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Antiquities Final Exam

Question 3: Gender Roles in Mesopotamian, Indian and Mediterranean Culture

Gender roles in the Mesopotamian, Indian and Mediterranean cultures were well defined

and through the literature from the three cultures, it is clear that certain stereotypes have

remained prevalent to date. These stereotypes shape the way in which both genders are perceived

in society, and their roles in the economic, social and political landscapes of contemporary life.

In this section, the role of both genders in the three societies is a major consideration in the

literature presented.

In ancient Indian culture, women were rarely seen as subservient to men. This is because

female deities were just as powerful as male deities even though their roles were significantly

different. For example, in the Kumarasambhava, the goddess Parvati is powerful, but her power

lies in her nurturing nature and this further cement the role of women in society (Halaswami,

2011). Women are expected to be docile and motherly, and it is within this nature that they

derive their power. Men on the other hand, just like Parvati’s husband, Shiva, are expected to be

authoritative and dominant.

In the life of Buddha, it is evident that women are not only viewed as docile and

motherly, but that this docility is an aspect of their closeness to the divine will of the creator.

Women are supposed to be pious and virtuous just like Buddha’s mother, Maya, who is not only

the embodiment of motherhood, and also the true epitome of chastity and purity. The same view

is held by Mediterranean cultures drawing from the story of Jesus Christ, whereby his mother

Mary, is also virtuous and pure.

In ancient Western culture, gender stereotypes are also rampant and well defined.

However, since Greek culture was predominantly a warring culture, a man’s true place was in
the army as a soldier and secondly as a provider. Therefore, men were rarely seen in a domestic

setting and constantly spent time with other men hunting or at war in defense of their cities. In

the Odyssey, it is clear from the story of Penelope and Odysseus that the home is the woman’s

true domain while the husband is away. A woman’s true virtue is in how loyal and faithful she is

to her husband, whereas the man’s value lies in his capacity to provide and protect. Odysseus

battles monster and it is this bravery that makes him who he is. It is also quite telling that men

are not seen as superior merely because of their bravery, and even though women’s roles are

softer and domestic, they are not viewed as inferior.

Mesopotamian culture is one of the most ancient cultures and their portrayal of gender

roles is one of the most interesting aspects of ancient cultures. For one, women were viewed as

temptresses and their link to Ishtar is clearly elevated through their portrayal as the custodians of

love and fertility. In the epic of Gilgamesh, Ishtar tries to seduce Gilgamesh in order to lead him

astray from his divine mission (Bahrani, 2001). Therefore, women are not seen as agents of good

unless they have been brought under the heel of men in their spheres. Therefore, a man is defined

by his calling and his role as a provider and who have a divine role as co-creators whereas

women are supposed to support their men in their divine roles (Asher-Greve & Westenholz,

2013). Any woman who is not capable of such a support is seen as a seducer and an opponent of

a man’s true nature.

In essence, gender stereotypes are a reflection of the society’s value system. Women,

though domestic are also viewed as pious and virtuous, whereby the men’s true value lies in their

bravery and capacity to protect the family and society from evil. These stereotypes have

remained virtually the same in the modern era, and this shows just how powerful they are.
 Question 4: Concepts of Civility

For most people, the categorization of a society can either be civilized or uncivilized

based on whether they view the society as progressive economically, socially, politically and

even religiously. Whereas some societies may be thriving, economically, their social systems

may be viewed as uncivilized by other perhaps based on their valuations of morality and ethics.

On the other hand, another society may be socially thriving, but due to economic disparity and

poverty, some may view that society as being uncivilized. Therefore, whether a society is

civilized or uncivilized is a concept that is subjective and relies on perceptions of sophistication

and development. In this section, we examine the use of bread and blood as ritual concepts in

Mediterranean, South Asian and Mesopotamian regions, through the lens of what it means to

either be civilized or uncivilized.

In South Asian culture, the use of bread in rituals is not just seen as a religious rite, but

also as a social rite whereby the offering is seen as a mark of positive hospitality, respect and a

hallmark of a civilized behavior. The god Vishnu, depicted as holding a conch shell and a

discuss, representing the moon and the sun respectively, is viewed as the god of hospitality

(Benzel, 2015). These symbols are offered during the Hindu ritual of Puja whereby bread is

offered as a sign of respect for the guest.

On the other hand, blood is a sure sign of beastly behavior and therefore an aspect of

uncivility. The perfect depiction of this uncivilized behavior is seen in the goddess Kali, who is

depicted as dripping blood from her tongue, showing her blood thirsty nature. Her depiction as a

blood thirsty deity is also a sign of her affinity for death and destruction. Her other depictions

indicate that she is violent, irrational, unhinged and not capable of being reasoned with. This

depiction is the very essence of what uncivilized behavior is to South Asian culture.
 The importance of wheat and grain in Mesopotamian culture directly affects how the

society viewed bread. Bread is a symbol of civility, and as seen in the Epic of Gilgamesh, Enkidu

is at first, wild and uncivilized. He spends his time in the wild, eating grass and living like an

animal and it is only after he meets Shamhat, a prostitute, that his life changes. Shamhat offers

Enkidu brad and beer, which are signs of hospitality and rationality, and Enkidu eats and drinks

‘civilized’ food for the first time. This civilization is best exemplified by comparison of the grass

that Enkidu eats at the beginning, and the bread and beer, which are grains, but have undergone

transformation through some form of technology or knowledge (Homan, 2004) . The Epic of

Gilgamesh through this story, indicates that civilization is a result of transformation of a state

through knowledge, skill or technology.

On the other hand, blood is depiction of chaos, and this is best exemplified through the

story of the god Marduk, who creates the world from the blood of Tiamat. Marduk, after

defeating Tiamat in battle, splits her body in half, and scatters the remains, alongside her blood,

thereby creating the world (Abusch, 2020). Therefore, although blood is an agent of chaos, it is

viewed as the building block of life and therefore, very necessary for the emergence of

civilization.

Mediterranean culture also regards bread as a symbol of civilization and hospitality.

Bread is offered as an important offering to the gods and failure to offer bread to gods as viewed

as a sign of disrespect. The gods Zeus and Hermes were notoriously known for visiting people

while disguised in order to test their hospitality. Once offered bread they would lose their

disguise and bless or gift the host. Blood also held an important place in Mediterranean culture,

although it as associated with uncivilized behavior, savagery and violence. Blood thirsty gods
like Mars, the Roman god of war were often depicted dripping with blood, either on their cloaks

or on their weapons.