Grade 8 – Genetics and Evolution

Cell Nucleus - Commanding the Cell

The cell nucleus acts like the brain of the cell. It helps control eating, movement, and reproduction. .
It will be a big dark spot somewhere in the middle of all of the cytoplasm (cytosol). .The cytoplasm
is the fluid that fills cells.
Not all cells have a nucleus. Biology breaks cell types into eukaryotic (those with a defined
nucleus) and prokaryotic (those with no defined nucleus).
You may have heard of chromatin and DNA. You don't need a nucleus to have DNA. If you don't
have a defined nucleus, your DNA is probably floating around the cell in a region called the
nucleoid. A defined nucleus that holds the genetic code is an advanced feature in a cell.
The things that make a eukaryotic cell are a defined nucleus and other organelles. The nuclear
envelope surrounds the nucleus and all of its contents. The nuclear envelope is a membrane similar
to the cell membrane around the whole cell. There are pores and spaces for RNA and proteins to
pass through while the nuclear envelope keeps all of the chromatin and nucleolus inside.

What are chromosomes?

Chromosomes are the things that make organisms what they are.
They carry all of the information used to help a cell grow, thrive, and reproduce.
They are usually found in pairs and look like short little worms

Chromosomes are made up of DNA.

Segments of DNA in specific patterns are called genes. Your genes make you who you are. The
chromosomes and genetic material are in the nucleus of a cell.

Your chromosomes describe what color eyes you have, how tall you are, and whether you're a boy
or a girl.
If all of the DNA molecules in a single human cell and placed end-to-end, they would stretch 6
feet.
For an organism to grow and function properly, cells must constantly divide to produce new cells to
replace old, worn-out cells.

It is also crucial that reproductive cells, such as eggs and sperm, contain the right number of
chromosomes and that those chromosomes have the correct structure. If not, the resulting offspring
may fail to develop properly. For example, people with Down syndrome have three copies of
chromosome 21, instead of the two copies found in other people.

During cell division, it is essential that DNA remains intact and evenly distributed among cells.
Chromosomes are a key part of the process that ensures DNA is accurately copied and distributed in
the vast majority of cell divisions. Still, mistakes do occur on rare occasions.
Chromosomes are not always visible. They usually sit around uncoiled and as loose strands called
chromatin.
When a cell is not dividing, the chromosome is in its chromatin form.
In this form it is a long, very thin, strand.
When the cell begins to divide, the strand replicates itself and winds up into shorter tubes.
Before they split, the two tubes are pinched together at a point called the centromere. The shorter
arms of the tubes are called the "p arms" and the longer arms are called the "q arms."
Completing the Sets
Scientists count individual strands of chromosomes. You probably have 46 chromosomes (23
pairs). Peas only have 12. A dog has 78. The number of chromosomes is NOT related to the
intelligence or complexity of the creature. There is a crayfish with 200 chromosomes. Does that
make a crayfish five times smarter or more complex than you are? No.

When the chromosomes are visible, cells with two complete sets of chromosomes are called
diploids (46 in a human). Most cells are diploid.
Cells with only one set (23 in a human) are called haploid cells. Haploids are most often found in
cells involved in sexual reproduction such as a sperm or an egg. Haploid cells are created in cell
division termed meiosis.

How are chromosomes inherited?

In humans and most other complex organisms, one copy of each chromosome is inherited from the
female parent and the other from the male parent. This explains why children inherit some of their
traits from their mother and others from their father.

Genes, DNA, and Cells

Introduction
Every cell in the body with a nucleus has the same complete set of genes. A gene is made of DNA
(deoxyribonucleic acid) and is basically a type of genetic instruction. Those instructions can be used
for making molecules and controlling the chemical reaction of life. Genes can also be passed from
parent to offspring; this is inheritance.

Some genes are active ('on') in some tissues and organs but not in others. This is what makes the
difference between a liver cell and a lung cell. Genes are turned on and off during development and
in response to environmental changes, such as metabolism and infection.

What is DNA? What is a gene?

A few definitions:
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) - a double-stranded molecule made up of four building blocks called
nucleotide bases (different chemicals that are abbreviated A, T, C, and G) that are arranged in a
certain order throughout a genome. The human genome has 3 billion pairs of bases. The order of
these nucleotides are critical to the accuracy of the instructions of a gene. The most important
molecules encoded by genes are RNA and proteins.
Gene - the functional and physical unit of heredity passed from parent to offspring. Genes reside on
chromosomes. If a gene is like a chapter in a book, the chromosome is the book itself. . The number
of human genes is about 20,000-25,000. Different genes can vary in length and cover thousands of
bases.

Genome - All the DNA contained in an organism or a cell.

Trait - A trait is something about you that makes you "you." When your mother says that you get all
your best traits from her, she means you have the same charming smile and the same brilliant
mind as she has.
In biology, a trait or character is a feature of an organism or trait refers to a characteristic that is
caused by genetics.

How are traits passed on to the next generation?

The basic laws of inheritance are important because they can reveal how a genetic trait of interest or
a disorder can be passed from generation to generation.

Each person has 22 pairs of chromosomes. For each pair of chromosomes, one comes from the
mother and one comes from the father. Thus, because genes are on chromosomes, there are actually
two copies of each gene, one paternal in origin and the other maternal. We also get one
sexchromosome from each parent, for a total of 46 chromosomes.
Genetic Stability

Genes can change or mutate, although this happens only rarely. A mutation is a permanent change in
DNA.
Given our trillions of cells, some mutation is occurring all the time. While certain mutations are
harmful, in many cases there is no effect on traits. Some mutations are even beneficial. Only
mutations in sperm or egg can be passed from parent to child.

Our bodies can sometimes recognize and destroy cells with harmful mutations, but not always. This
is how cancer starts. In general, the genome (all the DNA in your body) is quite stable, and the
genetic makeup we are born with remains throughout our lives. It is this stability that makes genetic
testing a little different from other medical testing. For example, your cholesterol level or your
blood count may change with time, but your genes do not change.

Genetic Variation

Every person is born with genetic differences, called variation. Variation is why each individual is
unique at the level of genes and traits. Most variation is harmless, but some causes disease. Genetic
and trait variation allows populations to adapt more readily to different environmental challenges.
In fact, variation in populations is necessary for the evolution of species. Because many traits and
conditions are the result of combinations of genes and environment, we see a wide range of
variation for most traits in the population.
Genes and environment
Although our genetic makeup is constant throughout life, our genes alone do not DETERMINE our
future. All genes work in the context of environment. Changes in the environment, such as diet,
exercise, exposure to toxic agents, or medications can all influence our genes and traits.

What is Genetics?
Genetics is the study of heredity. Heredity is a biological process where a parent passes certain
genes onto their children or offspring. Every child inherits genes from both of their biological
parents and these genes in turn express specific traits. Some of these traits may be physical for
example hair and eye color and skin color etc. On the other hand some genes may also carry the risk
of certain diseases and disorders that may pass on from parents to their offspring.
Evolution

Where did we come from?

Nobody 100 percent knows for sure, because it happened something like 3 million years ago, and
the first people aren’t around anymore to clue us in on how they got there. But there are scientists
who devote their whole lives to answering the question, and most of them agree on what probably
happened: We came from primates, like monkeys, gorillas, or chimpanzees.

How did monkey people turn into people?

According to most of those scientists who have studied the question, it went something like this:
There were 2 groups of primates — probably chimpanzees, because, if you look at both of us under
the most powerful microscope ever, we are pretty similar — living near each other in Africa. One
group of these chimps lives near a bunch of trees, which provided all sorts of good stuff for them,
like shelter and food. The other group doesn’t have many trees, so they’re forced to spend more
time on the ground and in the open fields.
That second group started to do things differently from the first group, like walking upright, which
is much faster than walking on all fours like the first group did. Over millions of years, those
differences became more pronounced, until the second group looked more or less like we look
today and the first group stayed as chimpanzees.

Ok, so why did the monkey people turn into people?

That’s what evolution is: Animals change over time in order to survive where they live. So, fish
evolved to have gills because they needed to be able to breathe underwater. Some animals evolved
to have sharp teeth or big claws so they could kill their dinner. Other animals evolved with scales or
shells to protect themselves and not get eaten as dinner. Others evolved to fly or climb to get away
from danger altogether. As people were evolving from chimpanzees, we didn’t get any of those
things.
Instead, we got really, really smart brains. And we survived because we used those brains to think
our way out of trouble. Plus, because we evolved to walk on 2 feet instead of 4, we wound up with
hands that, combined with our smart brains, allowed us to do things like build houses, make
clothing and weapons and — eventually — invent really important stuff. Like Legos.

But if we came from monkeys, why don’t we have tails?

Well, we most likely came from chimps, which don’t have tails. But, it’s still a good question
because tails are awesome and would make lots of things way easier — like climbing trees, for
example. Then again, they would also make sitting pretty hard, and without sitting, how would we
play all our video games?
Evolution is a theory, an idea with lots of evidence. It explains why animals and plants are so good
at surviving in their environments, the places where they live. What it means is that a species
changes over time and can even split in two new species.
The theory of evolution was developed by Charles Darwin back in 1859. He said that evolution
worked through natural selection.
Natural selection means that some individuals in a species are better at surviving than others and
will have more children.
Rabbit live all over, and have dark fur. But in a place where it snows a lot, white fur would be an
advantage. A white furred rabbit would be harder to see and is more likely to survive and have
children. These children will inherit its mum or dad’s white fur. Eventually all the rabbits living in
the cold place will have white fur.
This is called ‘survival of the fittest’ because animals which are best able to survive also fit better
in their homes, like a white rabbit fits better in a cold country.
Evolution also explains how one species can become two, like with the rabbits. We call this
Speciation. The white rabbits are better fits where it snows but dark brown rabbits fit better where
it snows less. With time, the different rabbits will become different species, both living in their own,
separate environment.
Evolution says that all living things are related. This means that if will go back far enough in time,
all animals, all plants and every other living thing, had one ancestor. Evolution led to that one
species becoming many more until today when we have millions and millions.
Some animals are more closely related than others. The more closely related animals are, the more
they look and act alike. Swans and geese look and act so similar because they are closely related. A
sparrow looks very different to a swan but both still have beaks, feathers and can fly so are related
but less closely than the swan is to the goose.
Wee look very different to a swan or a sparrow but we do have similarities. We both have two eyes,
both have two legs, two arms (adapted to wings in a bird), one head, one heart, a nose and ears. We
share all of these things and more with birds so, although we are very different, we are also related
to birds.
Evolution is an important part of palaeontology. Many of the extinct animals found look like they
have bits of different animals stuck to them. Many fossil birds are found with teeth. This is because
birds evolved from Dinosaurs which do have teeth. Eventually birds lost their teeth and now no
living species has them.
So evolution means we share a history with all the animals around us but also all the animals that
are extinct. It means we are a part of nature and not better than it or above it. And it means that we
should treasure those connections with nature and better protect them from our own, sometimes
destructive, ways.
What is evolution?
In biology, evolution is the change in the characteristics of a species over several generations and
relies on the process of natural selection.

 The theory of evolution is based on the idea that all species are related and gradually change
over time.
 Evolution relies on there being genetic variation in a population which affects the physical
characteristics of an organism.
 Some of these characteristics may give the individual an advantage over other individuals
which they can then pass on to their offspring.

What is natural selection?

 Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution states that evolution happens by natural selection.
 Individuals in a species show variation in physical characteristics. This variation is because
of differences in their genes
 Individuals with characteristics best suited to their environment are more likely to survive,
finding food, avoiding predators and resisting disease. These individuals are more likely to
reproduce and pass their genes on to their children.
 Individuals that are poorly adapted to their environment are less likely to survive and
reproduce. Therefore their genes are less likely to be passed on to the next generation.
 As a consequence those individuals most suited to their environment survive and, given
enough time, the species will gradually evolve.
Natural selection in action: the Peppered moth

 Before the industrial revolution in the mid-1700s, the peppered moth was most commonly a
pale whitish colour with black spots.
 This colouring enabled them to hide from potential predators on trees with pale-coloured
bark, such as birch trees.
 The rarer dark-coloured peppered moths were easily seen against the pale bark of trees and
therefore more easily seen by predators.

 As the Industrial Revolution reached its peak, the air in industrial areas became full of soot.
This stained trees and buildings black.
 As a result, the lighter moths became much easier to spot than the darker ones, making them
vulnerable to being eaten by birds.
 The darker moths were now camouflaged against the soot-stained trees and therefore less
likely to be eaten.
 Over time this change in the environment led to the darker moths becoming more common
and the pale moths rarer.
What have genes got to do with it?
 The mechanisms of evolution operate at the genomic level. Changes in DNA sequences
affect the composition and expression of our genes, the basic units of inheritance
 To understand how different species have evolved we have to look at the DNA sequences in
their genomes.
 Our evolutionary history is written into our genome. The human genome looks the way it
does because of all the genetic changes that affected our ancestors.
 When DNA and genes in different species look very similar, this is usually taken as evidence
of them sharing ancestors.
 For example, humans and the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster, share much of their DNA.
75 per cent of genes that cause diseases in humans are also found in the fruit fly.
 DNA accumulates changes over time. Some of these changes can be beneficial, and provide
a selective advantage for an organism.
 Other changes may be harmful if they affect an important, everyday function. As a result
some genes do not change much. They are said to be conserved.