dito, you’re trying to change
Before maging human yung prototype, kailangan nila chromosomes, not entirely, but what we’re after is yung
makita yung missing link in order for us to believe that gene na nandon sa chromosome. In genetics, we have
we came from monkeys. But that doesn’t actually tell our transgenic organism or GMO (genetically modified
you that we came from monkeys. organism). Even though we don’t really understand it
fully, we can actually apply it already. Some of the
In nature, there are living things always being born na
technologies that we have in order for us to modify
it’s a part of evolution. Now it’s quite peculiar that we
organisms. We were right now playing like a god. So
don’t really have the missing link yet wala pang nakakita
para tayong Diyos na nag iiba ngayon ng mga organism.
na may mag l-link sa atin sa apes. Kahit may pattern na
We already have a clone animal already. Si Dolly yung
very close to humans, dapat may makita tayo na
sheep nag cloning humans. Since nag clone na tayo
nagiging ganon pala and yet we don’t have that.
meron ng mga test tube babies. Who knows na baka
Ang idea ditto is maybe somehow THERE ARE LIVING meron na talagang clone ng tao pero hindi binabalita
THINGS THAT JUST APPEARED ON EARTH. because of ethical reasons.
Based on research, nag e-evolve talaga. Just remember, END
our species is very special and different and still a
mystery.
God created us in our own time. God was doing science
back then. God wants us to learn science. And so if we
learn science, we will learn the organization that he
took, and the he painstakingly adapted in his creation.

So in reality, the genetic field is quite mysterious,
rewarding and dangerous. Yung nangyari na lang saten
yung sa COVID-19. COVID-19 may pinanggalingan na cell
because according to the cell theory, cell is the basic
unit of life, animals and plants- they are comprise of
cells and we have your cell division (a cell comes from
pre-existing cells)
Pre-existing cell have 2 classes: mitosis (Body and
somatic cells) and meiosis (cell division for sex cells or
gametes)
Is COVID-19 manufactured or something that just pop
out in nature?
Corona virus ay kailangan galing ren sa corona virus cell.
Sometimes it evolved from the evolution or mutation.
SO honorary corona virus is a normal virus that have
been mutated. However, there is also possibility na
gawa gawa ito ng tao because of technology. That’s
where the danger and mystery is.
Geneticists - mga taong nag sstudy ng genes. Maraming
kasamaan ang pwedeng mangyari if may kasamaan ang
geneticist.
RECAP:
WE HAVE OUR CELLS, GENETIC MATERIAL (DNA,RNA)
THAT WILL GIVE YOU CHARACTERISTICS. THE DNA/RNA
they are quite small so they need to be packaged into
small nucleus. So the cell has made use of
chromosomes as units of DNA sequences.
DNA sequences can be coding or non-coding. They’re
also known as genes. Those sequences that are
prominent will give you characteristics.
So you have a lot of genes in your chromosomes, the
DNA is the basic genetic material and they’re packed
together into chromosomes. And for their coding
property, they are grouped into genes. When you take
all of the chromosomes together, you have your
genome. Modifying chromosomes can be very hard, so
you have to modify genes because genes are just
sequences in the DNA. If you want to modify the whole
chromosome, you’re gonna modify the gene and that
may give you more problems than advantages.
END
Population genetic it about the characteristics, like
heredity.
Heredity - father and mother coming together giving
their egg cell and sperm cell to form a zygote or an
offspring. And then the child will marry someone else
and they will able to form a child. Now when we talk
about population genetics, it will look at the
characteristics how it pass from one generation to the
next generation. In population genetics, we’re going to
figure out the pattern. Sometimes some trait were loss,
replaced or dormant. We’re trying to have that idea
where the trait came back or when the trait was lost.
In the current situation, people are trying to trace what
was the 1st variant in the PH. San ba nanggaling ang
sakit naten? But looking at the genes of the virus, we
can categorize them according to the variation of the
original strain. The original strain is that from the
district from China where we can consider as the
original strain. Now, how it varies from the original, we
can trace that through specific people who are infected
by the virus. Ano ang unang variant na nakita sa PH?
China variance.
The study tells us that the first variant/original strain
came from Wuhan and some parts of the country like
Middle East, US, UK and sa Pilipinas walang nakita. It
tells you that a lot of variance came from a lot of places.
Kung sana di tayo nagpapasok all over the world maybe
we have lessened the infections. Marami naging
sources/ pinanggalingan yung infection.
So in population genetics, we have to look at the
population, the unit of the society, people and where
going to get pattern of their genetic make-up. In this
case, we’re getting pattern of the genetic variations of
the COVID-19 virus that Filipino people is a part of
population, genetics and we’re looking at it.
END
So we rely on the base sequence for the DNA sequence.
DNA sequence is just the base sequence so we start off
with 5’-GATTACA-3’ (5 prime to 3 prime)
5 prime to 3 prime - They are actually carbon (C5-C3);
When you talk about carbohydrates C1,C2,C3,C4, C5;
But when you talk about nucleic acids, this is 1’,2’3’4’5’
(one prime, two prime..)
Phosphate grp

ribose
We need to rely on the Central Dogma of Molecular
Biology. Whereas we have replication for the DNA and
Sa mga C dito naka atach yung mga phophate group.
from the DNA you have your mRNA and you have your
protein. And this part here is known as transcription RIBOSE : DITO nakaattach yung mga 3 prime (under)
and translation sa isa. So we have to look at this DNA - Double stranded DNA, they are anti-parallel.
particular concept whenever we have applications in
genetics. So the complement strand of 3’ to 5’ in the direct in its
direction. You have to remember that we have pairing.
Replication – from one cell to the next cell you need to
have similar set of the DNA. If you don’t have that, G PAIRS WITH C
maybe there’s a mutation that happened. And after A PAIRS WITH T
that, if you have gene that should be expressed already,
the DNA will have its code transcribe into an mRNA.
And then finally it will come out of the nucleus and go
to the ribosome for protein synthesis. That’s
translation.
Remember again, we need to have similar DNA’s for
every cell. Guanine and Cytosine pairs together and form 3
hydrogen bonds. (MUCH STRONGER BONDS)
Then, for you to have you characteristics, the DNA’s
code should be transcribed into an mRNA. And there Adneine and Thymine pairs together and form 2
are certain steps wherein you can have abnormality or hydrogen bonds.
mutations and in the long run you will not have your
END
expected characteristic.
Transcribing code
Kunyare pogi dapat kayo pero di kayo pogi so may
nangyari na mutation sa DNA mo. You need to have a basis. You need to look at the
concept of the DNA polymerase, which is the one that is
You have to bear that in mind that there are certain
responsible for creating a new DNA strand
steps in the central dogma of molecular biology that
could have been changed by a certain mutations. They work from the 5’ to 3’ direction. Ang basis nila
dapat ay 3’ to 5’ aka as the template strand.
END
 Genetic Code

mRNA – don’t use T, we use Uracil U

mRNA (GAUUACA)
This code will now be released from the nucleus and
will now go to the ribosomes and in the ribosomes you
have your translation and this will be grouped into
three bases at a time (GAU/UAC/A) AUG – Met
CAU –His
GAA – Glu
UCG – SER
Met types/PROTEINS: MET-HIS-GLU-SER

For the translation to happen, it needs a start codon. So

yung three places at a time (GAU/UAC/A) we call it
codon.
Another example

KAPAG WALANG AUG YOU START OFF WITH 3 BASES

AT A TIME LIKE THIS
when translating this, you need to have a reading
frame. You need to look for the start codon (AUG) AND
WE MAKE OUR READING FRAME START FROM THERE.

From AUG/CAU/GAA/UCG/CA. what will happen is that
the tRNA will go to the ribosome and deliver the
needed amino acid to form protein. So tRNA will have
the anticodon of AUG and we’ll be attached to an amino
acid. In this case, AUG is attached to met. How are we
going to know what amino acids will be coded by the ff
codons? We use the genetic code.
Protein: ASP-TYR
The protein of GAU/UAC/A is Aspartic acid Tyrosine.
WHY? BECAUSE AUG IS A START CODON. ALWAYS
REMEMBER NA PAG MAY AUG LAGING MAG SSTART
ANG START CODON DON.
UAA IS AN EXAMPLE OF A STOP CODON
Example:

DNA: 5’ - C A T T T A A G T T T T T T T – 3’
mRNA: 3’- G U A/ A A U /U C A/ A A A/ AAA – 5’
AMINO ACID: VAL-ASN-SER-LYS-LYS