Theories of Origin and Evolution of Life

There are many views on how life originated on earth. The earth is

said to have come into existence 5 billion years ago and life on earth

came into existence only a billion years after that. There were many

scientists who studied the fossils and performed experiments to

postulate their versions of the theory of evolution.

Theories of Origin of Life

In olden days, people believed that the universe and life on it was an

act and result of God’s creation. There was, however, no evidence to

support these claims.The early scientists and Greeks believed that life

on earth never began on earth itself. They believed that it came from

somewhere else in outer space and they named this phenomenon

‘panspermia’.

Then came the theory of spontaneous generation of life during the

times of Aristotle who believed that life was born from decaying and

rotting inorganic matter such as hay, straw, and other non- living

material. This theory was rubbished by Louis Pasteur.

Next came the ‘chemical evolution of life’ theory by two scientistsOparin from Russia and Haldane
from England. They believed that the

generation of life on earth was a slow chemical process which

occurred from pre-existing non-living materials such as amino acids,

proteins and nuclear material such as RNA. They postulated that these

organic materials came together under conditions of high temperature,

reducing atmosphere(without oxygen) and gases released from

volcanos all of which were favourable to produce simple living forms.

So they called this mixture of organic materials as ‘organic soup’.

Browse more Topics under Evolution

● Stages of Evolution

● Evidences of Evolution

Miller Urey Experiment

Miller and Urey were two scientists who believed Oparin and Haldane
and wanted to prove their theory. So, they performed the famous

‘Miller- Urey experiment’ in the lab.

(Source: bbc.co.uk)

● They replicated the environmental and atmospheric conditions

that may have existed in the primitive earth in their lab by

taking gases like methane, ammonia, hydrogen and water

vapour in a closed vessel.

● When they came back to check the results of their experiment

after a week, they detected the presence of amino acids,

nitrogen bases, fats, and sugar.

● With these results, the theory of gradual chemical evolution

was accepted.

● This experiment gave the other scientists to piece the remaining

pieces together.

It was believed that monomeric units that formed due to chemical

evolution polymerized to form polymeric units and that gave rise to

the unicellular microorganisms and eventually gave rise to

multicellular more complex species. This is called biogenesis.

Similar to the above-discussed theories of the origin of life, there were

many theories of the evolution of life.

Theory of Evolution

There were many theories of evolution that were postulated based on

the evidence but the most accepted important ones are as follows:

Lamarck’s Theory of inheritance of Acquired Characters

This theory of evolution was published in the book ‘Philosphic

Zoologique’ by French scientist Jean Lamarck. His theory was based

on the study of fossils of the organisms of the past with their present

relatives including the homologous, analogous and vestigial organs.

He believed that an organ or structure got modified in the current

animal from its ancestor due to the change in the environment and the

utility of that particular organ. His theory also said that the organs or
structures modified themselves to suit the new needs of the organism.

His theory contained three postulates:

● New needs

● Acquisition of new characters, organs or structures

● Inheritance of acquired characters

Example: The giraffe originally did not have its long neck. But, the

trees were very tall and it could not feed on the minimal number of

short trees. So, as an adaptive measure to be able to eat leaves on the

tall trees, the giraffe’s neck started growing longer. This was a way of

adaptive mechanism due to new needs.

(Source: haikudeck.com)

Lamarck’s theory of evolution was disproved by scientists like

Weismann and Mendel by carrying out their own experiments which

were not consistent with Lamarck’s postulates.

Darwin’s Theory of Natural Selection

Charles Darwin along with Wallace postulated this theory of

evolution. Darwin believed that life thrives and multiplies by the

principle of natural selection. The theory of natural selection had the

following postulates:

● Increased reproduction- He said that each and every organism

or species tend to reproduce to the maximum to let its species

live and multiply. He said that populations of all organisms

multiply geometrically.

● The arithmetic growth of food and availability of spaceDarwin says that though the organism and
their species

multiply geometrically, food multiplies only arithmetically and

the space available remains a constant. With both these

restrictions to the growing population of different species puts

a tab on the population growth.

● Struggle- with a rapidly multiplying population, there is an

increased demand for both space and food. But, due to the
restricted space and slowly growing food, there arises a

competition between the members of a species and between

species for the food and space. The organism or species that is

able to fight its own species or the other species or the

environment itself lives.

● Variations- Due to this struggle for food and space, each

organism or species tend to get an advantage over the other. In

order to do so, they tend to develop certain features or

structures that give them that added advantage to succeed in the

struggle of life. So, this struggle brings about variations.

● Survival of the fittest- Darwin’s theory of natural selection thus

believes that those who can survive till the end are the ones that

nature selects.

Solved Example for You

Q: Who postulated the theory of chemical evolution?

a. Lamarck

b. Miller and Urey

c. Oparin and Haldane

d. Darwin and Wallace

Sol: The correct answer is (c) Oparin and Haldane

Oparin and Haldane believed that the life on earth came into existence

from a pre-existing inorganic material such as mud, clay, hay etc.

They believed a gradual conversion of these materials in the primitive

environment of earth gave rise to small molecules which later on

polymerized to give rise to complex molecules and organisms.

Stages of Evolution

The evolution of man began about 15 million years ago when the first

known man walked this earth. Humans today developed through many

stages of evolution from primates that are now extinct. This

evolutionary process from the primates who walked on all four limbs

to the humans today who walk on two hind limbs has been a very long
one.Theories of Organic evolution H

Stages of Evolution of Man

The genus of the human being today is called Homo and the man

today is called as Homo sapiens. From simple life forms that were

unicellular to the development of multicellular organisms gave rise to

the vertebrates. The vertebrates began evolving that led to the

development of mammals. Among the mammals, humans are most

closely related to primates such as the orangutan

The family to which human beings belong is called Hominidae. It was

in the Miocene age that the family Hominidae split from the

Pongidae(apes) family. Dryopethicus was the first in the evolution of

man in the stages of evolution and some believe him to be the

common ancestor of man and apes.

Browse more Topics under Evolution

● Theories of Origin and Evolution of Life

● Evidences of Evolution

Read the Evidence of Evolution here in detail.

Dryopethicus

He was the earliest known ancestor of man. At the same time as his

existence, Ramapethicus existed who was more human-like than

Dryopethicus. Dryopethicus inhabited the European region and some

parts of Asia and Africa. Stages of evolution of humans began from

him. After Dryopethicus and Ramapethicus came to the genus

Australopethicus which preceded the genus Homo.

Australopithecus

● Australopithecus ramidus: Was 1.2 meters tall and the fossils

show the foramen magnum that was large to indicate upright

walking. The forelimbs were different from those of the earlier

ape-like ancestors. They had teeth like humans.

● Australopithecus afarensis– ‘Lucy’ the famous fossil belonged

to this species. They are said to have inhabited the African

mainland. And they were shorter than the Australopithecus

ramidus and had a small skull with flat noses and no chin. They

were able to walk on two legs but the legs were slightly bowed

which made their walk slightly ape-like. The bowed legs,

fingers, and toes enabled them to climb trees and live there.

They had large teeth and jaws.

● Australopithecus africanus– These also inhabited the African

mainland. They were bipedal and had a small skull with small

brains than Homo erectus but larger than their predecessors.

Also, they had large teeth compared to current day humans and

were herbivorous. They had large jaws.

● Australopithecus robustus– He was taller than his predecessors

but still ape-like. They also weighed more than their ancestors.

After the Australopithecus genus came the Homo genus. The

first man in the genus was Homo habilis.

Browse more about Evolution

Evolution

● Evidences of Evolution

● Theories of Origin and Evolution of Life

Homo

● Homo habilis– He had a face similar to his ancestors. The skull

and brain size indicate that he may have been able to speak.

The earliest tools made were from this era. Homo habilis is

known as the ‘handy man’ because he was the first to make and

use tools. He was around 5 feet tall and erect.

● Homo erectus– after Homo habilis came, the Homo erectus

who was also upright. He had a smaller but longer face, less

prominent or absent chin, larger brain size and prominent

speech. He knew how to make and use tools, he made a fire

and knew how to control it. Homo erectus was carnivorous. He

knew the existence of groups and they began spreading from

Africa to Asia and Europe. The Java Man and Peking Man had

brain capacities similar to modern man at 1300cc. They were

cave dwellers.

● Homo sapiens– After Homo erectus came, the Homo sapiens

who separated into two types:

1) Homo sapiens neanderthelensis

They had a brain size larger than modern man and were gigantic in

size. Also, they had a large head and jaw and were very powerful and

muscular. They were carnivores and the tools from the era indicate

they were hunters. They were also cave dwellers but their caves were

more comfortable and they lived in groups and hunted for food

gathering.

2) Homo sapiens sapiens

Also known as ‘modern-day man’ is what we are today. Compared to

the Homo sapiens neanderthelensis, they became smaller in size and

the brain size reduced to 1300cc. There was also a reduction in the

size of the jaw, rounding of the skull and chin. Cro- Magnon was the

earliest of the Homo sapiens. They spread wider from to Europe,

Australia, and the Americas. They were omnivores, had skilful hands,

developed the power of thinking, producing art, more sophisticated

tools and sentiments.

Evolution is not a thing of the past and is continuing even now.

Humans are undergoing ‘natural selection’ for many different traits

based on their life and environment in the present. It is believed that

the jaw size is reducing further and the wisdom teeth are soon going to

become extinct.

Solved Example for You

Q: Which man was the first developer of tools?

a. Homo habilis

b. Homo erectus

c. Humans
d. Australopithecus ramidus

Sol: The correct answer is (a) Homo habilis

The first man to develop tools was Homo habilis and so he is also

called ‘handy man’.

Evidences of Evolution

Evolution is a biological theory that postulates that all organisms on

earth– plants, and animals have a common origin and their differences

today are the result of modifications that occurred in successive

generations. There is evidence of evolution that can prove this.

Evolution claims that there has been a genetic variation that brings

about the difference in the physical characteristics of different species.

Evidence of Evolution

We can broadly group the evidence of evolution into 5 broad

categories:

1. Relationship between organisms

2. Anatomy and morphology

○ Homologous Organs

○ Analogous Organs

○ Vestigial Organs

○ Atavism

3. Genetics

4. Paleontology (study of fossils)

5. Embryology

Let’s look at each of this evidence of evolution a little more in detail.

Relationship Between Organisms

The theory of evolution says that all organisms alive today have

originated from a single ancestor. There are many similarities to prove

these common origins:

● All organisms are made up of cells.

● The structure and functioning of individual organelles of cells

remain the same in all organisms except with a few variations.

● Cells of the same kind and function form tissues in all

organisms.

● All organisms grow, reproduce and multiply.

● All organisms are able to perform metabolism and generate

energy to be able to live and thrive.

Anatomy and Morphology

Evolution also is proved by the similarities in the anatomy and

morphology of different animals and plants due to the presence of:

Homologous organs

(Source: BiologyDiscussion)

These are organs that are similar embryologically but serve different

functions in different organisms. This phenomenon is known as

homology.

● Homology in plants: Thorns of a Bougainville are homologous

to tendrils in creepers such as a money plant.

● Homology in animals: The structure of the heart in animals is

an example of homology. The chambers in the heart are present

in most animals -some have 2,3 and 4 chambers are seen in

higher vertebrates. The forelimbs are present in all animals but

modified to perform different functions- fins in aquatic

animals, wings in birds, hands in humans etc.

Analogous Organs

These organs perform the same function in but develop from different

structures in different species.

● Analogy in plants: In some plants leaves and in some their

stems perform photosynthesis. Here, two differently originated

structures perform the same function.

● Analogy in animals: Wings of an insect, bird and a

bat(mammal) originate from different structures but all perform

the same function of enabling the organism to fly.

Vestigial organs
These organs are non- functional and rudimentary in nature. However,

they were very functional in the ancestors of the organism. This

occurs due to the decreasing use of the organ which leads it to become

small or non- functional in nature. Example of such a structure is the

appendix and the wisdom teeth in human beings.

Atavism

This can be called as the reverse of vestigial organs where a structure

or organ which has become extinct in the species has appeared in the

future generations. Example of such a trait is the appearance of a short

tail in human babies.

Genetics

The genetic code is made up of nitrogen bases. These base

combinations are almost the same in all the organisms. Certain triplets

of amino acid sequences also produce the same proteins in different

organisms. This genetic code called the ‘universal genetic code’

remains identical to a large extent in most organisms proving the

possibility of a common ancestry.

Paleontology

(Source: apologetics press)

The study of fossils is known as palaeontology. Fossils are formed

when certain remains of organisms or plants get embedded in the soil

or water and are preserved for many hundreds of years. They appear

either as skeletal remains, footprints, moulds or intact structures as

found in the snow. By studying fossils, we are able to establish

similarities between the organism in the present to its ancestor in the

past.

There can be many similarities that prove the common origins

between different closely related animals and the differences can be

studied to establish how they differ now and why. Fossils are very

important evidence to prove the theory of evolution and common

ancestry.
Embryology

(Source: seanet.com)

It has been observed that the embryos of different organisms appear

similar in early stages of embryo development. Some animals show

structures present during embryonic life but which disappear in adult

life or immediately before being born. And it is said by the

‘Recapitulation Theory’ or the’ Biogenetic Law’ by Von Baer that

‘Ontogeny repeats phylogeny’ which means that the embryo of an

organism undergoes all the stages in the embryonic life as its

evolutionary history. For example, a reptile embryo undergoes

transformations from a fish-like appearance to amphibian-like features

and then to a reptile embryo.

There are many theories that prove evolution is a fact and the truth of

life on earth and this evidence of evolution only prove them more

strongly.

Solved Example for You

Q: Who gave the Biogenetic Law?

a. Charles Darwin

b. Von Baer

c. Hardy and Weinberg

d. S.L.Miller

Sol: The correct answer is (b) Von Baer

Von Bar gave the Biogenetic Law or ‘Recapitulation Theory’ which

says that ‘ontogeny repeats phylogeny’. Charles Darwin gave the

Theory of Adaptive Radiation in Evolution. Hardy and Weinberg

postulated the Hardy- Weinberg principle which gave an algebraic

equation that helps determine the frequency of alleles in a locus or

gene. S. L Miller gave the Miller’s theory that demonstrated how the

first non- cellular life forms could have originated on earth by

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