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Coconut oil and fermentation of coconut milk

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 41
Fermented Coconut Milk and Coconut Oil

Azila Abdul Aziz, Ramlan Aziz, Muhammad Roji Sarmidi, Chua Lee Suan,
Nur Arbainah Shamsul Annuar, Norhayati Mohamed Noor, and Norfarahiyah Aman Nor

Contents
41.1 Introduction................................................................................................................................... 665
41.1.1 Coconut (Cocos nucifera)................................................................................................. 665
41.1.2 Coconut Oil Composition................................................................................................. 666
41.2 Coconut Oil Processing................................................................................................................. 666
41.2.1 Virgin Coconut Oil Extraction......................................................................................... 666
41.2.1.1 Solvent Extraction............................................................................................. 666
41.2.1.2 Dry Process....................................................................................................... 667
41.2.1.3 Wet Process....................................................................................................... 667
41.3 Metabolite Profiling of Coconut Oil............................................................................................. 669
41.3.1 Lipid Profile of Coconut Oil............................................................................................. 669
41.3.2 Polyphenolics in Coconut Oil........................................................................................... 670
41.4 Applications of Coconut Oil......................................................................................................... 670
41.4.1 Nutritional and Health Benefits of VCO.......................................................................... 670
41.4.2 Coconut Oil in Cosmeceutical Applications.................................................................... 672
41.5 Conclusions................................................................................................................................... 672
References............................................................................................................................................... 673

41.1  Introduction
41.1.1  Coconut (Cocos nucifera)
The scientific name for coconut is Cocos nucifera. It is called coco, meaning “monkey face,” by early
Spanish explorers, as the three notches on the hairy nut resemble the head and face of a monkey. Nucifera
means “nut-bearing.” The native habitat of coconuts is not known, but they can traditionally be found
in Asia’s coastal regions and the Pacific Islands within 20° north and south latitudes. Ideally, coconuts
grow in regions where the temperatures are between 75°F and 85°F and not less than 68°F. They require
rainfall of 60 to 80 inches per year (O’Brien 2004).
Populations around the world use coconuts as their source of meat, juice, milk, and oil. Coconut
is highly nutritious and is full of fiber, vitamins, and minerals. It also provides many health ben-
efits beyond its nutritional content. Coconut has also been one of the sources of economy to nearly
one  third of the world’s population. Among these cultures, the coconut has a long and respected
history.
Coconut oil is an edible oil that is derived from the seeds of coconut palm. Nowadays, coconuts are
grown in about 93 countries in an area of 11.8 million hectares (Bouaid et al. 2010). It is possibly the
healthiest, most versatile, unprocessed dietary oil in the world. Coconut oil is extensively used in tradi-
tional medicine among Asian and Pacific populations. The Pacific Islanders called coconut the “tree of
life.”

665

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 666 Handbook of Plant-Based Fermented Food and Beverage Technology

41.1.2  Coconut Oil Composition

Coconut oil contains approximately 50% lauric acid. Lauric acid oils are unique in that they can pass
abruptly from a brittle solid to a liquid, within a narrow temperature range. Coconut oil is highly oxida-
tive stable, as more than 90% of its fatty acids are saturated (O’Brien 2004). It is rich in medium-chain
triglycerides (MCTs). Medium-chain fatty acids (MCFAs) have 8 to 12 carbon atoms and are found
mostly in butterfat and tropical oils. Like the short-chain fatty acids, these fats have antimicrobial prop-
erties, are absorbed directly for quick energy, and can contribute to the health of the immune system
(Marten et al. 2006). Coconut oil is a major component of infant formulas and medical foods for people
who cannot absorb long-chain fatty acids (O’Brien 2004).
The MCFAs of coconut oil such as lauric (C-12), caprylic (C-10), and mystic (C-14) acids are different
from the common longer chain fatty acids (LCTs) found in other plant-based oils. LCTs are typically
stored in the body as fat, while MCTs are preferably metabolized for energy (Kabara 1998). MCTs are
solubilized in the aqueous phase of the intestinal contents, where they are absorbed, bound to albumin,
and transported directly to the liver via the portal vein. MCTs are transported directly to the liver and
enter the mitochondria without the benefit of carnitine cycle (Carandang 1998). Compared to long-chain
fats, MCTs decrease protein catabolism in hypercatabolic states, raise thyroid function, are deposited
less into adipose tissue, and do not form esters with cholesterol (Kabara 1998).

41.2  Coconut Oil Processing

Vegetable oils have been used by mankind for centuries for both food and nonfood applications. Before
oil is obtained, oilseed such as coconut has to undergo either an expression or an extraction process to
remove the entrapped oil. Expression is the process of mechanically pressing liquid out of the liquid-
solid system (Mpagalilile et al. 2005; Brennan et al. 1990; Willems et al. 2008a,b). The oil obtained via
these methods is of high quality, but the attainable yield is limited to roughly 80 wt% of the oil originally
present. It is only in the last century that solvent extraction has been used in this field. The advantage of
solvent extraction is the high yield that can be obtained economically with this method (>90 wt%) but at
the expense of reduced oil quality (Willems et al. 2008a,b).

41.2.1  Virgin Coconut Oil Extraction

Several methods are currently practiced for removing oil from either fresh coconut meat or copra (dried
coconut kernel). These techniques include

1. Solvent extraction
2. Dry process
3. Wet process

41.2.1.1  Solvent Extraction

Solvent extraction is the most frequently applied sample preparation procedure in plant material analysis.
The method is limited by the compound solubility in the specific solvent used, and hence the quality and
quantity of the extracted mixture are determined by the type of solvent applied. Although the method
is relatively simple and quite efficient, it suffers from problems such as a long extraction time, relatively
high solvent consumption, and often unsatisfactory reproducibility (Dawidowicz et al. 2008). Solvent
extraction is possible with an appropriate solvent, such as benzene or n-hexane.
The determination of the content of either edible oil or total fat in oleaginous seeds is of paramount
importance to the oil industry as the price of the raw material is a function of its richness in the com-
mercial product. Traditionally, this determination has been based on leaching of ground seeds with an
organic solvent and weighing the residue after solvent evaporation. The most widely used procedure for
removing oil from the solid matrix remains conventional Soxhlet extraction, which is straightforward

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 Fermented Coconut Milk and Coconut Oil 667

and inexpensive but is also slow and tedious. The most severe shortcomings of Soxhlet extraction are
the long time involved and the large volumes of organic solvents that are released into the atmosphere
as the Soxhlet procedure is far from clean (Ayuso-García et al. 1999). Even though oil recovery is high,
the process is rarely applied owing to its high risk and high investment cost (Mpagalile et al. 2005; Che
Man et al. 1997).
A great variety of new approaches based on different principles such as supercritical fluid extraction,
microwave irradiation, and closed system at high temperature and pressure (pressurized liquid extraction
or accelerated solvent extraction) have been developed in the last few years to circumvent the shortcom-
ings of conventional Soxhlet extraction. None surpasses it in the extraction of edible oils for reasons such
as decreased efficiency of supercritical fluid extraction due to matrix effects, or the low polar nature of
the solvent in microwave-assisted heating of the solvent and sample-solvent partitioning of the analytes
in accelerated solvent extraction. The ideal approach would be one retaining the advantages of Soxhlet
extraction (namely, sample—fresh solvent contact during the whole extraction step, no filtration step,
simple manipulation) while circumventing its shortcomings by accelerating the process and minimizing
environmental pollution (Ayuso-García et al. 1999).

41.2.1.2  Dry Process

The dry process is the present commercial technique for coconut oil extraction. Copra is cleaned, ground,
steamed, and pressed through an expeller for coconut oil extraction. The effect of process parameters on
oil expression efficiency from freshly dried coconut gratings was investigated by Mpagalile et al. (2005).
The range of parameters investigated was: pressing time, particle size, pressure, moisture content, and
temperature. The study indicated that oil expression from coconuts was highly dependent on the mois-
ture content of the materials being pressed. Moisture content played a significant role in the improvement
of oil expression efficiency under the two pressure levels investigated, namely low pressure (3%/13 MPa)
and high pressure (13%/33 MPa). According to the results, optimum moisture content at low-pressure
pressing was 11%. Other optimum pressing conditions for low-pressure coconut oil expression were a
temperature of 60°C, fine gratings, and a pressing time of 8 min. The study has shown that oil release
mechanisms tend to be highly influenced by the pressing conditions and the process variables.

41.2.1.3  Wet Process

The wet process is not subjected to initial drying of coconut (Hagenmaier et al. 1971). It can be carried
out by crushing the coconut meat with water and filtering it to produce coconut milk or coconut cream.
This emulsion contains a mixture of oil, water, protein, and sludge. Coconut oil can be separated through
cold extraction, centrifuge, cooking, or fermentation.
The traditional fermentation method requires the mixture to be fermented for approximately 48 hours
at a temperature of about 35°C. The oil is then heated at adequate temperature and timed to remove the
access moisture to avoid rancidity. The purpose of the fermentation or enzymatic processes is to desta-
bilize the emulsion and allow the separation of oil phase and water phase (carbohydrate and protein)
(Soeka et al. 2008, Rahayu et al. 2008; Handayani et al. 2009).
However, coconut oil extraction by these wet process techniques has not been commercially suc-
cessful. Usually, the recovery of coconut oil by the traditional wet process is low, about 30%–40%.
Moreover, the oil obtained is of poor quality owing to the high moisture content (MC), dark color, and
short shelf life. On the other hand, the traditional method is easy to handle, and the extracted coconut oil
has a pleasant aroma and low free fatty acids.
Che Man et al. (1997) studied the use of 0.1%–0.4% acetic acid (25%) for coconut oil extraction and
showed a recovery of 58.3%–60.3% of good-quality oil. In another study, Che Man et al. (1996) obtained
a yield of 73.8% of good-quality oil with an enzyme mixture at 1% (w/w) each of cellulase, α-amylase,
polygalacturonase, and protease at pH 7.0 and an extraction temperature of 60°C. pH was the most
significant parameter in the enzymatic process. The process allowed initial purification by removal of
the sludge in the aqueous phase. However, the stability of the lipoprotein emulsion limited the process
efficiency of the oil separation (Sant’Anna et al. 2003).

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 668 Handbook of Plant-Based Fermented Food and Beverage Technology

41.2.1.3.1  Integrated Wet Process

The integrated wet process is a modified wet process introduced by the Institute of Bioproduct
Development (IBD), Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, to obtain virgin coconut oil (VCO). This advance
wet process involves cooling, churning, low heating, and centrifuging. Cooling is the mechanism used to
de-emulsify the coconut milk. In the churning process, coconut milk needs to be converted into butter
form. This method will remove as much water as possible from the coconut milk. The maximum per-
mitted water content of butter (16%) is regulated by the International Standards set out by the Food and
Agriculture Organization (WHO). The water content affects the quality of the butter, including its flavor
and texture. The water content is affected by (Funahashi 2008):

a. Milk composition
b. Fat content of the cream
c. Cooling temperature of the cream
d. Physical ripening time of the cream
e. Cream feed temperature
f. Cream flow rate
g. Shear rate on the butter
h. Buttermilk draining

A previous study done by Funahashi (2008) showed that cream feed temperature showed the strongest
influence on water content of the butter. Milk fat globules agglomerate more readily with increasing
cream feed temperatures. This arises from the lower viscosity of the cream and the greater availability of
free fat on the surface of the fat globules, leading to reduced churning time. The higher the temperature,
the higher is the water holding capacity between the butter grains. The study showed that 10.5°C would
be the best temperature for the churning process. A difference of 1°C in the temperature corresponded
to a difference of 1% v/v in the water content of the butter.
The integrated wet process can produce high-quality product at high yield and shorter processing time.
It can also produce coconut oil with the highest heat stability. The fermentation process needs to be car-
ried out for 3 days to obtain VCO. On the other hand the integrated wet process only takes less than a day.
Figure 41.1 shows the flow diagram for extracting VCO via the integrated wet process.

Freshly grated coconut

Squeeze and strain

Coconut milk

Cooling

Churning process
(Separates water from coconut butter)
(Change coconut milk to coconut butter)

Thawing

Centrifugation (separates the oil from aqueous layer)

Filter

Virgin coconut oil

FIGURE 41.1  VCO extraction via integrated wet process.

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 Fermented Coconut Milk and Coconut Oil 669

41.3  Metabolite Profiling of Coconut Oil

Metabolites are quantifiable molecules that best reflect phenotype. Numerous studies have been car-
ried out to profile coconut oil with various analytical approaches; however, technologies to quantify
every metabolite in coconut oil simultaneously have yet to emerge. The biological informatics has yet
to embrace the study of metabolites as aggressively as genomics. Because of the vast chemical diversity
of metabolites and their wide variations, metabolomics research usually requires multiple techniques as
certain classes of samples are more amenable to one analytical technique than others. With the present
development of analytical equipment, the most common subclass of metabolites, namely lipids, can be
profiled and a nearly complete database can be produced.

41.3.1  Lipid Profile of Coconut Oil

Researchers in IBD, UTM have profiled lipids in coconut oil using ultra-high performance liquid
chromatography integrated with electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometer. The lipid profiles
of three different processing techniques, such as integrated process, wet process (fermentation), and
dry process (cold press) have been developed and compared using the software LipidView™ 1.0 from
Applied Biosystems/MDS Analytical Technologies. The software is a data processing tool that identifies
and semiquantitates lipids in electrospray mass spectrometry data. The total amount of lipids detected in
the fermentation method is the highest (141), followed by cold press (95) and integrated process (73). The
presence of higher amount of lipids in coconut oil produced from fermentation might be contributed by
the activities of enzymes during fermentation.
Lipids are an attractive subset of metabolites for the first practical steps in metabolomics applications
(Watkins et al. 2001). Lipids reflect diet and metabolism in addition to their cellular functions as struc-
tural, energetic, and bioactive signaling molecules. In particular, fatty acids and sterols are the major
components of lipids that survive digestion intact and enter cellular metabolic pathways. Therefore,
profiling of lipid metabolites is the crucial step in understanding the role of coconut oil in modifying
metabolism and ultimately in promoting health.
The lipid profile of coconut oil can be generally divided into four classes: glycerolipids, phospholip-
ids, sterolipids, and sphingolipids. Phospholipids cover the highest percentage, which are about 50% of
total lipids in coconut oil. The top three phospholipids are phosphatidic acid, phosphatidyletanolamine,
and phosphatidylchlorine. No sterolipid is detected in coconut oil using the three mentioned process-
ing approaches. The amount of sphingolipids in coconut oil is higher than glycerolipids. Glycerolipids
consist of tri-, di-, and mono-acylglycerols, which are the most commonly studied lipid class. Among
the three processing techniques, coconut oil from the integrated process contains the highest amount of
triacylglycerols from carbon 40 to carbon 50. Triacylglycerols with the carbon number starting from 44
to 50 are detected from coconut oil produced from the dry process. The wet process produces coconut oil
containing triacylglycerols with carbon number 46 only. In addition to triacylglycerols, diacylglycerols
with carbon number from 42 to 44 are also detected in coconut oil obtained from the wet process, but not
in the coconut oil from the dry process and the integrated process.
Young (1983) has also studied the analytical characteristics of coconut oil. He reported that coconut
oil contains approximately 84% trisaturated glycerides, 12% disaturated-monosaturated glycerides, and
4% monosaturated-diunsaturated glycerides. These triglycerides can be divided into 13 groups from
carbon 28 to carbon 52. These groups contain 79 individual triglycerides. Marina et al. (2009) reported
that the major triacylglycerols in VCOs are LaLaLa (22.78%–25.84%), CLaLa (19.20%–21.38%), CCLa
(14.43%–16.54%), LaLaM (13.62%–15.55%), and LaMM (7.39%–9.51%) with La, C, and M are lauric,
capric, and myristic acids, respectively. Somehow, it is important to note that the triacylglycerol content
of coconut oil is very much affected by the processing technique. Therefore, the selection of process-
ing technique is essential as it would affect the triacylglycerol profile of coconut oil, which is indirectly
influencing the application of the oil. Triacylglycerols have significant benefit in antiviral, antibacterial,
anticaries, antiplaque, and antiprotozoal functions (German and Dillard 2004; Kabara 1978; Hierholzer
and Kabara 1982).

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41.3.2  Polyphenolics in Coconut Oil

Besides lipids, coconut oil also contains a lot of minerals, vitamins (provitamins A and E), phytosterols,
and phenols. The presence of small quantities (less than 150 ppm) of δ- and γ-lactones affect the odor and
taste of coconut oil. Phenolic substances are generally subdivided into simple phenols and polyphenols.
The latter is characterized by the presence of more than one aromatic ring in a molecule. They are mostly
secondary metabolites that exhibit a number of physiological effects in living organisms. Polyphenols
have been reported to exert a variety of biological actions such as free radicals scavenging, metal chela-
tion, modulation of enzyme activity, signal transduction, activation of transcription factors, and gene
expression. These compounds are also capable of decreasing total cholesterol and LDL cholesterol in
serum and tissues as well as increasing the antioxidant status.
Common plant phenols include phenolic acids (hydroxyl derivatives of benzoic and cinnamic acids)
and their esters (chlorogenic and caftaric acids), chalcones (butein, okanin, licochalcone, and dihydro-
chalcones [phloridzin]), coumarins (aesculetin), flavonoids (flavonols, flavones, flavanonols, isoflavones,
and/or anthocyanidins), and lignans. They can be found as free molecules (aglycones), in the form of con-
jugates (glycosides) or even as oligomers or polymers, for instance proanthocyanidins, lignans, or lignin.
Marina et al. (2009) reported that total sterol content in coconut oil averages around 0.096%. A wide
spectrum of polyphenolics from the class of flavonoids can be found in coconut oil as antioxidative com-
pounds (Nevin and Rajamohan 2006, 2008). Preliminary chemical analysis of polyphenols using UV-vis
spectrometry method by Nevin and Rajamohan (2006) showed the presence of flavanones and flavonols
in coconut oil.
In addition to flavonoids, phenolic acids can also be found in coconut oil. The identified phenolic
acids are protocatechuic, vanillic, caffeic, syringic, ferulic, and p-coumaric acids (Marina et al. 2008;
Seneviratne and Dissanayake 2008). The antioxidant activity in coconut oil could be due to these pheno-
lic compounds. Phenolic antioxidants are abundantly present in plant sources. They can be in milligrams
to grams per kilogram dry weight and approximately 4000 plant phenols are currently known (Vacel et
al. 2010).

41.4  Applications of Coconut Oil

Coconut oil was recognized as a health oil in Ayurvedic medicine almost 4000 years ago. The findings
of Kabara (1978) triggered a series of studies that led to the discovery of a number of applications of
coconut oil from nutrition and health benefits to skincare.

41.4.1  Nutritional and Health Benefits of VCO

The nutritional benefit and health of coconut oil is believed to be derived from the chemistry of the
medium-chain saturated fatty acids and its minor components. Coconut oil is easily digested, absorbed,
and utilized by the cells.
Coconut oil will be converted to monolaurin when consumed in the body. Monolaurin has been shown
to exhibit antimicrobial and antiviral properties. Its antiviral property is especially targeted to lipid-
coated viruses such as HIV, herpes, cytomegalovirus, influenza, pathogenic bacteria, and protozoa (Enig
1993). The first clinical trial of monolaurin on HIV-infected patients was carried out at the San Lazaro
Hospital in Manila (Dayrit 2008), and the result was very encouraging. According to Enig (1997), the
AIDS organization “Keep Hope Alive” has documented the effectiveness of coconut oil in lowering the
viral load of patients with HIV–AIDS.
Herpes virus and cytomegalovirus can result in the initial formation of atherosclerotic plaques and
reclogging of arteries. According to Dayrit (2008), heart disease can be due to inflammatory process,
microbial infection, and free radical injury to blood vessels. When there is no lauric acid source in the
diet, the body cannot produce monolaurin to inhibit the viruses. Cholesterol is then triggered to oxidize
in the presence of rancid food oils in the body, resulting in the formation of artery clogging material. The
accumulation of atheromas would lead to the incidence of coronary heart disease.

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 Fermented Coconut Milk and Coconut Oil 671

Monolaurin is also present in human breast milk. It provides the protection from viral or bacterial or
protozoal infections. This is the reason why breast-fed babies are usually healthier than bottle-fed babies.
The medium-chain fats in coconut oil are similar to fats in mother’s milk and have similar nutraceutical
effects (Kabara 1998).
Monolaurin and the ether analogue of monolaurin have been shown to have the potential to dampen
adverse reactions to glutamic acid. Monolaurin can induce proliferation of T-cells and inhibit the toxic
shock syndrome toxin-1 mitogenic effects on T-cells (Nevin and Rajamohan 2006).
Many researchers have reported that coconut oil lowers cholesterol (Blackburn et al. 1988; Prior et
al. 1981; Kurup and Rajmohan 1995). Nevin and Rajamohan (2004) reported that VCO lowered total
cholesterol, triglycerides, phospholipids, low density lipoprotein (LDL), and very low density lipoprotein
(VLDL) cholesterol levels but increased high density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol in serum and tis-
sues. Since coconut oil tends to improve HDL profile, this oil can actually protect consumers from heart
disease or stroke attack risk.
The fatty acids from the cholesterol esters are 74% unsaturated (38% polyunsaturated and 36% mono-
unsaturated) and only 24% are saturated. None of the saturated fatty acids were reported to be lauric or
myristic acids (Felton et al. 1994). Thus, the high intakes of coconut oil do not cause coronary artery
disease. These MCFAs are easily digested because they go straight to the liver through the portal vein
and are synthesized instantly into energy, thereby increasing body metabolism.
Isaac and Thormar (1990) reported that the antimicrobial effects of coconut oil are additive. The
total concentration of the fatty acids and monoglycerides is critical for virus inactivation. The proper-
ties of antimicrobial action of lipids are related to their structure. Monoglycerides are active, whereas
diglycerides and triglycerides are inactive. The fatty acids and monoglycerides produce their killing
effect by lysing the plasma membrane lipid bilayer and solubilizing the lipids and phospholipids in
the envelope of the virus (Isaac and Thormar 1991; Isaac, 1992). This antiviral action will cause
the disintegration of the virus envelope. The inactivation and disintegration of the lipid covering
pathogenic microorganisms will directly expose them to natural antibodies. Isaac and Schneidman
(1991) reported that all members of the herpes virus family could be killed by saturated fatty acids
and monoglycerides ranging from C6 to C14, which include approximately 80% of the fatty acids
in coconut oil. However, Projan et al. (1994) proposed that the antimicrobial effect is related to the
interference of monolaurin with signal transduction. Another hypothesis is that the antimicrobial
effect is due to the interference of lauric acid with virus assembly and viral maturation (Hornung et
al. 1994).
Coconut oil has a unique role in the diet as an important physiologically functional food. The term
“functional foods” is defined as a food that provides health benefit over and beyond basic nutrients. As
a functional food, coconut provides both energy and nutrients with its monoglycerides as its main func-
tional components. For example, coconut oil is capable to stimulate thyroid function. In the presence of
adequate thyroid hormone, LDL cholesterol will be converted to antiaging steroids, pregnenolone and
progesterone. These substances are required in preventing the promotion of degenerative diseases and
aging symptoms. Under certain in vitro conditions, medium-chain triacylglycerols exert proinflamma-
tory effects but in vivo medium-chain triacylglycerols may reduce intestinal injury and protect from
hepatotoxicity (Marten et al. 2006).
Compared to long-chain fatty acids, the chemical and physical properties of MCFAs show substan-
tial metabolic differences (Marten et al. 2006). These distinct properties affect the way MCFAs are
absorbed and metabolized. MCFAs have a lower melting point and have smaller molecule size, and
thus coconut oil can easily permeate to cell membranes and be readily burned for energy. MCFAs also
do not require binding to fatty acid binding protein, fatty acid transport protein, or fatty acid trans-
locase (Marten et al. 2006). Long-chain fatty acids, on the other hand, are difficult to break down in
the body and special enzymes are required for digestion (Lim-Sylianco 1987). Hence, long-chain fatty
acids put more strain on the pancreas, liver, and the entire digestion system. Finally, long-chain fatty
acids are stored in the body as fat and may be deposited within arteries as cholesterol (Lim-Sylianco
1987). Several aspects of MCFA metabolism affect features of the metabolic syndrome such as plasma
lipid levels, insulin resistance, and inflammatory response, as well as weight management (Marten et
al. 2006).

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41.4.2  Coconut Oil in Cosmeceutical Applications

The essential cosmetic care for skin is moisturization. Moisturizers are expected to increase skin hydra-
tion and to modify the chemical nature of the surface to one that is smooth, soft, and pliable (Elsner
and Maibach 2002). Moisturizers are externally applied compounds comprising multiple components,
including occlusive ingredients and humectants. Occlusive moisturizing ingredients are oily substances
that impair the evaporation of skin moisture by forming an epicutaneous greasy film that impedes
water loss. Humectants are compounds that attract water from the dermis into the stratum corneum.
Moisturization of the stratum corneum occurs from below, with the dermis contributing moisture to the
skin (Flynn et al. 2001).
VCO is a popular ingredient in traditional skin care application especially in the South East Asia
region. Norhayati et al. (2010) showed that a moisturizer incorporated with 40% of VCO-loaded solid-
lipid microparticles (SLM) was most effective as a moisturizer compared to the others, both in terms
of skin moisture and elasticity. Efficacy tests were conducted on 30 female volunteers with normal skin
types. They were divided into two groups, and each group was given two types of moisturizing cream.
Group 1 applied creams without VCO and creams with 20% VCO-SLMs. Group 2 applied creams with
30% VCO-SLMs and 40% VCO-SLMs. They were required to apply the cream on their volar forearm
at specific areas twice a day (morning and night) for 28 days. All creams with VCO-SLMs as an active
ingredient were more effective than the one without VCO-SLMs in retaining skin moisture. The highest
increase in skin moistness (27.26%) from day 0 to day 28 was exhibited by volunteers using the moistur-
izer loaded with 40% VCO-SLMs. The lowest increase in moistness (19.40%) was exhibited by volun-
teers using the moisturizer without VCO-SLMs. The highest increase in skin elasticity (3.62%) from day
0 to day 28 was exhibited by volunteers using the moisturizer loaded with 40% VCO-SLMs. The lowest
increase in skin elasticity (1.73%) was exhibited by volunteers using the moisturizer without VCO-SLMs.
Aromatherapy is an expanding complimentary therapy. One of the aromatherapy products commer-
cially available is aromatherapy massage oil. The main ingredients of massage oils are carrier oils and
essential oils. Essential oils are the active ingredients in aromatherapy, whereas carrier oils are used to
dilute essential oils prior to skin application.
VCO is highly suitable to be used as a carrier oil for aromatherapy (Marin 2006). Songkro et al.
(2010) characterized VCO-based aromatherapy massage oils. The VCO-based massage oils were clear
and colorless. The only distinctive smell of the massage oil was from the blended essential oils. The
results of an accelerated storage stability test showed no color change, no precipitation, no alteration
in the aromatic scents but an increase in the peroxide and acid values of the massage oil compared to
initial values.

41.5  Conclusions
Coconut oil is rich in MCFA. Various methods have been developed to extract coconut oil, either through
dry or wet processing. Recently, there is a trend toward producing coconut oil that does not have to go
through the RBD (refining, bleaching, and deodorizing). Rather than going to the normal dry process,
this oil is obtained by wet processing, which entails the extraction of the cream from the fresh coconut
milk and consequently breaking the cream emulsion. This process is more desirable, as no chemical
or high heat treatment is imposed on the oil. The process consists of chilling, freezing, and thawing
techniques.
Coconut oil has many applications. A large percentage of its uses are for edible and health purposes.
Coconut oil is a well known functional food that provides health benefits over and beyond basic nutri-
ents. Animal and human studies have shown that MCFA has no known toxicological properties orally,
parenterally, or by dermal routes (Bach and Babayan 1982; CTFA 1980; Traul et al. 2000). Thus, coconut
oil is safe to be consumed as a supplement. Traul et al. (2000) suggested that MCFA supplement can be
consumed at levels of up to 15% of the dietary calories or approximately 50% of the dietary fat.
Apart from its edible uses, this versatile oil also has industrial applications. It is employed as one of
the feedstock in the manufacturing of chemicals, synthetic detergents, soaps, and cosmetics (Rele et al.

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 Fermented Coconut Milk and Coconut Oil 673

2002; Carlsson 2009). Coconut oil has even been selected as an alternative base oil for industrial lubri-
cants (Jayadas et al. 2006).

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