Marcelo Feliciano Filho Dissertation V00

PONTIFICAL CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF PARANA
POLYTECHNICAL SCHOOL
INDUSTRIAL AND SYSTEMS ENGINEERING GRADUATE PROGRAM (PPGEPS)
MARCELO FELICIANO FILHO
FEATURE ENGINEERING FOR SOFT SENSOR IMPROVEMENT : A CASE STUDY IN

FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEMS
CURITIBA
2022

The presented qualification project will be

submitted to the Industrial and Systems
Engineering Graduate Program,
Polytechnical School, Pontifical Catholic
University of Paraná, to obtain the Master’s
degree in industrial and Systems
Engineering title.
Supervisor: Ph.D. Gilberto Reynoso Meza.
CURITIBA
2023

Dissertation presented to the Industrial and Systems Engineering Graduate Program

(PPGEPS), Polytechnic School, Pontifical Catholic University of Paraná, to obtain the
Master´s Degree in Industrial and Systems Engineering.
EXAMINING COMMITTEE
_____________________________________
Gilberto Reynoso Meza, Ph.D.
Supervisor
(PPGEPS/PUCPR)
_____________________________________
Roberto Zanetti Freire, Ph.D.
Internal Examiner Member
(PPGEPS/PUCPR)
Curitiba, March 10th , 2023.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This study was financed in part by the Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e
Tecnológico (CNPq), the Fundação Araucária (FAPPR) - Brazil Finance Codes:
310079/2019-5-PQ2, 437105/2018-0-Univ, 51432/2018-PPP, PRONEX-042/2018.
“I think it’s very important to have a
feedback loop, where you’re constantly
thinking about what you’ve done and how
you could be doing it better. I think that’s
the single best piece of advice: constantly
think about how you could be doing things
better and questioning yourself”.
Elon Musk.
ABSTRACT
The Fourth Industrial Revolution (Industry 4.0) increases the demand for intelligent
solutions to new challenges. In this scenario, Airbus proposed a case study for
benchmarking the Electronic Flight Control System (EFCS) at the International
Federation of Automatic Control (IFAC) World Congress of 2020. In this context,
Oscillatory Failure Cases (OFCs) play an essential role in commercial aircraft's
structural design. Therefore, identifying OFCs in real-time enables cost-efficiency,
energy saving, more flight reliability, and other benefits. In this sense, data-driven Soft
Sensors (SS) present an OFC identification approach using machine learning
algorithms. Meanwhile, the SS implementation can be improved by employing Feature
Engineering (FEn) techniques. In addition, this research objective proposes a FEn
framework to improve the SS performance in EFCS to identify OFCs in real-time
simulation. Therefore, the research was conducted by a Systematic Literature Review
(SLR) in chapter two, guided by four key questions. This procedure was structured in
teen steps, starting with 2,153 papers and finishing with a detailed Content Analysis
(CA), resulting in 59 selected papers. Besides, in chapter three, the SLR focused on
describing the state-of-art around SS and FEn, the mathematical background related
to the theme, and solving the SLR's main four questions. As a result, the SLR
presented detailed information about SS implementations in seven distinct areas
worldwide, the relationship between SS and Industry 4.0 Scenario, the use of ML and
FEn techniques for SS implementations, and which methods were engaged in those
solutions. Nevertheless, the benchmark was detailed in chapter four, presenting
Simulink™ diagrams and benchmark requirements. Moreover, chapter five presents
an initial SS implementation for this benchmark, using Support Vector Machine (SVM),
Decision Tree (DT), and Multi-Layer-Perceptron (MLP) ML algorithms. Their results
demonstrate that neither technique without using FEn could perform satisfactorily in
OFC identification, with under 60% accuracy, enforcing the demand for the FEn
approach. Nevertheless, chapter six presents the plans for dissertation activities and
their schedule, including the publication of two papers based on this SLR and the FEn
framework development.
Keywords: Soft Sensors. Industry 4.0. Machine Learning. Systematic Literature

Review (SLR). Electronic Flight Control System. Oscillatory Failure Cases.
FIGURES SUMMARY
Figure 1 – The Ten Procedures for SLR ........................................................................... 21

Figure 2 – Survey for paper’s initial results....................................................................... 26
Figure 3 – Survey for Papers After Applying I/E Criteria ................................................ 27
Figure 4 – Survey for Papers After Applying Classification Criteria ............................. 32
Figure 5 – Number of Questions Answered by papers ................................................... 39
Figure 6 – hierarchical tree of the ML methodologies employed in SS........................ 41
Figure 7 – Kalman Filter Algorithm..................................................................................... 44
Figure 8 – Support Vector Machine Linear Hyperplane ................................................. 46
Figure 9 – Deep Learning Neural Networks (DLNN)....................................................... 47
Figure 10 – ANFIS topology ................................................................................................ 48
Figure 11 – Simple Decision Tree ...................................................................................... 50
Figure 12 – The Schema Random Forest (RF)................................................................ 51
Figure 13 – Genetic Algorithm Flowchart.......................................................................... 53
Figure 14 – A Time Series Example Employed to the Benchmark ............................... 54
Figure 15 – soft SCG sensor............................................................................................... 62
Figure 16 – Intensity Pressure Signal in Different Actions ............................................. 62
Figure 17 – Chosen Benchmark’s Mechanism ................................................................ 75
Figure 18 – Benchmark Simulink Diagram ....................................................................... 77
Figure 19 – Simulink diagram of the trajectory control module ..................................... 78
Figure 20 – Simulink diagram of load factor control module.......................................... 79
Figure 21 – Simulink diagram servo control simulator .................................................... 80
Figure 22 – Simulink Diagram “Real Servo” ..................................................................... 81
Figure 23 – Sensor Position Process Plant Simulink Module........................................ 81
Figure 24 – Simulink diagram for turbulence simulation................................................. 82
Figure 25 – Simulink diagram for the presentation of results ........................................ 83
Figure 26 – Percentage of Questions Answered by the Papers ................................... 84
Figure 27 – Soft Sensor Software GUI .............................................................................. 85
Figure 28 – Feature Engineering Framework Workflow ................................................. 88
Figure 29 – OFC Identification in benchmark Simulation Example .............................. 89
Figure 30 – Feature Engineering Block Diagram for Simulink™ Implementation ...... 94
TABLES SUMMARY
Table 1 – The Research Guideline Questions ................................................................. 22

Table 2 – The Main Research Keywords Synonyms ...................................................... 23
Table 3 – The Main Research Keywords Combination .................................................. 23
Table 4 – The Research Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria ............................................. 24
Table 5 – The Main Research Keywords Combination Results .................................... 25
Table 6 – Number of Selected Papers per Keyword ....................................................... 26
Table 7 – The Classification Criteria .................................................................................. 28
Table 8 – Applying the Classification Criteria................................................................... 29
Table 9 – Content Analysis of selected and classified papers ...................................... 32
Table 10 – The Soft Sensor Definition in Classified Papers .......................................... 41
Table 11 – Benchmark requirements proposed by IFAC ............................................... 76
Table 12 – Software scenario parameters ........................................................................ 87
Table 13 – Experiment Results........................................................................................... 91
Table 14 – Critical Analysis of Obtained Results ............................................................. 93
Table 15 – Master’s Degree Dissertation Necessary Credits ......Error! Bookmark not
defined.
Table 16 – Master’s Degree Dissertation Minimum Requirements ... Error! Bookmark
not defined.
Table 17 – Master’s Degree Dissertation Schedule ..... Error! Bookmark not defined.
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
ANFIS Adaptive Network-Based Fuzzy Inference System

API Application Programming Interface
ARIMAX Autoregressive Integrated Moving Average with exogenous
CA Content Analysis
CNN Convolutional Neural Network
CNPq. Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico
CPS Cyber-Physical-Systems
CQAs Critical Quality Attributes
DSA Data Science Academy
DL Deep Learning
DLNN Deep Learning Neural Network
DT Decision Tree
ECC Edge Cloud Computing
ECI Ellipsoidal Covariance Intersection
ELM Extreme Learning Machine
FCC Flight Control Computer
FDIS Failure Detection and Isolation System
FEn Feature Engineering
Fuzzy Inference systems and a data-driven technique for Emissions
FIEMA
Analytics
FIR Finite Impulse Response
FPA Function Point Analysis
FPM First Principle Model
FS-ELM The Feature Scaled Extreme Learning Machine
GA Genetic Algorithm
GHG greenhouse gas
GPS Global Positioning System
GUI Graphical User Interfaces
HT Hyperparameter Tunning
I4.0 Industry 4.0
ICI Inverse Covariance Intersection
I/E Inclusion / Exclusion
IFAC International Federation of Automatic Control
IIoT Industrial Internet of Things
KCF Kalman Consensus Filter
KF Kalman Filter
KPIs Key Performance Indicators
LP Learning Phase
LSTM Long Short-Term Memory
LULC Land Use, Land Cover
MLP Multilayer Perceptron
MSE Mean Square Error
NARX Nonlinear Auto-Regressive with exogenous inputs
NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration
OS-ELM Online Sequential Extreme Learning Machine
OFC Oscillatory Failure Case
POF Pareto Optimal Front
PCA Principal Component Analysis
PLS Partial Least Squares
PSO Particle Swarm Optimization
RF Random Forest
PRISMA Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses
PUCPR Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Paraná
RNN Recurrent Neural Networks
SCG Stretchable Seism Cardiofigure y
SL Supervisory Loop
SLR Systematic Literature Review
STLF Short-term Load Forecasting
SS Soft Sensors
SVM Support Vector Machine
UFS Univariate Feature Selection
UQ Uncertainty Quantification
VHM Vehicle Health Monitoring
WSN Wireless System Networks
SUMMARY
1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................... 12
1.1 MOTIVATION: THE DEMAND FOR SOFT SENSORS.................................... 13
1.2 OBJECTIVES .......................................................................................................... 14
1.2.1 General Objective ................................................................................................. 14
1.2.2 Specific Objectives .............................................................................................. 14
1.3 JUSTIFICATION ..................................................................................................... 14
1.4 TOOLS AND METHODS ....................................................................................... 16
1.4.1 Software Required ................................................................................................ 17
1.4.2 Hardware Employed............................................................................................. 17
1.5 RESEARCH IMPACTS .......................................................................................... 18
1.6 QUALIFICATION DOCUMENT STRUCTURE .................................................. 18
2 THE SYSTEMATIC LITERATURE REVIEW ..................................................... 20
2.1 SYSTEMATIC LITERATURE REVIEW: THE STATE OF ART....................... 20
2.2 SLR PROCEDURES: THE TEN STEPS TO SYSTEMATIC RESEARCH.... 21
2.2.1 Procedure One: Research Areas and Theme ............................................... 21
2.2.2 Procedure Two: Qualitative Literature Data Review ................................... 22
2.2.3 Procedure Three: The Research Guideline Questions............................... 22
2.2.4 Procedure Four: The Most Important Keywords for Research ................ 23
2.2.5 Procedure Five: Inclusion and Exclusion (I/E) Criteria Determination .. 24
2.2.6 Procedure Six: The Survey for Papers in Databases ................................. 25
2.2.7 Procedure Seven: To apply the Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria .......... 26
2.2.8 Procedure Eight: To Define a Classification Criteria .................................. 28
2.2.9 Procedure Nine: Appling the Classification Criteria ................................... 28
2.2.10 Procedure Ten: The Content Analysis (C.A) of Included Papers ............ 32
3 RESEARCH RESULTS ......................................................................................... 40
3.1 SOFT SENSORS: STATE OF ART ..................................................................... 40
3.1.1 Model-Driven Soft Sensors ................................................................................ 43
3.1.1.1 Phenomenological Modelling ................................................................................ 43
3.1.1.2 Kalman Filter............................................................................................................ 44
3.1.2 Data-Driven Soft Sensors ................................................................................... 44
3.2 MACHINE LEARNING TECHNIQUES ................................................................ 46
3.2.1 Support Vector Machine ..................................................................................... 46
3.2.2 Deep Learning ....................................................................................................... 47
3.2.3 Fuzzy systems ....................................................................................................... 48
3.2.4 Decision Tree......................................................................................................... 49
3.2.5 Random Forest...................................................................................................... 51
3.2.6 Genetic Algorithm ................................................................................................ 52
3.3 MATHEMATICAL BACKGROUND ...................................................................... 53
3.3.1 Time Series............................................................................................................. 53
3.3.2 Classification Task............................................................................................... 54
3.3.3 Learning Phase ..................................................................................................... 55
3.4 FEATURE ENGINEERING ................................................................................... 56
3.4.1 Feature Engineering: The State of The Art .................................................... 56
3.5 Q.01 MAIN APPLICATION AREAS FOR SS ..................................................... 57
3.5.1 Industrial Applications ........................................................................................ 57
3.5.2 Soft Sensors Applied to Aeronautics Solutions .......................................... 59
3.5.3 The employment of SS in the Quimiometrics Industry .............................. 59
3.5.4 The Cloud Computing Solutions Based on SS ............................................ 60
3.5.5 Soft Sensors: Enhancing Health and Care Solutions................................. 61
3.5.6 Building and Household applications............................................................. 63
3.5.7 The General Applications for SS ...................................................................... 63
3.6 Q.02: THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SS AND INDUSTRY 4.0................. 64
3.6.1 Soft Sensors in I4.0 Scenario ............................................................................ 64
3.6.2 Soft Sensors Employed in Smart Factories .................................................. 65
3.7 Q.03: FEATURE ENGINEERING AND ML APPLIED TO SS ......................... 66
3.7.1 Feature Engineering Employment to SS Development.............................. 66
3.7.2 The Machine Learning Approaches for Soft Sensors ................................ 68
3.8 Q.04: THE METHODS FOR FEATURE ENGINEERING IN SS ..................... 71
3.8.1 Feature Engineering Enhancing Soft Sensors ............................................. 71
3.8.2 Hyperparameter Tunning in Soft Sensors Implementation ...................... 73
4 BENCHMARK DISCUSSION ............................................................................... 75
4.1 AIRBUS: OFC X IFAC – THE BENCHMARK .................................................... 75
4.2 THE MODEL SYSTEM: DIAGRAMS AND CODE ............................................ 76
4.2.1 Flight Trajectory Angle Control Module ......................................................... 77
4.2.2 Load Factor Control Module .............................................................................. 78
4.2.3 Detection Surface Servo Command Simulator (Real Servo) .................... 80
4.2.4 Aircraft Turbulence Dynamics Simulator....................................................... 82
5 PARTIAL RESULTS: THE CRITICAL ANALYSIS .......................................... 84
5.1 SYSTEMATIC LITERATURE REVIEW RESULTS ........................................... 84
5.2 SOFT SENSOR: THE SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT ..................................... 85
5.3 MATHLAB® AND PYTHON INTEGRATION ..................................................... 88
5.4 BENCHMARK TESTING ....................................................................................... 90
5.5 THE ML METHODS APPLICATION IN SS DEVELOPMENT RESULTS ..... 91
5.6 THE DEMAND FOR FEATURE ENGINEERING IN SS................................... 93
5.7 EMPLOYING FEATURE ENGINEERING TO SOFT SENSORS ................... 95
5.8 TRAINING DECISION TREE WITH THE FEATURED DATASET ................. 95
5.9 IDENTIFYING OFCS WITH FEN IN THE ACQUIRED DATA ......................... 95
5.10 PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS ............................................................................... 95
6 DISCUSSION .......................................................................................................... 96
7 CONCLUSION ........................................................................................................ 97
REFERENCES ...................................................................................................................... 98
12
1 INTRODUCTION
During the fourth industrial revolution, also known as Industry 4.0, there was a
burgeoning drive for innovation and resource optimization. In collaboration with data
microprocessing, Soft Sensors (SS) have surfaced as potential problem solvers. These
technologies are employed in prediction models, real-time control, and system scaling,
among other applications (L. Fortuna, S. Graziani, and A. Rizzo et al., 2014). SS, or
virtual sensors, use Machine Learning (ML) techniques to process real-time data,
facilitating informed decision-making. As a result, their application is becoming
increasingly invaluable across numerous industrial sectors.
Another general application of SS is measuring costly intricate variables using
existing methods. The acquisition of such data can involve multiple sensors, expert
input, or extended processing time in outdated software (F. Souza, A. Francisco, and
R. Araújo et al., 2016). Finally, the large-scale deployment of SS in various production
lines justifies their importance in indicatin g Key Performance Indicators (KPIs), which
allow departments to track performance and identify areas requiring improvement (D.
Parmenter, 2010).
In high-level control systems, one crucial characteristic is the ability to perform
data acquisition, taking into account all system actuators and sensors. This process
involves linear actuators, servo-controlled joints, and a network of highly precise
analog sensors that feed back into a closed control loop. Such principles underpin the
case study from AIRBUS presented at IFAC (International Federation of Automatic
Control) (Engelbrecht and Goupil, 2020).
According to IFAC's case study presenters, SS also play a pivotal role in
developing intelligent products, such as flight control systems that employ a variety of
embedded sensors for controlling altitude, speed, and trajectory. These systems
demand smarter algorithms to enhance fault detection modules, increase the
robustness of established systems, and avert potential catastrophes. In addressing
these challenges, this case study exemplifies the role of control and automation
engineering: to transmute industrial issues into engineering problems.
The increased use of sensors in the industry has catalyzed the need for artificial
intelligence techniques, particularly machine learning, to treat data effectively and add
value to Big Data infrastructure (W. Lee, G. Mendis, and J. Sutherland, 2019). By
13
transforming extraneous data into relevant information, sustainable practices can be

fostered in the context of Industry 4.0.
Therefore, this project will examine numerous pivotal aspects of SS, such as
specific development methods, data collection, literature review, and the construction
of graphical interfaces. An illustrative example of this pertains to the development of
Smart Products (SP), where sensor networks are integrated to enable the development
of autonomous vehicles (Shaoming et al., 2020). Other noteworthy applications include
estimating fluid volume in fossil reservoirs through intelligent chemometric analyses,
which involve ML and mathematical models to augment estimate accuracy and provide
reliable short-term predictions.
1.1 MOTIVATION: THE DEMAND FOR SOFT SENSORS
The authors (J. Engelbrecht and P. Goupil, 2020), emphasize the pivotal role of
the Electronic Flight Control System (EFCS) in an aircraft. The EFCS, tasked with
regulating attitude, speed, and trajectory, comprises an intricate network of
components, including wiring, probes, actuators, numerical buses, power sources, and
sensors. This system facilitates communication between the cockpit and the aircraft's
movable parts and control surfaces.
In this context, the EFCS's consistent availability, even under fault conditions,
is paramount, making fault detection a stringent aspect of aircraft design. A case in
point is the Oscillatory Failure Case (OFC), a failure type resulting from weight-saving
techniques that can adversely affect the aircraft's structure and robustness (J.
Engelbrecht and P. Goupil, 2020).
To meet this stringent standard, Ribeiro, Kagami, and Reynoso-Meza (2020)
devised a data-driven detection model utilizing the Decision Tree (DT) algorithm across
various scenarios. In addition, they noted the complexity of the problem and employed
signal processing techniques for filtering and extracting features from two signals –
one related to control action and the other to the feedback sensor. Therefore, when
coupled with the DT method, feature engineering could enhance fault detection within
the FCS, thereby improving the aircraft's weight performance.
This lays the groundwork for the primary research question driving this
investigation: How can the performance of a Soft Sensor for Oscillatory Failure
14
Anomaly detection in an aircraft's Flight Control System (FCS) be improved

using Feature Engineering?
1.2 OBJECTIVES
This section presents the research's general and specific objectives for feature
engineering applied to Soft Sensors performance improvement to identify OFCs.
1.2.1 General Objective
This project’s general objective is to propose a new feature engineering

framework to improve the performance of a Soft Sensor implementation in an aircraft’s
Fight Control System.
1.2.2 Specific Objectives
The general objective demands the achievement of each one of the specifically
defined objectives listed:
a) To survey the most suitable papers related to the general objective theme
by developing a Systematic Literature Review. Which guide questions
will be defined to guide the exploratory research ;
b) To integrate the MATLAB® and SimuLink™ benchmark with Python;
c) To implement a Python, embed Soft Sensor and ML classes (SVM, MLP,
and DT) to process the benchmark data in real-time;
d) To propose methods or frameworks to employ Feature Engineering to
improve the results obtained by B;
e) To conduct a discussion around this implementation and propose an
Intelligent System based framework to improve SS performance;
f) To compose a critical analysis with research results, propose a final
dissertation project guideline.
1.3 JUSTIFICATION
This dissertation's primary contribution lies in proposing a feature engineering

framework designed to enhance Soft Sensor (SS) performance, a significant
15
advancement in Industry 4.0, particularly within cyber-physical systems (Schmitt et al.,

2020).
An additional contribution of this work involves conducting a Systematic
Literature Review (SLR) of SS within industrial domains, examining the application of
feature engineering to enhance their performance. This is vital in advancing renewable
development and power performance across various engineering disciplines (He et al.,
2020).
On a technological front, this dissertation proposes a solution to a pressing
aerospace case study: improving Soft Sensors (SS) using feature engineering
techniques. Engelbrecht and Goupil (2020) highlight the global industry's demand for
new Industry 4.0 technologies to enhance quality, reduce costs, and promote
renewable development. SS play an instrumental role in decision -making across
numerous fields, emerging as a key technology in Smart Factory scenarios.
This project can potentially address issues related to oscillatory character
failures, leading to efficiency losses and high vibration loads (J. Engelbrecht and P.
Goupil, 2020),. The ability to detect such failures holds significant implications for
aircraft design, allowing for ideal oversizing and weight gain, thereby increasing
sustainability and reducing the aircraft’s energy consumption.
Previous works, such as those by (V. Ribeiro, R. Kagami, and G. Reynoso-
Meza, 2020), suggest that more feature-generation techniques should be explored and
evaluated due to the complexity of identifying Oscillatory Failure Cases (OFCs).
Therefore, fault detection could potentially be enhanced by employing feature
engineering in a Simulink™ block diagram.
(S. Urbano, E. Chaumette, P. Goupil, et al., 2016) also examined this
benchmark, concluding after a real-time signal processing approach that their current
model had substantial room for improvement. They suggested that future research
should focus on developing a transparent methodology for threshold tuning. In their
subsequent work (Urbano et al., 2017), they demonstrated the use of SVM to achieve
higher OFC detection performance, highlighting this as a promising area for future
exploration.:
“Further studies can be carried out with the dual objective of reducing the
minimal OFC detectable amplitude and avoiding using a system model. A
One-Class Support Vector Machine (OC-SVM) technique might be used
directly on f light data to def ine a suitable test statistic”.
16
In their third related work, (S. Urbano, E. Chaumette, P. Goupil, et al., 2018)
employed an industrial Airbus desktop simulator to aid a Monte Carlo test. They
observed a performance degradation as turbulence levels escalated. They further
underscored the need for additional research into threshold tuning as part of their
Monte Carlo test campaign.
Research conducted by (A. Zolghadri, J. Cieslak, D. Efimov, et al., 2015) delved
into conventional design methods and advanced model-based techniques for failure
detection in Flight Control Systems (FCS). They contended that while model -based
techniques cannot entirely supplant the redundancy of physical sensors in aircraft and
aerospace systems, they can significantly bolster fault detection performance when
properly harnessed.
In a related paper, (R. Cordeiro, J. Azinheira, and A. Moutinho, 2020.)
suggested that their proposed Failure Detection and Isolation System (FDIS), as
applied to a Boeing 747 aircraft simulator, could be further enhanced. They proposed
the inclusion of a Supervisory Loop (SL) to interpret the results of Kalman Filters, thus
enabling diagnosis and decision-making features through an additional Feed-Forward
Differential.
In conclusion, the justification for this dissertation stems from the exigency to
enhance Machine Learning methods' performance within the Electronic Flight Control
System in the presented benchmark. It posits that Feature Engineering can play a
pivotal role in improving the performance of the data-driven approach taken by Soft
Sensors.
1.4 TOOLS AND METHODS
This case study demands many tools and methods to fulfill the proposed
requirements and the main research question shown in problematization (section 1.1).
Due to this reason, this subsection will be divided in to the software required and the
hardware employed to achieve the proposed goals. Such information is relevant for
the scientific community to reproduce its features and validate the solution 's reliability
and robustness.
17
1.4.1 Software Required
As problematization shows, the benchmark is structured in MatLab® and

Simulink®. Hence, both must be installed to run the simulations. According to the
MathWorks organization, millions of scientists and engineers worldwide use the
software. It compiles a series of tools in a unique environment for designing and
analyzing processes iteratively.
In MatLab®, processes can be manipulated in R language, enabling integration
with various computer systems, running on embedded hardware for data processing
or process control, and also, as in the case of this project, being used for process
emulation through Simulink. Furthermore, such a simulation tool allows users to model
and simulate processes through structured blocks without writing thousands of lines of
code to map a complex process.
Python programming language was chosen for SS approach development
because it is an open-source programming language that allows the user to build
customizations to increase functionality during function development and efficiently
integrate systems. Although one of the main advantages of this language is its
versatility since it can be emulated on low-power hardware, reducing the cost of
implementing advanced computing techniques.
Moreover, there are many open and free libraries for applying machine learning
methods that can be implemented in a few lines of code, one of which is MKLearn,
which specializes in ML, as stated by (L. Ramona et al., 2021). Finally, the most
significant advantage of the Python language is the flexibility for API integration with
other software, for example, the MatLab® API that works in version 3.9 of this tool, the
most stable in 2022.
1.4.2 Hardware Employed
The hardware employed for this benchmark solution is a Ryzen 5 3600 Mhz
processor, with a six-core CPU processor and 12 logic processors, with 48.0 Gb of
RAM installed, a 500Gb SSD, and a 12Gb video card GPU model RTX 3060.
Nonetheless, it was all assembled in ASRock B450M Steel Legend motherboard and
is running windows ten as an Operational System (OS).
18
1.5 RESEARCH IMPACTS
This research can impact many technological scenarios, for example, the
industrial, chemometrics, and other engineering or computer science fields. Once its
core is related to a real-world problem benchmark modeled in Simulink, with control
closed and solved by a soft sensor approach structured in Python open -source
programming language.
Consequently, the AirBus benchmark is related to the closed-loop control
system and an aircraft’s Flight Control System embedded Soft Sensor (SS) to predict
Oscillatory Failure Cases (OFCs), by developing a subsystem, according to (J.
Engelbrecht and P. Goupil, 2020):
“This benchmark is a competition based on the evaluation of two separate

contributions: (i) the design (a Simulink subsystem block to be added in the
global Simulink model (see explanations below) and that shall be able to
detect all the f ault cases according to the requirements detailed here); (ii) an
extended abstract detailing the principles of the proposed design… F or
system f ailures impacting the aircraf t structure, the perf ormance of detection
methods must be improved, while retaining perf ect robustness. This
benchmark deals with a particular EFCS (Electrical Flight Control System)
f ailure inf luencing aircraf t structural loads. This f ailure is called in the literature
oscillatory f ailure case (OFC”.
In this scenario, different Machine Learning (ML) techniques in SS development

were applied to fulfill the design contribution . Previous works (V. Ribeiro, R. Kagami,
and G. Reynoso-Meza, 2020) have shown that feature engineering might improve the
ML methods employed to detect fault cases. Then, this work aims to improve the Soft
Sensor implementation performance using feature engineering to tune the
hyperparameters for employed ML methods in many scenarios.
The robustness of this benchmark allows several sets of tests and possibilities
to implement the hyperparameter tunning with many approaches. Nevertheless, this
research has the potential to enable several improvements in SS and its endless
applications.
1.6 QUALIFICATION DOCUMENT STRUCTURE
This qualification document starts with an introduction in chapter one and

related themes such as problematization, the specific objectives of this research, and
19
the general. Then, the justification of soft sensors-based research and the
methodology adopted.
Chapter two presents the Systematic Literature Review procedures by
explaining its definition and all steps to achieve the conducted research. Besides that,
the main questions for this research will be explored, such as inclusion and exclusion
criteria, and research data will be presented in graphics and tables. In addition, the
content Analysis heads a discussion about survey discoveries.
After exploring the research guidelines, their results will be presented in chapter
three, starting with soft sensors” state of the art, their main applications to solve
engineering problems, and other demands according to the guideline questions
defined at the SLR.
Chapter four discusses the case study and the preliminary solutions that the
course of research might find. Chapter five creates a preliminary conclusion and results
of employed ML methods to the SS application over the benchmark. Finally, chapter
six presents assignment plans for the remainder of this research with a schedule.
20
2 THE SYSTEMATIC LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter presents the Systematic Literature Review (SLR), which explores
papers on the Soft Sensors field and areas related to Intelligent Systems, Industry 4.0,
and Feature Engineering. At the end of this survey, a Component Analysis (CA) will be
conducted to present the main findings of SLR.
2.1 SYSTEMATIC LITERATURE REVIEW: THE STATE OF ART
An investigation can be scientifically initiated, focusing on recently published

articles on SS. To this end, the systematic literature affirmation (RSL) methodology is
used in collecting and identifying data from the researched articles based on pre-
established criteria to answer the hypotheses raised. According to (H. Snyder, 2019):
“A systematic review aims to identify all empirical evidence that fits the pre-specified
inclusion criteria to answer a particular research question or hypothesis.”
For (Moher, Liberati, and Tetzlaff et al., 2009), the systematic literature review
ensures the quality of a paper, and ignoring it could decrease the relevance of a paper:
“Systematic reviews and meta-analyses are essential to summarize evidence relating
to efficacy and safety of health care interventions accurately and reliably.” Hence, they
developed the guideline for high -quality articles SLR called the PRISMA (Preferred
Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses). Unfortunately, this
technique is based on QUOROM (QUality Of Reporting Of Meta-analysis), developed
in 1999, and obsolete. Ten years after, the authors used a 27-item checklist for SLR,
which is structured in 7 areas: Title, Abstract, Introduction, Methods, Results,
Discussion, and the research Founding.
The most important for SLR is the methods section, which comprehends the
most critical procedures for an SLR: protocol and registration, eligibility criteria,
information sources, study selection, data collection process, data items, risk of bias
in individual studies, summary measures, synthesis of results, the risk of bias across
studies and the additional (content) analysis. The same basic structure is synthetized
in (Palmatier, Houston, and Hulland's, 2018) study and drives the SLR to relevant
papers in the scientific process.
21
2.2 SLR PROCEDURES: THE TEN STEPS TO SYSTEMATIC RESEARCH
According to (Palmatier, Houston, and Hulland, 2018), the SLR is guided by ten
procedures that can be summarized in figure 1:
Figure 1 – The Ten Procedures f or SLR
Source: Adapted by the Author, 2022.
To this extent, the survey to reach the defined objectives will be conducted by
the guideline in figure 1. Nevertheless, technical subjects must define every procedure
to reduce bias and evidence the most relevant files for the research fields.
2.2.1 Procedure One: Research Areas and Theme
As presented by (Palmatier, Houston, and Hulland, 2018), “The author sets clear
objectives for the review and articulates the specific research questions or hypotheses
that will be investigated.” For this research, the defined objectives and motivation were
the guideline for defining the theme and research areas.
Towards the first step, defines the research areas around the chosen theme for
the survey. For example, chapter one shows that soft sensors and feature engineering
are the main research themes. Thus, the related research areas are Machine Learning,
Multi-Objective optimization, Soft Sensors Implementation, Industry 4.0, and Intelligent
Systems.
22
2.2.2 Procedure Two: Qualitative Literature Data Review
In accordance with (Nightingale, 2009), the qualitative literature review focuses

on the critical appraisal of study design and grouping approach:
“Recently, there has been a move f rom such scales to more qualitative quality
measures f or dif ferent study designs. As well as critical appraisal, sub-group
analyses can be used to determine whether the meta-analysis results are
altered by removing specif ic studies or groups of studies. If the results f rom all
sub-group analyses are consistent, then the analysis results are more likely to
be f ound to be robust”.
As presented in item 1.1, the problem this research is facing is a practical solution
for an engineering problem, using a Soft Sensor (SS) for feature engineering
applications. Therefore, this experiment aims to improve the SS performance, and
every paper related to this focus will be analyzed and included or not in the primary
survey.
2.2.3 Procedure Three: The Research Guideline Questions
The general and specific objectives guide the main research questions and are
essential for defining the search aim and reaching the work’s objectives (Nightingale,
2009). Based on that, this survey will be modeled by the four questions presented in
table 1:
Table 1 – The Research Guideline Questions
RESEARCH GUIDELINE QUESTIONS
Q.01 Which are the main application areas for SS in general engineering?
What is the relationship between Intelligent Systems and SS in Industry 4.0
Q.02
scenario?
Which feature engineering or ML techniques are employed in SS
Q.03
development?
Which are the possible methods for performing Feature Engineering in Soft
Q.04
Sensors Intelligent System applications?
Source: The Author, 2022.
These four questions in table 1 are key to reading the papers and searching for
the appropriate information for this research. Each included paper will be subjected to
answer or provide related information. It is crucial to notice that the soft sensor
definition is not one of the guideline questions. However, such information will be
collected to lead the SS state of art section.
23
2.2.4 Procedure Four: The Most Important Keywords for Research
In agreement with (D. Moher et al., 2015), after defining the research Theme
and Area, the qualitative data, and the key questions, the three most relevant keywords
and their two main synonyms are defined. Afterward, they will be combined and used
to search papers in databases. In this research case, the main keywords can be
summarized in table 2:
Table 2 – The Main Research Keywords Synonyms
KEYWORD Synonym 1 Synonym 2
Soft Sensors Sensor Array Virtual Sensor

Intelligent Systems Machine learning Knowledge Engineering
Feature Engineering Hyperparameter Tunning Feature Discovery
Fourth Industrial
Industry 4.0 Smart Industry
Revolution
This research focuses on Soft Sensors, Feature Engineering, and Intelligent

Systems. After merging these keywords presented in table 2 and their synonymies,
taking care to do not to repeat any theme, it is possible to create the keyword
combinations in table 3:
Table 3 – The Main Research Keywords Combination
KEYWORD A Combination KEYWORD B

Soft Sensors AND Intelligent Systems
Soft Sensors AND Feature Engineering
Soft Sensors AND Machine Learning
Soft Sensors AND Knowledge Engineering
Soft Sensors AND Feature Discovery
Soft Sensors AND Industry 4.0
Soft Sensors AND Hyperparameter Tunning
Feature Engineering AND Virtual Sensors
Feature Engineering AND Machine Learning
Feature Engineering AND Intelligent Systems
Feature Engineering AND Industry 4.0
24
Intelligent Systems AND Virtual Sensors

Intelligent Systems AND Feature Discovery
Intelligent Systems AND Feature Engineering
Intelligent Systems AND Industry 4.0
Intelligent Systems AND Hyperparameter Tunning
Such keywords will be searched at CAPES and Science Direct Databases while
browsing paper’s titles are analyzed according to procedure five. With such filters,
selecting the maximum combination of possible related papers with the most relevant
contributions to this research is possible.
2.2.5 Procedure Five: Inclusion and Exclusion (I/E) Criteria Determination
According to (H. Snyder, 2019), “systematic reviews have strict requirements

for search strategy and selecting articles for inclusion in the review; they are effective
in synthesizing the collection of studies.” Hence, this step defines two sets of specific
criteria, one for Inclusion and another for exclusion of a selected paper. Obvious
criteria, for example: not including repeated or BlogSpot files, are irrelevant. Once it is
an SLR, only objective or technical criteria will be adopted. For this research, those
criteria can be summarized in table 4:
Table 4 – The Research Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria
THE RESEARCH INCLUSION AND EXCLUSION CRITERIA
INCLUSION EXCLUSION
I1. Open Access and open archive E1. Papers published in 2017 or
Papers Only. before.
E2. Does not contain “Soft Sensor” in
I2. Is it a Review or Research article?
the Title.
I3. The paper is from the Engineering E3. Does not focus on practical
or Computer Science areas. applications.
I4. Has a transparent relationship with
E4. The paper is not in English.
Machine Learning in the abstract?
E5. Does not answer any critical
I5. Explores MOO or Feature Engineering.
questions.
E6. Does not present the application
I6. Is it a Peer-reviewed article? case in the paper’s title (Reviews that
present it is not excluded).
25
After that procedure, objective inclusion and exclusion criteria for desired papers
are adopted for the seventh procedure. Then, it is the moment to start surveying for
keywords in table 3 and condensing all data in the sixty steps.
2.2.6 Procedure Six: The Survey for Papers in Databases
After defining the combination between the main keywords in table 3, the sixty
procedure starts by searching for each one at CAPES and Science Direct Databases.
Finally, the search results with open access and open archive filter only are
summarized in table 5:
Table 5 – The Main Research Keywords Combination Results
Index KEYWORD A Combination KEYWORD B Number
1 Soft Sensors AND Intelligent Systems 12

2 Soft Sensors AND Feature Engineering 9
3 Soft Sensors AND Machine Learning 107
Knowledge
4 Soft Sensors AND 13
Engineering
5 Soft Sensors AND Industry 4.0 38
6 Soft Sensors AND Feature Discovery 1
Hyperparameter
Tunning
8 Feature Engineering AND Virtual Sensors 7
9 Feature Engineering AND Machine Learning 1,181
10 Feature Engineering AND Industry 4.0 53
11 Feature Engineering AND Intelligent Systems 70
12 Intelligent Systems AND Virtual Sensors 22
13 Intelligent Systems AND Feature Discovery 7
14 Intelligent Systems AND Intelligent Factory 21
15 Intelligent Systems AND Industry 4.0 467
Hyperparameter
16 Intelligent Systems AND 122
Tunning
As can be seen, 2,153 articles were found by this keyword’s combination

technique. However, more articles were found with the “Feature Engineering” AND
“Machine Learning” combination of 1,181 papers. Meanwhile, the less recurrent
26
number of related articles was the combination between “Soft Sensors” AND “Feature
Discovery”, which resulted in only one paper being found. Such quantitative analysis
is shown in figure 2:
Figure 2 – Survey f or paper’s initial results

1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
The most results were found when combining “Feature Engineering” and
“Machine Learning” because the search engine looks for the engineering word inside
the paper. For this reason, the following procedures are essential to filter and correct
such misunderstandings.
2.2.7 Procedure Seven: To apply the Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria
After browsing for more than two thousandth papers, this procedure significantly
reduces the total number of papers, selecting them based on the Inclusion and
Exclusion criteria presented in table 4. Hence, table 6 shows the relationship of
selected papers by keywords combination:
Table 6 – Number of Selected Papers per Keyword

1 Soft Sensors AND Intelligent Systems 6
2 Soft Sensors AND Feature Engineering 4
3 Soft Sensors AND Machine Learning 12
Knowledge
Engineering
5 Soft Sensors AND Industry 4.0 13
27

6 Soft Sensors AND Feature Discovery 1
Hyperparameter
Tunning
Feature
8 AND Virtual Sensors 7
Engineering
Feature
9 AND Machine Learning 11
Engineering
Feature
10 AND Industry 4.0 10
Engineering
Feature
11 AND Intelligent Systems 7
Engineering
Intelligent
12 AND Virtual Sensors 6
Systems
Intelligent
13 AND Feature Discovery 1
Systems
Intelligent
14 AND Intelligent Factory 7
Systems
Intelligent
15 AND Industry 4.0 12
Systems
Intelligent Hyperparameter
16 AND 8
Systems Tunning
Source: The author, 2022.
After applying the I/E criteria, the number of papers was reduced to 109, only
with filters in search engines and title reading techniques. Nevertheless, the
synthesizing capacity of the seventh procedure was reduced by 95% of the amount of
found papers. This result is shown in figure 3:
Figure 3 – Survey f or Papers Af ter Applying I/E Criteria

14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
This procedure does not require deep analysis in papers. Only title reading
techniques and filtering in the search engine are enough. In such a manner, some
28
articles could not match the research, so procedure eight defines the classification
criteria for selected articles.
2.2.8 Procedure Eight: To Define a Classification Criteria
The eighth procedure defines the Classification Criteria for found papers and
aims to add another relevant filtering for selected papers. These criteria must follow
the defined objectives and ensure that papers are related to the central research
questions and are relevant enough to read thoroughly. The classification process is
based on the paper’s title, keywords, and abstract reading.
2.2.9 Procedure Nine: Appling the Classification Criteria
Such procedure filtered the 109 articles found in previous steps using the
classification criteria defined in the past procedure. According to (D. Moher et al.,
2015), the process consists of reading the paper’s abstracts and classifying them into
defined criteria.
These criteria are defined by technical details for selecting the relevant articles
that accomplish objectives and solve problems defined in the introduction. For
example, suppose that the article presents a case study that can contribute to this
research goal of applying a framework for SS Hyperparameter Tuning. In that case,
the article can be classified as “A.” On the other hand, if the contribution to the research
is less significant and has only theoretical information, it will be classified as a “C” class
article, and so on. These criteria are presented in table 7:
Table 7 – The Classif ication Criteria
CRITERIA ID THE RESEARCH CLASSIFICATION CRITERIA
The paper’s subject relates to a practical application of soft sensors in at least

A
one of the selected application f ields.
The paper presents a general application that is not related to subject f ields.
B
However, as a general approach.
C The article presents no practical application of SS or Hyperparameter Tunning

Criteria A1 is based on the demand to find SS-related papers with research. The
second classification level can be developed for paper clustering related to intelligent
systems containing SS. The articles which have no classification in either cluster
29
criteria are excluded from this survey, as they might not contribute to answering the
key questions. Hence, table 8 shows 58 articles that had some of the established
criteria:
Table 8 – Applying the Classif ication Criteria
CRITERIA
ID Article's Title
A B C
A distributed sof t sensors model f or managing vague and uncertain multimedia
1 X
communications using inf ormation f usion techniques
A recurrent neural network architecture f or f ailure prediction in deep drawing
2 X
sensory time series data
3 A review of industrial big data f or decision making in intelligent manuf acturing X
4 A review of mechanistic and data-driven models of aerobic granular sludge X
A review of uncertainty quantif ication in deep learning: Techniques, applications

5 X
and challenges
A sof t sensor f or property control in multi-stage hot f orming based on a level set
6 X
f ormulation of grain size evolution and machine learning
7 A two-step multivariate statistical learning approach f or batch process sof t sensing X
8 Accurate Clinical and Biomedical Named Entity Recognition at Scale X
Activity recognition in manual manuf acturing: Detecting screwing processes f rom

9 X
sensor data
Added value of a virtual approach to simulation-based learning in a manuf acturing
10 X
learning f actory
Advances in Integrated System Health Management f or mission-essential and
11 X
saf ety-critical aerospace applications
Agent-based control system: A review and platf orm f or reconf igurable bending
12 X
press machine
An ef f icient team prediction f or one day international matches using a hybrid
13 X
approach of CS-PSO and machine learning algorithms
Artif icial intelligence and smart vision f or building and construction 4.0: Machine
14 X
and deep learning methods and applications
Conceptual Framework f or Using System Identif ication in Reservoir Production
15 X
Forecasting
Considerations, challenges and opportunities when developing data-driven
16 X
models f or process manuf acturing systems
Contribution to the implementation of an industrial digitization platf orm f or level
17 X
detection
18 Data-driven method f or the improving f orecasts of local weather dynamics X
19 Decision Tree f or Oscillatory Failure Case Detection in a Flight Control System X
20 Deep learning based sof t sensors f or industrial machinery X
21 Deep learning in remote sensing applications: A meta-analysis and review X

30
CRITERIA
ID Article's Title
A B C
Development of an intelligent tool condition monitoring system to identify
22 X
manuf acturing tradeof f s and optimal machining conditions
Distributed estimation over a low-cost sensor network: A Review of the state of
23 X
the art
Encoding and exploring latent design space of optimal material structures via a
24 X
VAE-LSTM model
Energy consumption prediction by using machine learning f or smart building:
25 X
Case study in Malaysia
Evaluation of machine learning f or sensor-less detection and classif ication of
26 X
f aults in electromechanical drive systems
Fermentation 4.0, a case study on computer vision, sof t sensor, connectivity, and
27 X
control applied to the f ermentation of a thraustochytrid
FIEMA, a system of f uzzy inf erence and emission analytics f or sustainability -
28 X
oriented chemical process design
29 Flexible, wearable biosensors f or digital health X
Genetic programming-based symbolic regression f or goal-oriented dimension
30 X
reduction
Hyperparameter tuning to optimize implementations of denoising autoencoders
31 X
f or imputation of missing spatial-temporal data
Industry 4.0 based process data analytics platf orm: A waste-to-energy plant case
32 X
study
Industry 4.0 in Action: Digitalization of a Continuous Process Manuf acturing f or
33 X
Formulated Products
34 IoT-based Indoor Occupancy Estimation Using Edge Computing X
Laundry f abric classif ication in vertical axis washing machines using data-driven
35 X
sof t sensors
Machine learning based adaptive sof t sensor for flash point inf erence in a ref inery
36 X
real-time process
Machine learning based identif ication of energy states of metal-cutting machine
37 X
tools using load prof iles
38 Machine learning f or biochemical engineering: A review X
MANU-ML: Methodology for the application of machine learning in manuf acturing
39 X
processes
Model stacking to improve prediction and variable importance robustness f or soft
40 X
sensor development
Moving towards an era of hybrid modelling: advantages and challenges of
41 coupling mechanistic and data-driven models f or upstream pharmaceutical X
bioprocesses
42 Neuro-f uzzy Sof t Sensor Estimator f or Benzene Toluene Distillation Column X
Online Parameterization of a Milling Force Model using an Intelligent System
43 X
Architecture and Bayesian Optimization
PLS-based sof t-sensor to predict ammonium concentration evolution in hollow
44 X
f iber membrane contactors f or nitrogen recovery
Prediction of sorption-enhanced steam methane ref orming products f rom machine
45 X
learning based sof t-sensor models
Predictive maintenance enabled by machine learning: Use cases and challenges
46 X
in the automotive industry
31
CRITERIA
ID Article's Title
A B C
Predictive maintenance on sensorized stamping presses by time series
47 X
segmentation, anomaly detection, and classif ication algorithms
Predictive model-based quality inspection using Machine Learning and Edge
48 X
Cloud Computing
Process PLS: Incorporating substantive knowledge into the predictive modelling
49 X
of multiblock, multistep, multidimensional and multicollinear process data
Proposition of the methodology f or Data Acquisition, Analysis and Visualization in
50 X
support of Industry 4.0
Radiomics and Artif icial Intelligence f or Biomarker and Prediction Model
51 X
Development in Oncology
52 Self -healing sensorized sof t robots X
Sof t sensor of bath temperature in an electric arc f urnace based on a data-driven
53 X
Takagi–Sugeno f uzzy model
STLF-Net: Two-stream deep network f or short-term load f orecasting in residential
54 X
buildings
Technical Note describing the joint Airbus-Stellenbosch University Industrial
55 X
Benchmark on Fault Detection
The biological transf ormation of industrial manuf acturing – Technologies, status
56 X
and scenarios f or a sustainable f uture of the German manuf acturing industry
Towards an intelligent linear winding process through sensor integration and
57 X
machine learning techniques
Understanding chemical production processes by using PLS path model
58 X
parameters as sof t sensors
Using a support vector machine f or building a quality prediction model f or a center-
59 X
less honing process
After classifying those 59 selected articles, according to the table’s 7 criteria, 26

articles were classified as “A”, 19 as “B”, and 14 into the “C” criteria group.
Nevertheless, it is vital to notice that 52 articles could not be selected in the table’s 7
criteria. Hence, figure 4 presents the total:
32
Figure 4 – Survey f or Papers Af ter Applying Classif ication Criteria
B; 17%
Classified
A; 23%
C; 13%
Not Related;
A B C Not Related
This figure shows that the inclusion and exclusion criteria cannot filter every
relevant paper for an SLR. Nevertheless, classification criteria open the discussion
about content analysis, which is the next and last step for this SLR.
2.2.10 Procedure Ten: The Content Analysis (C.A) of Included Papers
After applying the research methodologies for an SLR, the most relevant data
will be extracted from every selected and classified article presented in table 8. Their
ID will be used to identify them in table 9, which summarizes their main contributions
and which guideline questions they answer:
Table 9 – Content Analysis of selected and classif ied papers

RSL QUESTION
RELATION
ID Main Contribution to this SLR
01 02 03 04
Calculating multimedia sof t sensors creates a generalized intelligent

space. This paper shows that relying on a mechanism to change a
(complex) sensor into ‘‘sof t” mode with such a high degree of accuracy
1 X X X
may greatly benef it many situations. For example, an ozone level
above a specif ied threshold harms human health and af f ects activities
like arable f arming and tourism.
Authors show that our model correctly predicts the occurrence of
more than 94% of the process f ailures, predicting process f ailures
bef ore they occur. In this paper, they adopt a wavelet transf ormation-
2 X X X X
based approach f or f eature extraction and a bidirectional LSTM-based
neural network to sensor time series data f or anomaly prediction and
regression analysis in manuf acturing.
33
RSL QUESTION
ID Main Contribution to this SLR RELATION
01 02 03 04
A conceptual f ramework of intelligent decision-making based on

industrial big data-driven technology is proposed in this study, which
3 X X
provides valuable insights and thoughts f or the severe challenges and
f uture research directions in this f ield.
Simulation models allow virtual testing with approximate results to

4 guide the expensive real-lif e implementation. Further, the application X X
of dif ferent machine learning and data-driven models is investigated.
This study reviews recent advances in deep learning using UQ

(Uncertainty Quantif ication) methods. Meanwhile, investigates the
5 X X
application of these methods in reinf orcement learning , highlighting
f undamental research challenges and directions associated with UQ.
This work proposes a f ast surrogate model to predict its location as a

control input f unction. The model can be considered a sof t sensor that
6 X X
estimates the microstructural state based on inf ormation retrieved in
the process.
This study aimed to take a two-step approach to reduce data

dimensionality and design sof t sensors f or product quality prediction.
7 Furthermore, the sof t sensors' accuracy, reliability, and data ef f iciency X X X
were discussed. Finally, this paper demonstrates the industrial
potential of the proposed approach.
This paper explores biomedical datasets that the NER module of the
Spark NLP library. They require no handcraf ted f eatures or task-
8 X X X
specif ic resources and achieve state-of -the-art scores on popular
biomedical datasets and clinical concept extraction challenges.
This paper presents data analysis and machine learning approaches

to detect manual manuf acturing processes f rom sensor data. Although
9 human activity recognition approaches are not necessarily applicable X X X
in industrial environments, all sensors are attached to tools like
screwdrivers.
This paper is thus a concept description, giving input to the

Community on aspects to be considered regarding using VR/AR/digital
10 X X
twins in a learning f actory context - and its constraints and
opportunities concerning cognitive processes.
The paper also discusses the critical challenges f aced in developing

and deploying ISHM systems in the aerospace industry. Finally, it
11 X X X
highlights the saf ety-critical role that IHMM will play in f uture cyber-
physical and autonomous system applications.
The outcomes include behavioral patterns and trends of agents and

multi-agent usage in conceptualized manuf acturing circles, supply
chain management, and the gaps yet to be f illed f or consolidating the
12 X
f uture of industry 4.0 in a reconf igurable manuf acturing system
development of mobile apps f or IoT real-time database
communication.
34
RSL QUESTION
01 02 03 04
Five algorithms are proposed based on the f eatures that ref lect their
strengths to calculate the rating of batters, bowlers, batting all-
13 rounders, bowling all-rounders, and wicketkeepers. X X X
CS-PSO hybridization is a f eature optimization strategy to eliminate
redundant, irrelevant, and noisy f eatures.
This paper presents a unique perspective on AI/DL/ML applications in

these domains f or the complete building lif ecycle... Furthermore, data
14 collection strategies are discussed using smart vision and sensors, X X X X
data cleaning methods (post-processing), and data storage f or
developing these models.
a conceptual f ramework f or using system identif ication is proposed.

Based on a reservoir’s recovery mechanism, the conceptual
15 f ramework will help to systematically select an appropriate model X X
structure f rom the various model structures available in system
identif ication.
This paper explores how data-driven models can characterize process

streams and support the implementation of the circular economy
16 X X X
principles, process resilience and waste valorization, and
considerations and challenges when developing a data-driven model.
This paper presents a contribution concerning digitizing an industrial

platf orm f or which the authors have chosen liquid-level detection. The
17 X X
idea is to retrieve data f rom a PLC (Siemens S7 1200), which is in its
role to control the actors and actuators.
This paper describes the modeling approach f or lower atmosphere

dynamics in a selected location. The purpose of this model is to
18 provide short-term and long-term f orecasts of the weather variables, X X X
which are used as the input data f or the model of the dispersion of
radioactive air pollution.
This work describes developing a data-driven oscillatory f ault

detection model f or a f light control system, which has been proposed
as a benchmark problem. In the data-driven detection model
19 X X X
development, this work trains a decision tree algorithm using data
acquired f rom a numerical experiment, where dif f erent scenarios of
f ailures, control actions, and turbulence levels are simulated.
This paper develops and evaluates a deep learning -based virtual

20 sensor f or estimating a combustion parameter on a large gas engine X X X
using only the rotational speed as input.
This review covers applications and technology in remote sensing,

21 ranging f rom pre-processing to mapping. Finally, a conclusion X X X
regarding the current state-of -the-art methods.
35
RSL QUESTION
RELATION
01 02 03 04
In this paper, an intelligent tool condition monitoring system is

developed to identif y sustainability-related manuf acturing tradeof f s
22 X X X
and a set of optimal machining conditions by monitoring the status of
the machine tool using networked sensors.
This paper comprehensively reviews the state-of -the-art solutions in

this research area (distributed estimation over a low- cost sensor
23 X X
network), exploring their characteristics, advantages, and challenging
issues.
This paper’s main contribution is the implementation of Variational

autoencoders (VAE) with machine learning models that can extract
low-dimensional data representations f rom datasets of high complexity
24 X
and volume. Besides that, they also present the Long short -term
memory (LSTM) neural networks are well suited to learning logical
trajectory relationships within datasets.
This paper applies Three methodologies, Support Vector Machine,

Artif icial Neural Network, and k-Nearest Neighbor, proposed f or the
25 algorithm of the predictive model. Then, f ocusing on a real-lif e X X X
application in Malaysia, two tenants f rom a commercial building are
taken.
This paper addresses whether non-Deep Learning methods are

26 competitive with Deep Learning f or sensorless detection and X X X
classif ication of f aults in electromechanical drive systems.
In this paper, a sof t sensor was designed to estimate the end of the
Growth phase in the f ermentation. The design was based on expert
27 knowledge of the process; in a thraustochytrid f ermentation with X X
In dissolved oxygen control, a peak in the aeration rate occurs at the
End of the growth phase.
The key f eature of this paper's proposed system relies on the

28 integration through multiple stages of Fuzzy Inf erence systems and a X X X
data-driven technique f or Emissions Analytics (FIEMA).
This review discusses the basic sensing principles of biosensor

29 systems and their applications. Moreover, these biosensors' potential X X
applications and progress have been f urther prospected.
For optimizing the application-oriented data visualization cost f unction,

Multi-gene genetic programming (GP) is a based algorithm used to
30 X
select variables needed to explore the internal structure of the data f or
data-driven sof tware sensor development or classif ier des ign.
This paper presents a traf f ic monitoring benchmark that uses sensor

31 data and compares Deep Learning methods' perf ormance and X X X
computational costs.
36
RSL QUESTION
RELATION
01 02 03 04
The work studied data-driven sof t sensors in the case study to predict
syngas heating value and hot f lue gas temperature. The neural
32 network-based NARX model demonstrated better perf ormance among X X X
the studied data-driven methods. Besides that, it presents the data-
driven sof t sensors as valuable tools f or predictive data analytics.
This article presents a combined solution that aligns with the concepts
of Industry 4.0 by providing a digital twin, cloud integration, and
33 sophisticated statistical, hybrid , and mechanistic models. The models X X X
are used f or sof t sensors, Model Predictive Control, and Optimisation
algorithms to predict and control product Quality Attributes.
This work investigates the f easibility of an Internet of Things (IoT)

based on an estimation system f or university classroom occupancy.
34 X X
The centralized cloud computing approach generates high latencies
as IoT devices generate voluminous data at high rates.
This paper presents a data-driven sof t sensor that exploits physical

measurements already available on board a commercial VA-WM to
35 X X X
estimate the load typology through a machine-learning-based
statistical model of the process.
This study def ines a procedure based on Machine Learning modules

demonstrating the power of real-time monitoring over accurate data.
Furthermore, this contribution demonstrates, with the inclusion of a
36 new concept called an adaptive sof t sensor, the importance of X X X
dynamic adaptation of the conf ormed schemes based on Machine
Learning through their combination with f eature selection, dimensional
reduction, and signal processing techniques.
This work presents an ML approach to analyzing energy states to

improve the time study compared to static approaches employ ing
37 X X
f eature engineering and hyperparameter tunning techniques, such as
CNN and LSTM.
This paper reviews the use of machine learning within biochemical

engineering over the last 20 years. The most prevalent machine
38 X X X X
learning methods are presented f or multiple applications in many
areas in an SLR.
This work presents the Methodology f or Applying ML in Manuf acturing

Processes (MANU-ML). The authors extended data mining (DM) and
39 X X
ML techniques to provide a f our-layers model to integrate Inf ormation
Technology (IT) and Operational Technology (OT).
This paper presents the importance of robustness f or SS development

40 in literature and brings hyperparameter tunning insights, ML methods X X X X
f or SS development, and its built f eature importance in overf it models.
37
RSL QUESTION
RELATION
01 02 03 04
The paper provides an overview of the mechanistic and statistical

models of upstream mAb bioprocesses published over the past f ive
41 years to discuss advantages and drawbacks. The authors conclude X X
with an outline of synergistic, hybrid modeling strategies emerging as
critical tools in the era of Biopharma 4.0.
This paper uses a new method, nonlinear auto -regressive with

exogenous input (NARX) based ANFIS f or sof t sensor modeling. This
42 paper aims to propose a more accurate and predictive model X X
combining. The advantages of the neural network, f uzzy inf erence
mechanism, and NARX structure predictability.
This paper presents an ef f icient and industry-ready system

architecture that enables both the control of machining operations and
43 X X
the high-f requency acquisition of controller data f rom an external
sensor.
This work provides a data-driven sof t sensor implementation based on

44 PLS proposed to extract primary inf ormation on the TAN concentration X X X
evolution in the HFMC f rom the pH time-evolution prof ile.
In this study, two sof t sensor models were developed and used to
predict and estimate variables that would be dif f icult to measure
45 directly. Both artif icial neural networks and random f orest models were X X X
developed as sof t sensor prediction models. Besides that, it brings
f eature selection relevant contributions.
This paper summarizes many ML applications based on predictive

46 maintenance, including some that employ sof t sensors f or automotive X X X
systems. Nevertheless, they explore the f eature extraction
This work proposes the combination of time segmentation with f eature
reduction and AD, together with solid ML classif ication algorithms, to
47 be used f or downtime prediction in sheet metal f orming tools X X X
(sensorized stamping presses). In addition, this paper investigates the
employment of f eature engineering methods.
In this contribution, the authors investigate a new integrated predictive

model-based quality inspection solution in industrial manuf acturing
48 X X X
using Machine Learning techniques and Edge Cloud Computing
technology.
This paper describes the Process PLS as a promising approach that

enables data-driven analysis of process data using the inf ormation on
49 X X X
the complex process structure, increasing insight into the underlying
system and making model-based predictions more valuable.
This work proposes the implementation of a test case f ramework f or

50 Industry 4.0. This system covers f our layers: decision support, data X X X
processing, acquisition/transmission, and sensors.
38
RSL QUESTION
01 02 03 04
This paper presents a healthy-related contribution by employing

Artif icial Intelligence (AI) to evaluate biomarkers data acquired by
51 X X X
sensors to characterize and classif y tumors accurately. Besides that,
f eature selection is present in this article.
Such work provides the complete development of a sof t gripper with

52 innovative healable sof t sensors to measure damage, f orce, and X X
strain. Based on a self -healing conductive elastomeric composite.
The f ollowing paper presents a novel approach to EAF bath

temperature estimation using a f uzzy model sof t sensor obtained
53 X X X
using Gustaf son–Kessel input data clustering and particle swarm
optimization of model parameters.
Their study addresses the problems of STLF using a novel two -stream
deep learning (DL) model called STLF-Net. The f irst stream is
54 X X
designed with Gated Recurrent Units (GRUs) to learn and capture the
long-term temporal representations of the energy utilization data.
This technical note presents the AIRBUS benchmark description and

55 X
describes its requirements.
This paper presents the preliminary results of a systematic

56 assessment of the biological transf ormation of the German X X
manuf acturing industry and a f ew sof t sensor applications.
This work f ocuses on linear winding process sof t sensor

57 implementation with machine learning techniques emb edding several X X X
sensors to acquire data, composing an intelligent system.
This research provided the use of model parameters as SS. Model

58 parameters are implemented SS by comparing model parameters X X
across multiple data sets f rom dif ferent batches of the same proces s.
This study optimizes process parameters using f eature engineering

and dimensionality reduction to compress data to build a quality
prediction model. The author employed sof t-computing techniques
59 X X X
such as Deep Neural networks, decision trees, Support Vector
Machines, logical regression, and ensemble methods have been
explored.
According to table 9, every 59 papers answers at least one guideline question

and has related contributions to the primary selected fields. This data table usage
possibilities to generate figure 5:
39
Figure 5 – Number of Questions Answered by papers

60
50
40
30
Q.01; 54
Q.03; 49
20
Q.02; 27
10 Q.04; 23
0
Q.01 Q.02 Q.03 Q.04
Q.01 Q.02 Q.03 Q.04
Figure 5 presents that the most answered question is number 1, which is

answered by 91.52% of papers, followed by question number 3 by 83.05% of research
papers. Question number four has fewer answers, which is fulfilled only by 38.98% of
papers because it requires technical details about paper application s around ML or
Feature Engineering to soft sensors development.
The Content Analysis (CA) presented in table 9 corroborates every main
contribution from each paper for th ese research objectives and main questions by
performing the four guideline questions and checking which questions are answered.
Finally, with all 59 papers’ data collected, analyzed, stored, and summarized, it is
possible to present the systematic literature review results in chapter 3.
40
3 RESEARCH RESULTS
This chapter presents the results of SLR in the Soft Sensors field of study,
Machine Learning (ML) processes. First, however, the benchmark technical details will
be explored in the next chapter. Then, starting with the state of the art of Soft Sensors
in 3.1, the exploration of some relevant ML techniques, for example, Support Vector
Machine (SVM), Decision Tree (DT), Deep Learning (DL) methods, and others in 3.2.
In addition, the mathematical background for Time-Series, Classification Task, and
Learning Phase are discussed in 3.3. Finally, feature engineering is the theme of sub-
chapter 3.4, 3.5, 3.6, 3.7, and 3.8, respectively, presenting the table’s 1 guideline
questions answers.
3.1 SOFT SENSORS: STATE OF ART
Soft Sensors can be defined as inference tools that process sensor data in real -
time to, with this information, estimate other more complex variables to measure, such
as data from a statistical laboratory test, as presented (Souza, Araújo, and Mendes,
2016). The intelligence of these sensors is based on algorithms and machine learning
techniques for data mining and improving the quality of information collected by
sensors, eliminating outliers, or condensing information with mathematical models.
For (Jalee and Aparna, 2016), the origin of the term Soft Sensor derives from
the junction between “software” and “sensor” these models were developed through
computing processing hardware information, wh ich was already presented in
supervisory systems, and technicians evaluated alarms to make decisions. However,
previously immeasurable variables can be estimated based on secondary variables
read by the sensors using ML or DL techniques.
Such tools help to construct intelligent products by allowing them to make real-
time decisions. They can be classified into two groups concerning how the data is
treated (Maggipinto et al., 2019):
a) Model-Driven, in which data is acquired in real-time to feed predictive models,
promoting quick decision-making;
b) Data-Driven, in which statistical models are built through a robust database
already obtained during tests, is an intelligent sensor that employs most
machine learning techniques.
41
Aiming to map those areas (Kadlec and Gabrys, 2009) defined a hierarchical
tree of the machine learning methodologies used by each of these strands, as shown
in figure 6:
Figure 6 – hierarchical tree of the ML methodologies employed in SS
Source: The Author, Adapted f rom Kadlec and Gabrys, 2009.
The main techniques are raised and categorized according to the authors'
studies. Therefore, the two ways of implementing SS will be presented in the following
subsections. Nevertheless, table 10 summarizes every definition for SS made by each
one of the papers, following the publication time order presented in table 9:
Table 10 – The Sof t Sensor Def inition in Classif ied Papers

Index Year SOFT SENSORS DEFINITION
A sof t sensor (SS) can be def ined as ‘the association of a hardware sensor
1 2013 enabling the online measurement of some process variables using an algorithm
(sof tware) to provide online estimates of unmeasured variables”.
Sof t sensors are models that can provide accurate estimations in real-time f or
4 2016 these hard-to-measure parameters without the f inancial investment and
maintenance requirements, using the relationships with conventional sensor data
a ‘sof t sensor’ inf ers f rom measurable quantities (f urnace temperature and
6 2019 transport time) on the estimated microstructural state as a f unction of the process
setting (strain rates and pause times).
process manuf acturers rely on sof t sensors, which can model data collected f rom
16 2020
conventional measurements and used to predict key variables.
However, using already existing sensors’ signals as an input f or deep neural

networks to indirectly inf er the desired data rather than measure it directly could
20 2020
be a viable alternative [11]. These so -called sof t or virtual sensors could satisf y
data needs using the same hardware.
42
Multi-sensor f usion in wireless sensor networks generally ref ers to combining

sensory data, e.g., position, range, bearing angle, and arrival time f rom several
23 2020
local sensor nodes. The resulting perception is better than when these sensors
are used individually f or sensing.
A sof t sensor is a technique in which a variable (output) that typically requires

analytical methods f or its determination is estimated using online measurements
27 2020
of related variables (inputs). Sof t sensors solve the problem of providing
estimates f or variables f or which no direct sensor is available.
With this new sof t sensor, it is now possible to monitor moisture across the six
33 2021 chambers in real time while using the single NIR Moisture sensor to measure
moisture at the endpoint bef ore f eeding the granules to the tablet press.
A Sof t Sensor (SS) [4] is a technology that allows f or estimating the value of a
quantity that is too costly or impossible to measure f rom indirect sensor
35 2021
measurements, making it well-suited f or the typology detection task. They can be
divided into Model-Driven or Data-Driven.
Based on machine learning techniques, sof t sensors can inf er the value of a
certain magnitude f rom the indirect measurement of other magnitudes. In other
36 2021 words, a data-driven sof t sensor is an inf erence scheme capable of learning
certain multi-parametric and highly non-linear causality relationships f rom a
historical data set.
integration with mass balance equations f or sof t-sensor development [168]. These
hybrid models of ten show higher predictive power and data ef f iciency than purely
38 2021
physical or data-driven models and are robust to small datasets with low quality
(e.g., noisy data).
Sof t sensors can be broadly categorized based on the type of model they utilize:
mechanistic, which uses f irst-principles to develop a description of the process;
data-driven, which use historical process data combined with ML algorithms to
build a model; and hybrid, which combines the two. First-principle models are
40 2021 desirable but are limited by the necessity of adequate knowledge of the
underlying process mechanisms and usually do not account f or uncertainties.
Instead, data-driven methods need only historically processed data and, as such,
have been widely explored in academia and industry in processes where apriori
knowledge is not available
Sof t sensors measure the unmeasured quantity (primary variable) f rom the
measured quantity (secondary variable). For example, temperature, pressure,
liquid levels, etc., are the sensing variable in the process or chemical industry [5].
Two types of soft sensors are used, i.e., model-driven and data-driven sof t
42 2022 sensors. Model-driven sof t sensors, also called the phenomenological model, are
based on the f irst principle model, whereas data-driven sof t sensors are based on
measured data within plants. Data-driven sof t sensors achieved popularity
compared with model-driven ones since it mainly depends on the actual process
and can represent it more accurately.
A sof t sensor is computer sof tware that maps the values f rom the
Input variables to predict the output variable/s. Note that primary variables (mainly
44 2022
nutrient and organic concentration) are traditionally measured in the laboratory,
thus, are characterized by time-delayed responses.
43
A def inition of the sof t sensor is a predictive model based on large quantities of
data available in an industrial process, which can be f irst principle (white-box
models) or data-driven (black-box models) models. White-box models depend on
actual mechanical data of the process. In contrast, the latter uses historically
45 2022
collected process data, which makes black-box models f ar more practical and
readily applicable to process plants. The principle on which sof t sensors work is
based on quality estimation through a mathematical model that uses all available
measured process variables.
Relating this cost to the perf ormance of the batch in terms of process variables
49 2022 will result in a better understanding of the batch variations. It can even result in a
sof t sensor that can predict the cost f or a running batch in real-time.
The power of using a combination of variables as sof t sensors
In production, processes are thoroughly established. Using model parameters as
58 2022
sof t sensors may provide much more inf ormation about the actions to take when
something goes wrong.
3.1.1 Model-Driven Soft Sensors
As presented by (Jalee and Aparna, 2016), SS is based on phenomenological

modeling of the results studied with sensor data. A model is created based on the data
obtained by sensors and the dynamics built. In short, the modeling of the systems
depends on the theses about their dynamics without considering errors, interferences,
disturbances, or reading errors in the measurements. The maximum treatment is given
through the application of filters. The variations of approaches of the soft sensors
based on models are divided, as shown in figure 2, into two: phenomenological models
and approaches using Kalman filters.
3.1.1.1 Phenomenological Modelling
Thus, (Kadlec and Gabrys, 2009) define the FPM (First Principle Model)
approach as a phenomenological model in which models are defined based on base
equations and mathematical descriptions of the systems studied. The focus is on
steady-state analysis that does not consider disturbances caused by adverse
conditions in the ideal model. However, the researchers point out that with the increase
in instrumentation in industrial plants, these models lost their place in the market to SS
based directly on data, showing more excellent reliability.
44
3.1.1.2 Kalman Filter
Based on (Welch and Bishop, 2006), the approach is based on extended

Kalman filters that estimate the dynamics of processes through closed control loops in
discrete time intervals and obtains the answer by considering disturbances in the
measurement of the feedback sensors. With that, it approaches two distinct algorithms,
the time and the measurements algorithms, to infer the past data projections of the
current state. Then, with the error covariance calculation, the estimates of the next step
are performed. The implementation of this filter follows the processes indicated in
figure 7:
Figure 7 – Kalman Filter Algorithm
Source: The Author, Adapted f rom Welch e Bishop, 2006.
Thus, a closed-loop Kalman filter can improve a control system. However, it is

valid to mention that each step is represented by a series of computational calculations
whose deductions can be found in the article (Welch and Bishop, 2006). Furthermore,
such filters are described by (Shaoming et al., 2019) as Kalman Consensus Filters
(Kalman Consensus Filter – KCF), seeking standard results between local estimates
in virtual sensor networks.
3.1.2 Data-Driven Soft Sensors
Moreover, (Zambonin et al., 2019) highlight that SSs are statistical technologies
that transform low-cost data into complex or high-cost information, improving process
performance as corrective actions are taken in real-time. The authors emphasize the
demand for machine learning techniques supervised by neural networks. The most
45
used is regression or simple classification of networks based on the Bayesian

algorithm.
The authors (Wo Jae Lee et al., 2019) call SS intelligent tools conditioned to
monitoring data in real-time in highly automated environments. For example, it is
possible to classify the state of cyber-physical systems (CPS) of a factory (e.g., Smart
Factory) monitored through machine learning techniques. Furthermore, they agreed
on the possibility of monitoring the effects of deterioration in the performance of
machines, which was not possible with the previously-used models, which triggered
alarms after failures occurred.
In this way, they develop data-driven monitoring systems using information
passed in the training of a neural network that will process the machine data in real
time, presenting the tools' condition . This tool is based on statistical learning theories.
It is independent of machine parameters, having as reference only the past inputs and
their results, being defined as a Support Vector Machine (SVM).
In parallel, in the research by (Wang et al., 2019), SVMs are described as
machine learning models based on past information that can support future actions
using clusters – data vectors. Therefore, in the authors' research, the data-driven SS
used were K-means (Clustering method) and HC (Hierarchical Clustering). However,
these applications could conclude that these unsupervised methods are not applicable
for exact measurements, as they present low measurement power.
SVMs can also be developed by deep learning methods due to their remarkable
ability to scale data and perform well with limited samples for train ing, as demonstrated
(Lei Ma et al., 2019). However, another data-driven technique is called a random
decision forest (Random Forest – RF). The researchers claim it is more accurate and
may contain more decadent samples for training neural networks based on data.
Finally, the authors present a DL technique focused on digital image processing
and object detection, widely used to improve data from sensors (cameras): land use,
land cover (LULC), such as facial recognition and scene identification, and
classification of objects. In these cases, the reported performance of the LULC method
is considered accurate and reliable in applications with large volumes of information,
such as bound-rate timeline data. Furthermore, the moving average method was
presented by (Kadlec and Gabrys, 2009), which consists of updating the average with
46
each new value read. Hence, the average is normalized and simple predictions can be
made, and the method can work to treat noises.
3.2 MACHINE LEARNING TECHNIQUES
In this section, some employed ML techniques are presented, for example,

Support Vector Machine (SVM), Deep Learning (DL), Fuzzy Systems (FS), Decision
Tree (DT), Random Forest (RF), and Genetic Algorithm (GA).
3.2.1 Support Vector Machine
The study conducted by (C. Kumar, S. Chatterjee, T. Oommen, et al., 2020)

states that SVM belongs to the theories of statistical learning whose focus is the
training of the closest samples to produce the optimization of the separation between
different classes of values. The presented methodology uses the processing core to
compute separation models. These models vary from linear to sigmoid, generating
samples in vectorized hyperplanes, as shown in figure 8:
Figure 8 – Support Vector Machine Linear Hyperplane
Source: R. Gandhi, 2018.
The article mathematically demonstrates an SVM to distinguish the threshold

between the classification limit and the declassification of a value. In addition, the user
must define a cost in optimizing the best result among the samples. In this case, the
higher the cost value, the more complex the hyperplane and the less generalist the
model becomes. It further confirms that SVM is highly accurate when properly
optimized and can be a powerful tool in implementing virtual sensors in industry or
engineering problems. However, SVM may not be the best choice in uncertain
47
environments, as it is a supervised learning method. If the data is not labeled, it may

lead to erroneous classifications:
“The comparative analysis of dif ferent MLAs shows that the Support Vector
Machine (SVM) outperf orms other Machine Learning (ML) models …
Furthermore, the sensitivity analysis perf ormed in this study illustrates that the
SVM is less sensitive to the number of samples and mislabeling in the model
training than other MLAs (Machine Learning Algorithms)”.
Hence, according to (C. Chang and C. Lin., 2001), who developed the LIBSVM,
the method presents a wide range of applications. For example, solving SVM
optimization problems, theoretical convergence, multi-class classification, probability
estimation, and parameter selection.
The main advantages of using SVM for a data-driven approach using SS are
the memory efficiency, the possibility to implement high dimensional spaces, the
versatility in implementing many kernel functions, and many samples.
3.2.2 Deep Learning
According to the Data Science Academy (2018), deep learning has extended
what was known until the 2000s as machine learning to a new level due to the growth
of computational capacity and new artificial intelligence techniques. Presenting more
satisfactory results in increasingly complex challenges in robotic computing and AI.
What differentiates ML from DL is the complexity of neural networks. While in the first,
the networks have fewer neurons and thus a smaller amount of data processing, while
the second has deeper layers of learning, demanding parallel processing, those
differences between simple ANN and DLNN can be observed in figure 9:
Figure 9 – Deep Learning Neural Networks (DLNN)
Source: DSA, 2018, C.03.

48
As presented in figure 4, neural networks have three layers, input, output, and
intermediate layers called hidden layers. In these layers, the processing occurs
intensively, and the number of iterations is high. In the output layer, the numerous input
data were mathematically processed by the condensed neurons and transformed into
information relevant to decision -making.
To (P. Bezak, P. Bozek, and Y. Nikitin, 2014), “Deep learning methods have the
capability of recognizing or predicting a large set of patterns by learning sparse
features of a small set of patterns.” Hence, they can be applied even in data-less
scenarios.
According to (M. Lei et al., 2019), DL algorithms are based on neural networks
and generally process data from different types of sensors. Whose focus is the
classification of information based on data previously obtained in a system, then
intelligent decisions can be made through these datasets.
3.2.3 Fuzzy systems
According to (J. Jang, 1991), fuzzy logic rules originate from the description of
the behavior of the systems. Based on the premises, each new ru le is produced by the
combination of rules (“I”, “J”, etc...), and, at the end of the process, the system output
(“Z”) presents the weighting of all established rules. The author also presents the
ANFIS topology as shown in Figure 10:
Figure 10 – ANFIS topology
Source: The Author, Adapted f rom J. Jang, (1991).

49
Thus, five layers build this network, and the values of the assumptions are
determined according to the accurate modeling situations. Then, the second layer
performs the product between assumptions and delivers the result to the third layer.
Which calculates the rate at which the obtained weights are triggered up to the fourth
layer. In this step, the consequence parameters act on the factors obtained during the
process to perform the sum of the results in the last layer and emit the output signal of
this neural network. Thus, the model uses data to train and improve itself.
According to (H. Pacco, 2022), “Fuzzy Logic is a method of reasoning based on
approximation and assumptions that resembles the human reasoning model,” which
allows the Boolean decision-making algorithm based on the input layer.
3.2.4 Decision Tree
According to (L. Breiman, J. Friedman, R. Olshen, et al., 1984), Decision Trees

(DTs) are used for classification and regression as a supervised learning method. They
aim to compose a target variable prediction model based on the decision rules
constrained by the dataset features. These tree numbers of branches are defined by
their nodes, and the deeper the tree, the more nodes are present, and the more
complex the rules are to fit the model.
If the trees are small, their model can be easily interpreted. However, even if
the complexity rises, they are immune to predictor outliers, as shown by (T. Hastie, R.
Tibshirani, and J. Friedman, 2009). Furthermore, the authors affirm that they perform
internal feature selection. Hence, “These properties of decision trees are why they
have emerged as the most popular learning method for data mining.”
Further, figure 11 shows an example of a simple decision tree adapted from the
introduction of DTs presented by (J. Quinlan, 1986):
50
Figure 11 – Simple Decision Tree
Source: The Author, adapted f rom (J. Quinlan, 1986).
This classical problem presents the weather on Saturday morning, in which the
attributes are the outlook, with sunny, overcast, and rain attributes; the humidity, which
can be high or regular; and the windy, which is Boolean.
After defining those variables, there are two defined classes in the dataset, the
Positive instances (P) and the Negative Instances (N), defined by the author’s
judgment about the time (in real applications, it will be defined by data features).
Nevertheless, the cited authors also pointed out their main advantages: DTs
can handle multi-output problems, use the white box models approach, and require
little data preparation. Another advantage is their ability to manipulate categorical or
numerical data, performing well even when outlier data violate the proper model.
Finally, it is possible to validate such models using statistical data from the dataset,
matching its reliability.
Their limitations relate to over-complex datasets, which could generate
overfitting once their predictions are not continuous. Hence extrapolation is not an
expected feature in those models. According to (J. Quinlan, 1986), “the iterative
framework cannot be guaranteed to converge on a final tree unless the window can
grow to include the entire training set.”
51
3.2.5 Random Forest
Following the studies by (C. Kumar, S. Chatterjee, T. Oommen, et al., 2020),

RF is formed by decision trees (e.g., Decision Tres – DT). Each tree, in turn, consists
of input data (e.g., Input Data) randomly separated, and the result of each tree is a
vote for output value classification. They comment that the elaboration of the DTs is
fundamental to the model's success because it is with this correctly elaborated
definition that the data training will be performed. The following input vector was formed
by combining the input data with the data the model has just processed since the
unselected data are reallocated, giving rise to the values selected in each DT.
The reallocated information was used to estimate the general precision of the
model so that the DTs factor optimization parameters are changed, as the authors
explain. In this way, the method builds new DTs, increasing the size of the RF and
making the model increasingly intelligent in selecting correlated data. Those
components described by (C. Kumar, S. Chatterjee, T. Oommen, et al., 2020) are
proven by the RF model conceived by (R. Forghani, P. Savadjiev, A. Chatterjee, et al.,
2020), as shown in Figure 12:
Figure 12 – The Schema Random Forest (RF)
Source: The author, adapted f rom Forghani et al., 2020.
The authors describe this method as robust to model variations since RF

randomly generates subsamples to train DTs considered weak, increasing the
52
method's accuracy at each iteration. With this, the prediction obtained in each DT is
combined to produce an unbiased overall decision based only on the DT structure,
trained for exceptions and possible outliers.
This ML technique can be applied in systems with sensor networks to make
complex decisions based on data obtained in real-time by sensors, as in data-driven
SS modeling. Both authors agree that RF presents robustness, but very complex
networks can overload the system's hardware being emulated due to the increased
number of trees.
3.2.6 Genetic Algorithm
This algorithm mimetics the theory of the biological evolution of species in

computing environments. That consists of the following prerogative: recessive genes
fail, and the dominant ones are passed on to the next generations. For (P. Domingos,
2015), the main contribution of this tribe is that, instead of just adjusting parameters, it
creates a complete learning structure analogous to a brain, enabling fine adjustments
of high precision with genetic algorithms.
In the same book, the expert deduces that if the genetic algorithm is emulated
for hundreds of thousands of generations, there will be several unequal periods of
adaptation over time, followed by stability. Furthermore, the author points out that the
algorithm reaches the peak of precision concerning the ideal population or point. This
way, the chances of a successful mutation occurring and the new population being
significantly better than the previous decreases sharply. Finally, it is worth mentioning
that the mutations of this method are random and follow at least the following steps
proposed by Burkowski (2000, p.202):
a) Generate two random populations of vectors with weights between 0 and 1;
b) Use the objective function to assess the engagement of each one in the
population;
c) Adjust the population weights through the difference between the local weight
and the general average of the population (selection);
d) Calculate an approximation of the correlation between the individual values of
the population (e.g., crossover);
e) Produce mutations between the remaining values, producing a new generation;
f) Selection of survivors through the objective criteria of the objective function;
53
g) Rerun the steps “c”, “d”, and “e” until the criteria are met;
h) End simulation and return to the best population after this process.
This Genetic Algorithm processes algorithm, are outlined in the flowchart in
Figure 13:
Figure 13 – Genetic Algorithm Flowchart
Source: The Author, Adapted f rom Burkowski, 2000.
With this schematized genetic algorithm, it is possible to develop computational

procedures and obtain such results experimentally in any programming language.
However, to be successful in these procedures, it is necessary to use a robust dataset,
as there is a point where small populations may not develop (P. Domingos, 2015).
3.3 MATHEMATICAL BACKGROUND
The mathematical approach section presents three related concepts and a brief
state of the art: the Time series in 3.3.1, the Classification task in 3.3.2, and the
Learning phase in 3.3.3.
3.3.1 Time Series
According to (S. Aghabozorgi, S. Shirkhorshidi, and Y. Wah, 2015), time series

are data points in which the index follows a time order, distributed in equal time
windows. The authors present one of the most important applications for these
classical models:
“With emerging concepts like cloud computing and big data and their vast
applications in recent years, research has been increased on unsupervised
solutions like clustering algorithms to extract knowledge f rom this avalanche
of data. Clustering time-series data has been used in diverse scientif ic areas
to discover patterns that empower data analysts to extract valuable
inf ormation f rom complex and massive datasets . The time-series data is one
of the popular data types in clustering problems and is broadly used f rom gene
expression data in biology to stock market analysis in f inance”.
54
Hence, the time series approach is present in signal processing, data mining,
pattern recognition, control engineering, ML clustering, classification, anomaly
detection, forecasting, and other relevant applications. However, they are not present
only in engineering. Other general areas, such as economics, biology, mathematics,
physics, medicine, and others, can employ them to present data behavior in function
of time.
An example of time series applied to the AIRBUS benchmark simulation is
presented in figure 14, in which the time measured starts from zero to ten seconds and
measures the airplane’s rod sensor deflection in rad, and presents the command of
the FCS:
Figure 14 – A Time Series Example Employed to the Benchmark
3.3.2 Classification Task
For (J. Brownlee, 2016), the classification task in ML is employed to understand

the problem domain deeply and enables learning from actual data or examples. Such
area can be divided into four main areas, which are:
a) Binary Classification: The most straightforward classification is widely used in
e-mail classification, and clans separate them into spam or not-spam classes.
Their most popular ML methods are Logistic Regression, k-Nearest Neighbors,
Decision Trees, Support Vector Machine, and Naive Bayes;
b) Multi-Class Classification: Whenever there are more than two classes to
classify, it can be helpful and uses the trained model to predict the probability of
a sample belonging to a class label. Its main algorithms are k-Nearest
Neighbors, Decision Trees, Naive Bayes, Random Forest, and Gradient
Boosting.
c) Multi-Label Classification: This classification generally uses Multi-label Decision
Trees, Multi-label Random Forests, and Multi-label gradient Boosting methods.
55
This approach consists in two or more class labels in which one or more class
labels can be predicted. Hence, the author presents an example in image
classification with multiple known objects so that the model can predict many
different classes, such as “people”, “cars”, “roads”, and other classes on the
exact prediction.
d) Imbalanced Classification: finally, this refers to challenges where the training
dataset presents examples in classes unequally balanced, and a minority
number of samples are present in a specific class. For this case, cost-sensitive
ML techniques are engaged, for example, Cost-sensitive Logistic Regression,
Cost-sensitive Decision Trees, and Cost-sensitive Support Vector Machines.
Nevertheless, the author states that predictive modeling requires a training
dataset with input and outputs, enabling accurate measurement.
3.3.3 Learning Phase
According to (F. Lewis, S. Jagannathan, and A. Yeşildirek, 1997), when

implementing a Neural Network, the initial weights are uncertain, and tunning
techniques are employed to increase the performance. The initial state is the “Learning
Phase (LP).” As stated by the authors, such a phase is longer in closed control loops
once they must assure “two things — boundedness of the NN weights and
boundedness of the regulation or tracking errors, with the latter being the prime
concern of the engineer.” Nevertheless, (I. Kononenko and M. Kukar, 2007) explain
that the learning is trained with labeled examples (x ϵ X) without predictions in the LP.
Then, it outputs a hypothesis p(x), called “h”, to classify the other examples (f ϵ X)
(which were out of the training dataset). Finally, the author defines the loss functions,
square loss (L2), log loss (Llog ), and absolute loss (L1), based on the objective function
value for the predicted example (f(x)) in equations 1, 2, and 3:
L1 (p(x), f(x)) = (f(x) − p(x))2 (1)

𝐿 𝑙𝑜𝑔 (𝑝(𝑥), 𝑓(𝑥)) = − 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑝(𝑥) − (1 − 𝑓(𝑥)) 𝑙𝑜𝑔(1 − 𝑝(𝑥)) (2)
𝐿 2 (p(x), f(x)) = |f(x) − p(x)| (3)
56
3.4 FEATURE ENGINEERING
This section explores the Continuous Numeric Data and Categorical Data
approaches for Feature Engineering (FEn) and their state-of-the-art in 3.4.1.
3.4.1 Feature Engineering: The State of The Art
The FEn can be defined as a set of data filtering procedures that integrate expert
knowledge from the theme domain to transform, integrate, and adjust features to
increase ML predictor algorithms correlation , as defined by (A. Gal-Tzur, S. Bekhor,
and Y. Barsky, 2022). Moreover, according to (Z. Qadir, S.I. Khan, and E. Khalaji et
al., 2021), the FEn eliminates low-quality data. Furthermore, it selects the most crucial
features to reduce computational costs and minimize error.
According to (R. Yao, N. Wang, Z. Liu, et al., 2021), FEn is one of the most
appropriate data processing steps that extracts the main features from datasets.
Meanwhile, (N. Mapes, C. Rodriguez, and P. Chowriappa et al., 2019) extracted
features from a comprehensive dataset with thirty-nine-dimensional features, reducing
the number of features by combining them into new features.
In (F. Chiarello, P. Belingheri, and G. Fantoni, 2021) study, the FEn was
classified as a data analysis process that depends on the context to identify meaningful
feature representations to increase the accuracy of ML systems. Moreover, a
knowledge-driven approach FEn is presented by (Z.H. Janjua, D. Kerins, and B.
O’Flynn et al., 2022) as sensitive task specialists perform before applying ML
techniques. In addition, this process was employed in medical applications for blood
pressure measurements by classifying related symptoms. Nevertheless, (D. Gibert, J.
Planes, and C. Mateu et al., 2022) combined FEn and DL to extract features from
binary data to classify malware. Finally, (F. Hoppe, J. Hohmann, and M. Knoll et al.,
2019) evaluated the FEn quality using regression models.
The main ML techniques that are available for FEn implementation are,
according to (C. Joshi, R.K. Ranjan, and V. Bharti, 2021), Correlation Matrix (CM), DL,
Fuzzy Logic, Feature Importance (FI), Recursive Feature Selection (RFS), Univariate
Feature Selection (UFS), and Principal Component Analysis (PCA). Therefore, the
“Fuzzy Logic based feature engineering approach first identifies the fuzzy sets from
the dataset and uses different fuzzy rules to generate new features.”
57
3.5 Q.01 MAIN APPLICATION AREAS FOR SS
This section presents the main applications in which Soft Sensors were
employed in SLR papers; 54 of 59 papers presented contributions for answering this
question. Such a section is subdivided into Industrial Applications, Aeronautics,
Quimiometrics, Cloud Computing solutions, health, and care solutions, building and
household applications, and general applications.
3.5.1 Industrial Applications
There are applications related to car body parts drawing strokes, cited by (R.
Meyes, J. Donauer, and A. Schmeing, et al., 2019), using the SS approach with strain
gauge and laser sensors to digitalize the metal sheet retraction points. The authors
used an RNN architecture to draw the 3D model based on time series data.
In property control of hot forming-based grain size for steel, the authors (M.
Bambach, M. Imram, and I. Sizova et al., 2021) showed a SS implementation as a
surrogate model. That improved the accuracy of a cost function to measure the
distance of predicted and measured domain boundaries. Another industrial application
is cited by (M. Tabba, A. Brahmi, and B. Chouri et al., 2021) for a PLC controlling
system for industrial digitalization over level detection in a complex scenario using a
set of connected sensors.
In manual screwing manufacturing, Soft Sensors can detect activities
characterized by body posture and arm and hand activity (L. Günther, S. Kärcher, and
T. Bauernhansl, 2019). Although, for (N. Tvenge, O. Ogorodnyk, and N. Østbø et al.,
2020), SS is a crucial component for real-world digitalization, composing the Digital
Twin scenario, being more than a simple model, but enabling decision-making around
further actions of a modeled system.
Another SS Industrial machinery application is shown by (B. Maschler, S.
Ganssloser, A. Hablizel, et al., 2021) by measuring the cylinder pressure to calculate
other relevant combustion parameters in large engines to reach additional
maintenance requirements. Therefore, they indicate future works: “to facilitate the
mentioned optimization procedures in smaller engines, too, the use of virtual cylinder
pressure sensors is a promising option .”
58
For (W. Lee, G. Mendis, and J. Sutherland, 2019), an SVM can be trained using
sensor signals as input and outputting the tool wear once the real-time multi-sensor
dataset is employed to predict the tool wear. Furthermore, according to (S. He, H. Shin,
S. Xu, et al., 2020), these applications can utilize low-cost sensors, enabling scalability
features.
Material engineering can filter noisy SS data models on materials structure
Variational autoencoders for Long short-term memory (VAE-LSTM) approach to
optimization, according to (A. Lew and M. Buehler, 2021). Although an
electromechanical fault detection benchmark was presented by (T. Grüner, F. Böllhoff,
and R. Meisetschläger et al., 2020), using a data set to generate the model and predict
the faults based on indirect sensors as model input.
The authors (M. Barton and B. Lennox, 2022) articulate ensemble methods to
apply SS in industrial scenarios for predictive performance. In the automotive industry,
(A. Theissler, J. Pérez-Velázquez, M. Kettelgerdes, et al., 2021) presented fault
detection and predictive maintenance for autonomous vehicles.
The SS applied to the stamping press is explained by (D. Coelho, D. Costa, E.
Rocha, et al., 2022), using Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) networks to predict
failure in metal stamping processes. Furthermore, the study by (S. Shafiq, E.
Szczerbicki, E. Sanin, et al., 2019) presented SS for data acquisition and visualization
supporting I4.0 in different machining scenarios.
Self-healing robots are the focus of (E. Roels, S. Terryn, J. Brancart, et al.,
2022) study, applying SS to recover the system in case of severe damage. They use
self-healing materials such as polymer networks, novel elastomeric, and SS-
embedded conductive particles as carbon nanotubes and conductive liquid metals.
However, the authors commit one constraint: “The reason is that these healable soft
sensors are difficult to model using analytical approaches due to their non -linear
behavior and time-variant response.”
Even steady-state industrial processes, such as electric arc furnaces, can be
based on SS. According to (A. Blažič, I. Škrjanc, V. Logar, 2021), using PSO algorithm
proposal to bath temperature estimation using the Takagi-Sugeno fuzzy model.
59
3.5.2 Soft Sensors Applied to Aeronautics Solutions
The Aeronautics industry can be improved due to the use of “sensors and
software to monitor multiple aspects of aerospace vehicles” (K. Ranasinghe, R.
Sabatini, and A. Gardi et al., 2021). The authors have shown a National Aeronautics
and Space Administration (NASA) application for SS over Vehicle Health Monitoring
(VHM), which provided the vehicle’s failure prognostic or diagnostic management for
predictive maintenance.
Another aerospace application for SS is presented by (V. Henrique, R. Massao,
and G. Reynoso-Meza, 2021) for Oscillatory Failure Case detection using this
technology on the EFCS. The inputs are the command control current and the
feedback signal sensor from the built-in rod sensor. They developed a Simulink design
for failure detection.
The technical note presented by IFAC to solve the AIRBUS benchmark (J.
Engelbrecht and P. Goupil, 2020) details the FCS of a commercial aircraft and its
sensors, systems, power sources, wiring, and many other movable parts.
3.5.3 The employment of SS in the Quimiometrics Industry
The chemical industry is applying and gathering many benefits from ML

techniques applied to SS instead using statistical learning models, as displayed by (A.
Hicks, M. Johnston, and M. Mowbray et al., 2021). These authors further show more
benefits for industrial applications “the preliminary soft-sensor can provide process
operators a quick and reasonably accurate prediction of the product quality.”
In the quimiometrics industry, (B. Negash, L. Tufa, and R. Marappagounder et
al., 2016) employed SS for petroleum reservoir volume forecasting:
“Based on a reservoir’s recovery mechanism, the conceptual f ramework will

help to systematically select an appropriate model structure f rom the various
model structures available in system identif ication. The results show that
system identif ication polynomial models can provide very accurate models in
a short time to predict the perf ormance of reservoirs under primary and
secondary recovery mechanisms. System identif ication-based reservoir
models can be established as a practical, cost-ef fective, and robust tool f or
f orecasting reservoir f luid production”.
According to (M. Zaghloul and G. Achari, 2022), SS is developed with AI

technology in wastewater treatment plants to estimate real-time hard-to-measure
parameters. For example, nitrates, ammonium, total phosphorus, biochemical oxygen
60
demand, and others use fewer complex sensor parameters, such as pH, flow, rates,
and temperature.
SS can serve as a reliable phenomenological model for Fermentation 4.0
bioprocess to monitor biomass, substrates, and metabolite concentration, as shown by
(C. Alarcon and C. Shene, 2021). Furthermore, according to (A. Guzman-Urbina, K.
Ouchi, and H. Ohno et al., 2022), the chemical application for SS employs Fuzzy
Inference systems and a data-driven technique for Emissions Analytics (FIEMA).
Aiming to correlate catalyst properties, greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, and existing
process arrangements.
As affirmed (I. Mendia, S. Gil-López, and I. Landa-Torres, et al., 2022), a
physical sensor cannot directly measure the refinery's real-time process. Hence “The
soft sensor provides refinery operators real-time information to adjust operating
conditions, maximizing the stability of the desulfurization unit and producing diesel to
specification.” Other applications of SS in biochemical engineering are expounded by
(M. Mowbray, T. Savage, and C. Wu et al., 2021), for example, the microfluidic SS,
chemometric analysis using the collected data from a sensor.
The Neuro-Fuzzy SS approach was applied to the benzene Toluene distillation
column to predict the composition using the ANFIS algorithm as expounds (E. Jalee
and K. Aparna, 2016). Another prediction application was developed by (D. Aguado,
G. Noriega-Hevia, and J. Ferrer et al., 2022) to extract ammonium concentration
evolution in fiber membranes using indirect sensor data.
In methane reforming products, SS implementation is presented by (P.
Nkulikiyinka, Y. Yan, F. Güleç, et al., 2020) to compare the success rate of SS and
expensive hardware sensors. Moreover, these authors cited the “use of ANN as a tool
for nonlinear soft sensing modeling has been employed in the recent years, particularly
regarding the prediction accuracy and saving of computational costs.”
As described by (G. van Kollenburg, J. van Es, J. Gerretzen, et al., 2020), the
SS application uses historical process data to improve the chemical processes
conditions and control laws using the PLS-Path Modelling.
3.5.4 The Cloud Computing Solutions Based on SS
A work by (H. Paggi, J. Soriano, and V. Rampérez et al., 2013) defines Wireless
System Networks (WSN) as interconnected low-cost sensors. Such WSNs are
61
implemented in health monitoring, military target tracking, animal monitoring, smart

homes, environmental control systems, and other applications, composing a so-called
“Intelligent Space” (IS).
Image processing solutions are present in almost every Cloud Computing (CC)
platform. Then a Deep Learning approach can solve remote-sensing applications (L.
Ma, Y. Liu, X. Zhang, et al., 2019). Furthermore, other applications are presented by
this author, for example, fusion, segmentation, change detection, and registration .
An Industry 4.0 case study employing soft sensors in a waste-to-energy plant
benchmark is presented by (J. Kabugo, S. Jämsä-Jounela, and R. Schiemann et al.,
2020). CPS uses an IIoT-based data platform to detect temperature faults and correct
the PID gains instead of only displaying alarms. Another I4.0 application using real-
time SS was conducted by (D. Ntamo, E. Lopez-Montero, and J. Mack et al., 2022) to
monitor the end-point moisture using a data-driven approach.
Another CC low-cost solution for occupancy estimation was developed by (K.
Rastogi and D. Lohani, 2019) to enable frequent sampling and reduce the need for
human involvement. In this sense, (B. Schumucker, F. Trautwein, and R. Hartl et al.,
2022) describe a cloud-based environment to measure and simulate curring forces in
workpiece quality, monitoring in real-time the tool’s current level, enabling intelligent
decision-making.
In the study case presented by (J. Schimitt, J. Bönig, and T. Borggräfe et al.,
2020), a SS is employed for quality inspection using ML and Edge Cloud Computing
(ECC) to identify defects in the automobile and electronics industry.
3.5.5 Soft Sensors: Enhancing Health and Care Solutions
Biological transformation employing SS is shown by (R. Miehe, T. bauernhansl,

M. Beckett, et al., 2020) case study, which “includes the development of multivariate,
bio-based, non-invasive and non-consuming sensor techniques and principles as well
as soft sensors with underlying process models and new concepts for biosensors.”
The authors (P. Zhu, H. Peng, and A. Rwei, 2022) proposed the soft SCG
sensor, with a pair of gold electrodes integrated into an electronic tattoo platform to
measure the systolic time interval (STI) as the surrogate non -invasively method to
predict the blood pressure. Such SS is shown in figure 15:
62
Figure 15 – sof t SCG sensor
Source: P. Zhu, H. Peng, and A. Rwei, 2022.
Consequently, after submitting the patient to walking, running, and jumping

tests, the graphene pressure sensor got the results presented in figure 16:
Figure 16 – Intensity Pressure Signal in Dif f erent Actions
Source: P. Zhu, H. Peng, and A. Rwei, 2022.
According to these results, the epidermis communicates with force-sensing

structure via spinous microstructures, then the authors affirm:
“The sensor could measure human physiological signals, such as heartbeat,

phonation, and motion. Its array was f urther utilized to obtain gait states of
supination, neutral, and pronation. Moreover, its microstructure of f ered an
alternative method to enhance the perf ormance of pressure sensors and
expand their potential applications in detecting human activities ”.
Another real-time health and care application for oxygen measurements

employing SS is presented by (A. Tsopanoglou and I. Jiménez del Val, 2021), focusing
on glucose concentration in cell culture dynamics optimization in Critical Quality
Attributes (CQAs).
In oncology, SS can play a relevant role in a biomarker for prediction models
using ML techniques in a study by (R. Forghani, P. Savadjiev, and A. Chatterjee et al.,
2019).
63
3.5.6 Building and Household applications
Meanwhile, (S. Baduge, S. Thilakarathna, and J. Perera et al., 2022) focus on

construction 4.0 applications for soft sensors to gather operational data and sen sors
data to model and anticipate the status of building components. According to the
authors, “ML and DL are the core of AI-based applications, being used in the
construction industry due to the enhanced computational capacity and the massive
amounts of data generated.”
A SS was developed to support the household electricity load prediction by (M.
Shapi, N. Ramil, and L. Awalin, 2021) with ARIMAX, Decision Tree, and Artificial
Neural Network ML techniques. A household application for SS is discussed by (M.
Maggipinto, E. Pesavento, and F. Altinier et al., 2019), employing SS for load-weight
estimation in washing machines.
The load forecasting study case using SS is presented by (M. Abdel-Basset, H.
Hawash, K. Sallam, et al., 2022) by implementing a data-driven approach with the time
series data acquired by residential embedded energy consumption sensors.
3.5.7 The General Applications for SS
An application for Soft Sensors working with ML and Cuckoo Search and
Particle Swarm Optimization (CS-PSO) to quantify performance metrics for athletes
based on data was presented by (M. Ishi, J. Patil, and V. Patil, 2022).
Another challenge solved by Soft Sensors was presented by (O. Fisher, N.
Watson, and J. Escrig et al., 2020) as an IIoT technology employed to compute visual
and ultrasonic data and optimize Clean-In-Place (CIP) processes.
As a data-driven technology, SS enables the unclean data filtering feature and
a more comprehensive range of data to process. As a result, SS can enhance the
forecast for local weather, according to (T. Krivec, J. Kocijan, and M. Perne et al., 2021)
study, in which some sensors acquired wind speed and direction, humidity, solar
radiation, and temperature data. Such information provides the SS input data for Short-
Term and Long-Term weather forecasts for their developed model of dispersion of
radioactive air pollution.
64
Using SS can improve traffic, as stated by (M. Siddiqi, B. Jiang, and R. Asadi et
al., 2021). Traffic sensor data can predict the gaps in data features and improve traffic
signal time management.
3.6 Q.02: THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SS AND INDUSTRY 4.0
This section presents the relationship between Soft Sensors and Industry 4.0 in
the 3.6.1 sub-section and Smart Factories in 3.6.2, present in 27 of the 59 SLR-
selected papers.
3.6.1 Soft Sensors in I4.0 Scenario
I4.0 digital services are based on SS application with high-quality data

representing “a great fraction of industrial machinery in use today features only a bare
minimum of sensors and retrofitting new ones,” according to (B. Maschler, S.
Ganssloser, and A. Hablizel, et al., 2021).
According to (R. Meyes, J. Donauer, and A. Schmeing et al., 2019), the fourth
industrial revolution is enhanced by the industrial big data phenomenon fed by sensor
data. Once on the floor level, these sensor systems can be improved by SS
implementation. In addition to that, (C. Li, Y. Chen, and Y. Shang, 2022) state that real-
time data acquisition, collection, and evaluation enabled by SS applications are crucial
elements for Industry 4.0 complex production environments.
The data-driven system modeling techniques employing SS are a priority for
Industry 4.0 digital manufacturing, as presented by (A. Hicks, M. Johnston, and M.
Mowbray et al., 2021). Nevertheless, SS is noticed in an IIoT application, representing
an I4.0 scenario in (V. Kocaman and D. Talby's, 2022) paper.
Soft Sensors can be used on Cyber-Physical-Systems (CPS) to improve ML
learners by acquiring data for real-time integration on I4.0, as presented by (N. Tvenge,
O. Ogorodnyk, and N. Østbø et al., 2020). However, for (K. Ranasinghe, R. Sabatini,
and A. Gardi et al., 2021), these data acquisition related to the aerospace industry is
often challenging to acquire due to “their rarity as well as security restrictions. A
feasible solution to this problem is to perform sub-system/component seeded fault
testing, which can be quite expensive.” Hence, SS is a safer and inexpensive
alternative to these test cases in the industry 4.0 scenario.
65
An I4.0 review was conducted by (S. Baduge, S. Thilakarathna, and J. Perera

et al., 2022) and presented the use of ML algorithms implementing an SS in material
design and optimization. Another use of SS in I4.0 is proposed by (M. Tabba, A.
Brahmi, and B. Chouri et al., 2021) to support automated decision-making approaches
to improve Industrial scenarios.
According to (C. Alarcon and C. Shene, 2021), SS has been classified as an
I4.0 technology once it can be designed based on expert knowledge of the process in
model-driven soft sensors. The I4.0 can benefit SS in sustainable industry, minimizing
environmental impacts by increasing resource use efficiency and reducing waste and
pollution, as presented by (A. Guzman-Urbina, K. Ouchi, and H. Ohno et al., 2022).
The big data tools are emphasized by (J. Kabugo, S. Jämsä-Jounela, and R.
Schiemann et al., 2020) with ML methods among data-driven models fed by SS in I4.0
for industrial data to compose an IIoT platform. Nevertheless, (D. Ntamo, E. Lopez-
Montero, and J. Mack et al., 2022) affirm that in real-time data processing for I4.0, SS
enables sustainable process design to reduce industrial environmental footprints.
A study by (M. Barton and B. Lennox, 2022) showed that I4.0 presents ML in
the design of SS, “which are used as replacements for offline measurements of
variables of interest, usually expensive or time-consuming.” Finally, the (A.
Tsopanoglou and I. Jiménez del Val, 2021) paper presents the Biopharma 4.0
paradigm and the prominent role of SS in developing multivariate data analysis.
3.6.2 Soft Sensors Employed in Smart Factories
According to (M. Mowbray, T. Savage, and C. Wu et al., 2021), a Smart Factory

is enhanced by SS once it combines modeling tools (data-driven or model-driven) that
can accelerate the industrial scenario. Furthermore, the Intelligent Space (IS)
environment is stated by (H. Paggi, J. Soriano, and V. Rampérez et al., 2013), where
SS processes robots’ information and provides it to human supervisors using
interfaces and fusion techniques.
Intelligent systems, in which SS are employed with ML techniques to focus on
Smart Factories development and improvements, presented by (S. Maier, P.
Zimmermann, and J. Berger, 2022). A Closed Loop Manufacturing 4.0 (CLM 4.0)
architecture is presented by (B. Schumucker, F. Trautwein, and R. Hartl et al., 2022),
66
which employs SS to acquire and process data using ML to influence the control
signals.
3.7 Q.03: FEATURE ENGINEERING AND ML APPLIED TO SS
This section presents the leading Feature Engineering (FEn) and ML techniques
employed in Soft Sensors implementations in 49 of 59 researched papers. The sub-
section 3.7.1 presents the FEn employment found in 20 papers. Meanwhile, 3.7.2
handles the ML approaches cited by 46 papers.
3.7.1 Feature Engineering Employment to SS Development
As presented by (R. Meyes, J. Donauer, and A. Schmeing et al., 2019), a FEn

wavelet transformation approach and an LSTM based on ANN were combined with
time-series data SS. Such SS-enabled anomaly detection and prediction in
manufacturing applications. In this study, the classifier joins raw data from flange
retraction lasers, and strain gauges into two feature vectors to simplify the wavelet
transform. Such a model outputs “the probability of occurrences of cracks in the future
course of the deep drawing process, which is fed into the regression network as an
additional feature for the time series prediction .”
According to (V. Kocaman and D. Talby, 2022), the CNN architecture can
eliminate most FEn steps using bidirectional LSTM over SS-acquired data. Another
CNN for SS approach is presented by (L. Günther, S. Kärcher, and T. Bauernhansl,
2019) for FEn, in which “CNN is characterized by scale invariance and can capture
local dependencies in data.”
Some main benefits of employing FEn to SS ML methods were declared by (M.
Ishi, J. Patil, and V. Patil, 2022). Among them are the dimensional reduction of large
datasets, the selection of significant features to enhance classification performance,
and the reduction of computational costs. In addition, they cited that “Metaheuristic
algorithms are recognized as a viable approach for addressing feature optimization
problems.”
The FEn can reduce the dimensionality of a SS model dataset, according to (O.
Fisher, N. Watson, and J. Escrig et al., 2020). For example, implementing FEn and a
PCA in their study reduced the dataset's dimensionality from 26 features to 9. Another
67
detailed FEn study for SS dataset feature reduction was carried out by (V. Henrique,
R. Massao, and G. Reynoso-Meza, 2021), in which ten features were created for the
input signal and processed by:
“Simple signal processing techniques include delay, dif f erences, moving

average, moving standard deviation, moving root mean squared (RMS) value,
and zero-cross counting. The selection of such f eatures considers the limited
computational resources available in FCSs.”
In a SS image-based system, the FEn is crucial once the decision of which

image feature to use for matching enables DL data-driven scheme to learn them from
images, according to (B. Maschler, S. Ganssloser, and A. Hablizel et al., 2021). The
paper (M. Shapi, N. Ramil, and L. Awalin, 2021) shows the limitations in the k-NN
method for SS implementation in large feature spaces for forecasting, requiring FEn
computational costly solutions.
According to (T. Grüner, F. Böllhoff, and R. Meisetschläger et al., 2020), the ML
pipelines can improve their accuracy, computational complexity, and engineering effort
by FEn. Using the PCA and Recursive Feature Elimination (RFE), their study reduced
the feature space in raw data for fault detection. Two other pieces of research focused
on SS employed FEn for feature space reduction before using PCA (A. Guzman-
Urbina, K. Ouchi, and H. Ohno et al., 2022), and (M. Siddiqi, B. Jiang, and R. Asadi,
et al., 2021).
An approach that evolved FEn and ML was applied to data-driven SS
development by (K. Rastogi and D. Lohani, 2019), denominated as the Feature Scaled
Extreme Learning Machine (FS-ELM). This method is a variation of Extreme Learning
Machine (ELM) and has significantly improved its performance. In the (M. Maggipinto,
E. Pesavento, and F. Altinier et al., 2019) study, FEn is used to extract features from
complex data to feed ML algorithms. In this case, more than fifty features were
extracted.
Thus, the FEn data preprocessing using probabilistic data cleaning and PCA for
SS implementation to feed an RF algorithm is displayed in (I. Mendia, S. Gil-López,
and I. Landa-Torres, et al., 2022). Although, it is stated by (L. Petruschke, J. Walther,
and M. Burkhardt et al., 2021) that the DL approach can overcome FEn techniques
due to them inheriting the classification tasks.
A PLS model implemented in SS development by (D. Aguado, G. Noriega-
Hevia, and J. Ferrer et al., 2022) showed the importance of FEn in feature extraction
68
for predicting ammonia concentration using different pH features combined. In

addition, the Out-Of-Bag concept is explained by (P. Nkulikiyinka, Y. Yan, and F. Güleç
et al., 2020) to refer to some samples not used for fitting one single DT in the RF for
SS implementation.
The FEn requirements for extracting new features after the training process is
evidenced by (D. Coelho, D. Costa, and E. Rocha et al., 2022) and (R. Forghani, P.
Savadjiev, and A. Chatterjee et al., 2019). Once the FEn's main objective is to improve
the model with optimal parameters only, nevertheless the (A. Gejji, S. Shukla, and S.
Pimparkar et al., 2020) work explored the use of FEn for SS dataset dimensionality
reduction using ML methods as an example: ANN, DLNN, DT, SVM, ensemble method
and logical regression.
3.7.2 The Machine Learning Approaches for Soft Sensors
The ML employment to SS development achieved many benefits in (H. Paggi,

J. Soriano, and V. Rampérez et al., 2013) research related to the simplicity of ANN
system modeling without knowledge about the system dataset. According to this
research, “ANFIS is an example of a neuro-fuzzy SS. ANNs are combined with partial
least squares and principal component analysis (PCA).”
In (R. Meyes, J. Donauer, and A. Schmeing et al., 2019), an LSTM was applied
to predict failure cases, train with time-series data, and use a SS to acquire data for
classifying the failure data. Meanwhile, the study conducted by (C. Li, Y. Chen, and Y.
Shang, 2022) summarized the most employed learning algorithms and models in
engineering challenges: “Support Vector Machine (SVM), Naive Bayes (NB), K-nearest
Neighbors (KNN), Decision Tree (DT), Logistic Regression (LR), Deep Neural Network
(DNN), and Convolutional Neural Network (CNN).”
Some data-driven statistical methods were proposed by (M. Zaghloul and G.
Achari, 2022) to identify faults based on the SS approach employing the PCA and ANN
to control the process. Moreover, the PCA technique was embedded in SS in a DL
deep layer of data reduction, providing gains in predictive performance, according to
(M. Abdar, F. Pourpanah, and S. Hussain et al., 2022). Another PCA implementation
for SS is shown in (A. Hicks, M. Johnston, and M. Mowbray et al., 2021) to reduce the
dimensionality of time-series datasets by identifying correlations between output and
input layer variables.
69
In (M. Bambach, M. Imram, and I. Sizova et al., 2021) paper, an ANN was used
as a SS to predict the final boundary deformation sequence in a steel forming
operation. Although the cloud platforms play a crucial role in ML solutions for SS, as
shown by (V. Kocaman and D. Talby, 2022), the Google Cloud Platform and AWS
present contributions for extracting relevant medical information from biosensor data.
The study employed an ANN for a SS data-driven approach in data prediction (B.
Negash, L. Tufa, and R. Marappagounder et al., 2016).
An approach for Structure Health Monitoring was carried out by (S. Baduge, S.
Thilakarathna, and J. Perera et al., 2022), using different sensors (e.g., acoustic
sensors, electromagnetic devices, and Accelerometers) for a SS implementation. Such
features were developed using the following ML techniques: “ANN, DL, Support Vector
Machine (SVM), Principal Component Analysis (PCA), k-Nearest Neighbor (KNN), and
low-rank matrix decomposition.” In addition, many other techniques can be employed
for fault detection using SS, according to (T. Grüner, F. Böllhoff, and R. Meisetschläger
et al., 2020):
“The f ollowing ML methods are utilized f or the classif ication of the normal and
f ault states in the underlying data set of measurements of the motor current:
Traditional methods: KNN, SVM; Ensemble methods: Random f orests;
extreme gradient boosting machines (XGBoost); Deep Learning: Two f ully-
connected f eed-f orward ANNs with three (ANN-3) and 20 (ANN-20) hidden
layers. For the implementation, the python libraries scikit-learn (KNN, SVM,
Random f orests), XGBoost2, and Tensorf low3 (ANNs) are used.”
According to (I. Mendia, S. Gil-López, and I. Landa-Torres, et al., 2022), the

most relevant ML prediction algorithms for SS are ANN, k-NN, RF, SMV, and non-
linear Regressions. Moreover, (A. Mayr, D. Kißkalt, and A. Lomakin et al., 2020) cited,
"In particular, artificial neural networks and their subclass of convolutional neural
networks are frequently applied.” Moreover, the implementation of PLS is considered
by (G. van Kollenburg, R. Bouman, and T. Offermans et al., 2021) as an easy-to-
explain technique for SS models in an industry environment.
A SS onboard system was presented by (K. Ranasinghe, R. Sabatini, and A.
Gardi et al., 2021), in which ML algorithms were employed for fault diagnostic. The
main ML methods used in their study are: “SVM, GPR, neural networks, Markov Chain,
fuzzy logic, and Monte Carlo.” The data-driven approach for SS (cited in (O. Fisher, N.
Watson, and J. Escrig et al., 2020) implemented an ANN to model prediction without
initial system knowledge.
70
The paper (T. Krivec, J. Kocijan, and M. Perne et al., 2021) presented an
alternative for statistical ML methods, the non-parametric and probabilistic Gaussian
Process (GP) model, for a SS data-driven forecast implementation. Meanwhile, the
paper presented by (V. Henrique, R. Massao, and G. Reynoso-Meza, 2021) used a
DT algorithm for the SS model in the fault detection application model.
Three steps are presented by (B. Maschler, S. Ganssloser, and A. Hablizel et
al., 2021) for implementing a SS using the MLP approach. These steps consist of data
preprocessing, choosing the ANN type, and structuring it to estimate the engine
parameters using the data acquired from the sensor. A set of ML techniques were cited
by (W. Lee, G. Mendis, and J. Sutherland, 2019) for implementing SS in the data-
driven model, for example, SVM, ANN, FS, and RF. Nevertheless, their main results
were achieved using SVM to maximize the kernel function.
Two categories for multi-sensor fusion ML algorithm were described by (S. He,
H. Shin, and S. Xu et al., 2020) the State Vector Fusion and Information Vector Fusion.
The first focuses on local estimations over the sensor network, while the second “refers
to direct or indirect exchanges of local measurements among sensor nodes.”
Moreover, such contribution is relevant for SS network implementation, which can be
employed for large-scale, low-cost solutions.
The study by (A. Guzman-Urbina, K. Ouchi, and H. Ohno et al., 2022) showed
that the FIEMA approach for data-driven SS presented higher accuracy over SVM and
ANN ML methods. Once according to (P. Zhu, H. Peng, and A. Rwei, 2022): “Current
machine learning and big-data analytical techniques rely on high-quality data for
algorithm training as well as data analysis, highlighting the importance of signal fidelity
for wearable sensors.”
The Microsoft Azure IoT platform was presented by (J. Kabugo, S. Jämsä-
Jounela, and R. Schiemann et al., 2020) for data-driven SS development using the
available ML techniques Azure includes. In addition, another SS implementation using
ML is shown (D. Ntamo, E. Lopez-Montero, and J. Mack et al., 2022). These algorithms
were employed to predict and estimate hard-to-measure variables.
The SS design is cited as an inferential sensor by (M. Barton and B. Lennox,
2022), using the decision tree ML algorithm to fit and train the model for low-bias in a
high-variance dataset. Meanwhile, in the paper presented by (E. Jalee and K. Aparna,
71
2016) found in the literature review on the employment of ANFIS, SVM, PLS, Kalman
Filters, ANN, and Fuzzy Logic with GA for SS implementations, the authors stated:
“This paper uses a new method, nonlinear autoregressive with exogenous

input (NARX) based ANFIS f or sof t sensor modeling. This study proposes a
more accurate and predictive model combining the advantages of the neural
network, f uzzy inf erence mechanism, and NARX structure predictability.”
Nevertheless, according to (D. Aguado, G. Noriega-Hevia, and J. Ferrer et al.,

2022), the principal ML method used in SS development research is the ANN.
Moreover, (P. Nkulikiyinka, Y. Yan, and F. Güleç et al., 2020) used ANN and RF
algorithms to implement SS models to enhance a data-driven system. Nevertheless,
another ANN application mixed with NARX for SS-supervised fault detection was
studied by (A. Theissler, J. Pérez-Velázquez, and M. Kettelgerdes et al., 2021).
3.8 Q.04: THE METHODS FOR FEATURE ENGINEERING IN SS
This section explores the found methods for Feature Engineering in 3.8.1 and
their differences compared to Hyperparameter Tuning (HT) in 3.8.2. Those
contributions are present in 23 of the 59 researched papers.
3.8.1 Feature Engineering Enhancing Soft Sensors
The study (R. Meyes, J. Donauer, and A. Schmeing et al., 2019) performed the
FEn classification task of Soft Sensors signals, using the feature vector raw signal and
its information in the frequency domain to make predictions over the time-series data.
In addition, for a CNN implementation , the hybrid bidirectional LSTM was employed by
(V. Kocaman and D. Talby, 2022) to eliminate further FEn procedures.
According to (L. Günther, S. Kärcher, and T. Bauernhansl, 2019), Feature
Engineering procedures are considered one of the most critical procedures in ML
projects once they avoid the dependency on human experience in feature selection or
extraction in SS development. Besides this application, (S. Baduge, S. Thilakarathna,
and J. Perera et al., 2022) demonstrate that FEn improves the SS versatility and
accuracy in ML model development.
In data-driven SS applications, (D. Aguado, G. Noriega-Hevia, and J. Ferrer et
al., 2022) proposed the FEn to extract features from pH and their direct interactions
with input variables. They affirm that “Feature extraction based on the technical
72
knowledge of the process was key to make the development of a reliable data-driven
PLS soft-sensor possible.” Another data-driven system studied by (O. Fisher, N.
Watson, and J. Escrig et al., 2020) presents three observations of FEn processes
employed in SS development, which are: ensuring the model boundaries testing,
fitting, and predicting capacities, accomplish ing any temporal variation in the system
in collected data, and distributing data between the defined boundaries.
According to the author, these procedures must be followed because it is crucial
“to ensure the model is capable of fitting data and making predictions throughout the
system.” Nevertheless, in (M. Ishi, J. Patil, and V. Patil, 2022) research, many MOO
algorithms were employed to reduce the number of hyperparameters in ML techniques
for an SS implementation.
An FCS application for SS enhancement using FEn was conducted by (V.
Henrique, R. Massao, and G. Reynoso-Meza, 2021) to lead the final prediction using
input features, following these three steps: data acquisition, model training, and model
validation. Finally, a FEn application for SS with embedded ML methods was presented
by (L. Ma, Y. Liu, and X. Zhang et al., 2019) in CNN and SVM classifiers for the remote-
sensing classifier.
Based on (M. Shapi, N. Ramil, and L. Awalin, 2021), the FEn approach was by
inputting different sets of features in the ML technique to enhance the energy
consumption for a data-driven predictive SS model. According to (T. Grüner, F.
Böllhoff, and R. Meisetschläger et al., 2020), the FEn could transform a time series
into statistical features in a data-driven SS fault detection electromechanically driven
system.
In the (M. Siddiqi, B. Jiang, and R. Asadi et al., 2021) study, a FEn application
was carried out to optimize denoising SS autoencoders, and the authors realized that
hand-crafted FEn would be very difficult. Therefore, they proposed DL employment to
it. On the other hand, another paper (M. Maggipinto, E. Pesavento, and F. Altinier, et
al., 2019) employed, during the FEn phase, the manual filter for transient times,
temporal averages and peaks for washing machines with Data-Driven SS embedded.
The input relevance selection is concerned by (I. Mendia, S. Gil-López, and I.
Landa-Torres, et al., 2022). Their study assigned the Permutation-Based Importance
(PIMP) technique and FEn to select the most relevant Random Forest and Gradient
Boosting inputs in an SS refinery real-time process. Furthermore, the authors (L.
73
Petruschke, J. Walther, and M. Burkhardt et al., 2021) stated that using FEn to improve
a DL application with soft sensors data using logical connections between the identified
features.
A FEn method proposed by (M. Mowbray, T. Savage, and C. Wu et al., 2021)
is based on feature extraction based on the Self-Organising Maps to Discriminant
Index (SOMDI). According to them, “this enables interpretation of the reasons for
classification prediction and provides insight into the biochemical nature of class
differentiation.”
The model prediction using SS with DT is improved by (P. Nkulikiyinka, Y. Yan,
and F. Güleç et al., 2020) research, employing the PCA approach as a FEn technique,
in which each feature of the acquired dataset is submitted to a split-criterion. According
to (R. Forghani, P. Savadjiev, and A. Chatterjee et al., 2019), there are three main
strategies for Feature Selection:
a) Wrapper Methods: these employ classification algorithms to score features
performance;
b) Filtering Methods: filters feature in the pre-processing procedures without using
any classification method;
c) Embedded Methods: the selected features are based on ML algorithms'
performance evaluation over the optimization cost function.
3.8.2 Hyperparameter Tunning in Soft Sensors Implementation
The Hyperparameter Tunning (HT) is presented by (T. Krivec, J. Kocijan, and

M. Perne et al., 2021) to define the maximization of marginal log-likelihood in ML
employing to Data-Driven approach for weather forecasting using temperature SS.
Another HT application is described by (T. Grüner, F. Böllhoff, and R. Meisetschläger
et al., 2020), in which an optimization algorithm changes the parameters in the
activation function and the number of neurons.
A study by (M. Mowbray, T. Savage, and C. Wu et al., 2021) contributed to SS
ensemble learning with the DT algorithm to select the number of trees and the
maximum depth of each decision tree the learning rate. Nevertheless, DL was
employed in (R. Forghani, P. Savadjiev, and A. Chatterjee et al., 2019) paper to
perform prediction using the data-driven SS approach with a CNN. They pointed out a
74
disadvantage in enhancing the performance by employing HT to tune “the number of

convolution filters, the size of the filters, and parameters involved in the pooling.”
An application for cutting machines proposed by (L. Petruschke, J. Walther, and
M. Burkhardt et al., 2021) conducted HT for some parameters, which were turning to
support the SS performance in ANN and CNN activation functions. The washing
machines with a Data-Driven SS-embedded application proposed by (M. Maggipinto,
E. Pesavento, and F. Altinier et al., 2019) showed that Monte Carlo Cross-Validation
for HT increased the SS performance. In conclusion, those applications are apart from
FEn, which acts directly on the dataset.
75
4 BENCHMARK DISCUSSION
The benchmark is a company challenge proposed by AIRBUS, the International

Federation for Automatic Control - IFAC, to identify character flaws in commercial flight
control systems. This subchapter will contextualize the case study and detail the
diagrams the federation provided in R language and Simulink blocks.
4.1 AIRBUS: OFC X IFAC – THE BENCHMARK
According to the technical note of the IFAC benchmark, the flight control
systems (Flight Control System - FCS) are the most important in operation, being
responsible for the control of altitude, trajectory, and speed. In addition, such systems
are among the numerous controllers of the pilot” panel and the actuators, comprising
all the actuator and sensor systems in the avionics system. The great advantage of
this embedded technology is that it allows the application of advanced electronic
control loops on surfaces and must be available for use under any circumstances.
Because of this, fault detection is a critical aspect, given the impact of these
disturbances on aircraft structural modeling. Thus, the mobile mechanism responsible
for detecting oscillatory faults (OFC) can be seen in the illustration in figure 17:
Figure 17 – Chosen Benchmark’s Mechanism
Source: IFAC, 2020.
The figure above shows that the actuator's surface receives analog signals from
the FCC (Flight Control Computer) increased in K units by a proportional block, and
the rod sensor (Rod Sensor) feeds back to the system, closing the loop of control.
According to the authors, such a system must be able to detect low-frequency faults
(below 20Hz). However, other frequencies can be studied in some instances, so only
disturbances located on moving surfaces should be considered.
76
Due to these oscillations' nature, the researchers point to the existence of OFCs
of a “liquid” character that occur when a sinusoidal signal is added to the servo-
controlled signal or “solid” when the sinusoidal signal overlaps the nominal signal.
Thus, it is possible to determine the OFC detection methodology for each described
case. Furthermore, the design requirements of this benchmark are defined by the
authors and summarized in table 11:
Table 11 – Benchmark requirements proposed by IFAC

BENCHMARK’s REQUIREMENTS
1 Minimum possible amplitude signals must be detected.
2 Signals with a frequency between 1 and 10hz must be detected.
Fault signals must be detected with at least three oscillation periods regardless
3
of the OFC frequency.
4 Liquid or solid flaws must be detected.
5 Control and measurement signals from the sensor must be detected.
The fault detection system must not produce false alarms under the following
circumstances:
6 a) Normal flight with or without turbulence of any level;
b) Control input in step, sinusoidal or chirp-type signals (which increase in
frequency as a function of time).
This table summarizes the main requirements of the Customer Optical

Benchmark (AIRBUS) to assist in solving such a critical problem in electronic flight
control systems. Thus, the software to be developed must take these aspects into
account.
4.2 THE MODEL SYSTEM: DIAGRAMS AND CODE
For emulation of the benchmark in a virtual environment, some Simulink

diagrams and codes in R language were provided, containing classes of parameters
for emulation that must be selected to confirm the robustness of the software
developed to meet the criteria in table 4. In this way, the Simulink diagram is shown in
figure 18:
77
Figure 18 – Benchmark Simulink Diagram
Source: IFAC, adapted by the author, 2022.
Figure 18 makes it possible to observe the process simulation plant in the

Simulink macroscopically with several data being sent to the MatLab work area,
considering turbulence and other variables that can cause OFCs. Such a plant can be
subdivided into four main modules: flight path control, load factor control, servo
simulator oscillation detection over surfaces, and the aircraft turbulence dynamics
simulator.
4.2.1 Flight Trajectory Angle Control Module
According to the benchmark report, this module will receive the settings
informed by the user about the flight path angle and define, through a switch, the
aircraft path control mode depending on the mode chosen by the user, among them:
“FPA_CONTROL”, ”NZ_STEP”, “NZ_SIN” and “NZ_CHIRP”. Then, respectively being
converted to numbers depending on the selection mode in the Aircraft class, this
diagram is presented in figure 19:
78
Figure 19 – Simulink diagram of the trajectory control module
In this way, the control signal is selected between control by the Function Point
Analysis – FPA, control by unit step signals, control with proportional sine signal, or
control by the signal of the Chirp type whose frequency increases with time. With this,
the signals are sent to the load factor control block.
4.2.2 Load Factor Control Module
In the last sub-chapter, the term “load factor” was presented, which can be
understood as the total ratio between the force imposed by the air resistance and the
force proportional to the weight of the aircraft. Therefore, this variable is proportional
to the speed and the flight angle, according to the private pilot ground school (2006).
Therefore, this variable impacts the flight dynamics and can be changed through the
deflection of the airplane's actuators.
On the other hand, this module commands the control surface deflection by
measuring the load factor (first feedback) and gyroscope measurements to measure
the angulation rate of each axis (second feedback) to control the flight angle. With that
defined, figure 20 shows the load control block:
79
Figure 20 – Simulink diagram of load f actor control module
The diagram in figure 20 shows that the controller receives a command signal
from the previous block in a saturator. This signal is distributed to a proportional gain
block and another branch to a proportional-integral block, and both are added to two
feedbacks (explained in figure 17). Such signals enter the load control module's
transfer function to command the servo simulator block to the wobble detection
surface. It is worth noting that the “Nz_cmd” block stores the control signals sent by
the angle control module after saturation, that is, the signal that arrives in the
proportional and proportional-integral gain systems.
80
4.2.3 Detection Surface Servo Command Simulator (Real Servo)
These block models the behavior of the control surface servo system, employing
an actuator and a rod-type sensor to measure the deflection. The control command is
received by the “delta_des” variable and sent to the workspace by the 2D array variable
defined as “dx_comm”. The block output is the estimated deflection on the control
surface measured by the rod-type sensor. Finally, the “Real Servo” module is fed back
with the “delta” signal from the exact measurement of the rod sensor deflection without
considering the sensor noise. To illustrate such situations, figure 21 below shows the
Simulink diagram connecting all the variables and blocks described:
Figure 21 – Simulink diagram servo control simulator
It is shown in figure 21 that the “servo” block sends an array to the workspace
containing the control command, the deflection measured by the sensor, and the
deflection measurement without the sensor noise simulation. This module is detailed
in the diagram in figure 22:
81
Figure 22 – Simulink Diagram “Real Servo”
The diagram in figure 22 presents that the control signal from the load factor
controller passes through a saturator and a change rate limiter, keeping it within
acceptable limits for real situations. After these steps, the rod sensor angle signal is
converted to position and inserted into input 1 of the “plant 1” block and, in the second
input, the “delta” output feedback. The diagram of the “plant 1” module, responsible for
simulating the dynamics of the sensor positioning system as a function of the control
loop performance and the noise-free feedback “p_des” can be seen in figure 23:
Figure 23 – Sensor Position Process Plant Simulink Module
Figure 23 shows the blocks that emulated the flight system identification under
adverse conditions in the Simulink model. The “F_aero” signal is convoluted with the
last corrected sensor position signal and transformed into a binary signal, which can
be 1 or -1 depending on the sensor reading. According to the benchmark organizers,
the oscillatory fault can be produced by the output of the servo command and feeding
82
the closed positioning control loop. Such modeling is presented in Figure 18. The
authors obtain the simulated position of the rod sensor “Rod_Sensor,” and “rod_pos”
are sensor positions. However, one is given without noise (ideal situation) to feed back
the main simulation loop and the other with noise, simulating a natural process.
4.2.4 Aircraft Turbulence Dynamics Simulator
Meanwhile, the module that simulates the turbulence of the system is presented
in the Simulink diagram in figure 24:
Figure 24 – Simulink diagram f or turbulence simulation
In this step, a selector receives the turbulence mode selected by the user, which
can be without turbulence (number zero), with slight turbulence (number one),
moderate turbulence (number two), or severe turbulence (number three). These
variables contain the “.mat” extension because they are stored in MatLab® files
containing real turbulence data series classified in the groups presented above. Then,
the signals are divided into three in demultiplexer, and two are sent to the diagram in
figure 18. Meanwhile, the other signals have amplitudes multiplied by a gain “1/V_trim”,
a turbulence parameter, and a deflection angle parameter. Then, the received is
converted from radians to degrees; in this way, the signal is again multiplexed and sent
to a closed loop with other gains and an integrator for reconditioning the turbulence
signal through the Von Karman turbulence model, natively available by MatLab®. With
the turbulence generation block explained, the final part of the diagram can be
83
presented, in which the data is filtered and sent to the workspace, as shown in Figure
25:
Figure 25 – Simulink diagram f or the presentation of results
At the end of the process, the data is received by a demultiplexer block, which
transforms a batch of data into parallel signals that, in turn, are sent to the process
loop feedback, filters, or directly sent to the work area, thus becoming available for use
or query.
84
5 PARTIAL RESULTS: THE CRITICAL ANALYSIS
This work, based on RSL, resulted in a Soft Sensor implementation on the fault
detection benchmark presented. Hence this critical analysis will be divided in to five
parts. First, starting with the SLR results summarized in section 5.1, software
development for Soft Sensor in 5.2, MATLAB® integration with Python language in 5.3,
the results found by each of the applied methods (SVM, MLP, and DT) in the 5.4
section, and the demand for feature engineering into th is benchmark solution in 5.5.
5.1 SYSTEMATIC LITERATURE REVIEW RESULTS
The SLR conduction presented 59 relevant papers to this research field and
answered the guideline questions proposed back in table 1. The process started by
defining the ten procedures explored in section 2.2, with relevant study areas being
the first. Then the research guideline questions were proposed, and the keywords were
defined in step one, then mixed to generate research strings to browse over the
Science Direct engine.
The first search resulted in 2,153 papers found, and by applying the Inclusion
and Exclusion Criteria proposed in step seven in table 4, this number was reduced to
109 papers. Hence, the classification criteria browsed their abstracts following the
table’s seven criteria, and only 59 articles remained in the leading research.
After this research over every paper, each one of the questions was answered
and contributed to the global understanding of SS, ML techniques, Industry 4.0, and
Feature Engineering. Figure 26 presents the general frequency percentage of each
question:
Figure 26 – Percentage of Questions Answered by the Papers
Q.04
15%
Q.01
35%
Q.03
32%
Q.02
18%
Q.01 Q.02 Q.03 Q.04

85
These papers were read and submitted to table 1 questions, their main
contribution, and if they presented any relevant Soft Sensor definition that could
improve the State of the Art. Notably, only 28.81% of papers presented some SS
definition, and less than 40% explored feature engineering at the required level.
Nevertheless, the contribution of each paper achieves the letter “C” specific
objective by presenting relevant information about research areas and presenting each
paper’s primary information to substantiate the SLR.
5.2 SOFT SENSOR: THE SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT
The Soft Sensor software development started in the final control and
automation engineering project, presented by (M. Feliciano and G. Reynoso-Meza,
2020), with a different purpose: to be a commercial software that provides real-time
graphs and detailed datasheets with acquired data. Due to this reason, it presents a
Graphical User Interface (GUI), which can be seen in figure 27:
Figure 27 – Sof t Sensor Sof tware GUI
Source: M. Feliciano, G. Reynoso-Meza, 2020.
Figure 27 GUI allows the user to configure the parameters for simulation and
set the folder where the models of the Simulink™ or data acquisition file are located.
Then, presents to the user the steps performed, plotting the graphs in real-time or
simulating the real-time process in the case of emulation . The benchmark button, in
86
addition to asking the user the directory where the data is, also enables the 'start'
button and a combo box to choose the case study.
In the next step, the user defines the OFC source, divided into four groups:
'current' or 'cs_current' to measure sensor amplitude and variance (bias) in mA
(milliamps) or 'sensor' or 'cs_sensor' to measure these quantities in millimeters. With
the source defined, the types of OFCs must be provided, among them: 'none'
(parameterizes some variables to null), 'liquid' (when a sinusoidal signal is added to
the servo-controlled signal) or 'solid' (when a sinusoid is superimposed the nominal
signal of the disturbance). The user must then choose the type of turbulence that can
be classified between: 'none', which does not generate turbulence, 'light' which is slight
turbulence, 'moderate' which causes moderate turbulence in the simulation ; or 'severe'
which will generate turbulence severe in the emulated system.
After defining the turbulence, the user chooses the type of control to be applied
to the plant, the first of which is the FPA control mode 'FPA_Control', which works with
an analysis function of past points to correct the current output in the closed loop. The
'NZ_STEP' type works with unit step control, 'NZ_Chirp' uses a sine signal with variable
frequency, and 'NZ_Sine,' whose control signal is given through a sinusoid. It is worth
mentioning that all control signals act together with the blocks shown in figure 20.
With this configured, the user must set the wave amplitude, the sensor error or
variance, and the OFC frequency that will be worked on in the case study (in actual
cases, this parameter will be provided by itself). Hence, the user proceeds to the final
parameterization phase, where the benchmark dataset and the training method are
defined. Such methods are Support Vector Machine (SVM), Decision Tree (DT), or
Multi-Layer Perceptron (representative of the neural network family). Before starting,
the user must provide the total simulation time or, if it is data acquisition, the software
interprets it as infinite. With all these variables defined, table 12 can be presented,
which explains each parameter:
87
Table 12 – Sof tware scenario parameters

POSSIBLE
PARAMETER DESCRIPTION
VALUES
sensor
Rod sensor in millimeters.
cs_sensor
OFC Source
current
Rod sensor with mA measure.
cs_current
none No OFC.
OFC with sine signal added to the servo-
OFC Type liquid
controlled signal
The sinusoidal signal overrides the
solid
nominal signal of the disturbance
none No turbulence
Light turbulence, with real light

Light
turbulence data
Turbulence Type
Moderate turbulence, with actual
Moderate
moderate turbulence data
Severe turbulence, with real data of
Severe
severe turbulence
Control by the recursive point analysis
FPA_Control
function
NZ_step Controlled by step functions
Control Type
NZ_chirp Control with a varied frequency signal
NZ_sine Constant frequency sine signal control
Angular amplitude measured by the

Amplitude (0.01,10) mm / mA
sensor
(0.001,1.25) mm / Measurement sensor error, given in the

Sensor bias
mA unit as a function of the source
Frequency of the disturbance, entered

by the user in simulations or imposed by
OFC Frequency (0.1π, 20π) rad
real usage situations in the case of real
applications.
Source: M. Feliciano, G. Reynoso-Meza, 2020.
88
5.3 MATHLAB® AND PYTHON INTEGRATION
Once the parameters are converted to start the simulation in the specific case
study of this project, Python starts the MatLab® API, and it is possible to execute
commands through the code inside a virtual workspace, declaring all the variables
used in the simulation within Simulink. MathWorks developed the used library, and can
be installed by downloading their engine API, not via “pip install.”
The average computational cost to open the MATLAB® API on the computer
proposed in subchapter 1.4.2 is approximately 5 seconds, and that of emulating the
case study plant in Simulink is around 3 seconds for processes of 5 to 60 seconds in
duration in simulation.
The data loading function sends commands through the API and creates a
virtual environment that emulates the avionics system on Simulink™. Therefore, it is
necessary to employ techniques to emulate the obtained datasets being used in the
case of real-time data acquisition, in which case the graph construction functions
remain. However, the inputs will be received directly from MATLAB®. The complete
running process of this software is presented in the diagram in figure 28:
Figure 28 – Feature Engineering Framework Workf low
The framework workflow presented in figure 28 starts with an input in the

interface to set up all parameters for simulation in MATLAB® Simulink™. Then, the
Feature Engineering methods are employed for data acquired from the API channel,
selecting, extracting, and filtering the most relevant features from data in real-time.
89
Meanwhile, the communication with Python occurs throughout API, and the data flows
from simulation directly to the ML methods implemented.
In this preliminary case study, SVM, DT, and MLP methods were implemented
using the sklearn library. However, many other ML or optimization methods can be
employed. Python language was chosen due to its versatility to be employed on Cloud
Computing applications and aeronautics solutions, as shown in 3.5.4 and 3.5.2, related
to SS implementations. Hence, the processed data from the process simulation is
stored in a Maria DB database instance, which runs locally. However, it can run in the
cloud and be processed remotely in real-time.
The developed interface presents user graphs, as shown in figure 27, using
simulation data after FEn and ML application over a time series model to identify and
display the possible Oscillatory Failure Cases. These are presented as red crosses in
figure 29:
Figure 29 – OFC Identif ication in Benchmark Simulation Example
Figure 29 shows an example of OFC identification with the proposed framework

before using FEn for improving data features in the ML method. Nevertheless, reports
in PDF (Portable Document Format) and Excel plans in ‘.xlsx’ format can be exported
from software for further use in other studies.
90
5.4 BENCHMARK TESTING
In this phase, the results produced by the software will be presented. These
results include a report on the steps performed by the software, a summary of general
data, a report highlighting only the failures that have occurred, and an exported chart
in image format. The experiment will be conducted by analyzing three variations of
parameters for each of the classifiers mentioned above, as shown in Table 13:
Table 13 – Experiment scenarios and their parameters

Scenario
Parameters
Ideal Light Moderate Stormy
OFC Source Sensor
OFC Type None Liquid Solid Liquid
Turbulence None Light Moderate Severe
Control type FPA_Control
Amplitude (mA) 0,10 0,50 1,50 3,00
Bias (mA) 0,01 0,10 0,30 1,00
Frequency (rad/s) 3,0π 1,5π 0,5π 0,1π

Time (s) 10
From table 13, one can infer that the oscillation source is kept constant as it
would not be meaningful to change the source while observing how the methods
evaluate failures, and changing the control method would not be viable either.
However, other variables compose the different scenarios. For example, the OFC type
influences the process by introducing sinusoidal signals into the response simulation,
causing more unstable scenarios. Turbulence also increases the possibility of failures.
The parameter of oscillation amplitude affects the accuracy of the Machine
Learning (ML) method in measuring the signals. The higher the amplitude, the better
the response from the method should be. As the scenario becomes more unstable, the
oscillation amplitude increases, making it more imprecise. This scenario challenges
the methods by evaluating them in emulated scenarios in MATLAB® Simulink.
Lastly, the oscillation frequency decreases as the scenario worsens. Therefore,
low amplitudes are more critical when it comes to measuring oscillatory failures, as
explained by the benchmark proposers.
91
5.5 THE ML METHODS APPLICATION IN SS DEVELOPMENT RESULTS
The main results obtained by the software were developed in response to the
objective of generating this project to present the best among the three implemented
methods (SVM, DT, and MLP). Therefore, the control surface deflection amplitude and
sensor amplitude will be evaluated in degrees per each scenario and ML method, as
the identified failure percentage, without considering error type 1 and error type 2,
which will be considered only in the last column.
For that, four scenarios were emulated in each of the methods implemented in
the software. The main variables as the maximum amplitude of the control command
and the sensor deflection response, the number of identified failures, and the
performance in the confusion matrix will be aspects discussed in the analysis of table
14 to determine the best identification method given by the confusion matrix trace:
Table 14 – Experiment Results

EXPERIMENT RESULTS
Machine Control Identif ied Conf usion
Sensor
Learning Scenario Surf ace Failure Matrix
Amplitude
Method Amplitude Percentage Perf ormance
Ideal 0.0075° 0.164° 10.00% 55.00%
Light 0.12° 0.50° 33.50% 44.00%

Decision Tree
Moderate 33° 50° 56.25% 57.50%
Severe 1.29° 2.40° 64.25% 49.75%
Ideal 0.0225° 0.15° 0.00% 55.00%

Support Vector Light 0.12° 0.47° 0.00% 31.50%
Machine
SVM Moderate 50° 32° 1.50% 45.25%
Severe 1.28° 2.26° 0.00% 53.50%
Neural Ideal 0.0075° 0.161° 100.00% 45.00%

Networks:
Light 0.12° 0.45° 100.00% 68.50%
MultiLayer
Perceptron Moderate 50° 34° 100.00% 64.25%
MPL
Severe 1.59° 2.25° 100.00% 46.50%
Ideal 0.012° 0.155° 48.25%
MatLab: Light 0.15° 0.51° 68.75%

REFERENCE
Decision Tree Moderate 31° 50° 64.00%
Severe 1.18° 1.56° 46.75%

Source: M. Feliciano, G. Reynoso -Meza, 2020.
92
As evidenced in table 13, the three methods were tested in the four scenarios
and observed in the confusion matrices condensed in the table above. Furthermore,
the amplitude columns of the control command and sensor reading range are
considered to ensure that the scenarios are not biased. Moreover, the fifth column
contains the percentage of failures identified in the 400 data emulated in each test is
10 seconds of simulation. Finally, the performance according to the confusion matrix
is presented in the last column based on the matrix trace. The construction of this
column is given through the data considered ideal, obtained by the Decision Tree
classifier implemented in MatLab® with the help of specific toolboxes.
Regarding the methods discussed in table 13, starting with MPL, it is clear that this
method was the most assertive because 100% of the analyzed data were identified as
failures. However, this is due to the bias of considering all data failures. This fact can
cause the user to be unreliable in the software because, as 100% of the data are given
as failures, there is no way to identify which ones are and which are not in real
situations, with this method becoming unfeasible for this project.
On the other hand, the SVM method considers most data as non -faults, even
when they are present. Unfortunately, fault tolerance presents one of the greatest
dangers in the aerospace engineering scenarios where this case study takes place.
Thus, the number of false negatives is alarming and causes the impossibility of this
method for application in the benchmark. Furthermore, the collision with the error in a
classification method cannot be considered.
However, the Decision Tree method, implemented in Python, proved reliable
since it identified OFCs consistent with the reference used in practically all scenarios.
It presented a few false negatives, representing the failures where they were. Another
essential characteristic is its low accuracy (Table 13) for identifying false positives,
pointing out flaws in data that did not fail for OFC classification.
Thus, with the results arranged for analysis, considering the weight of the
average of false positives (error type I) obtained at 20%, this data is relevant because
it presents the number of failures identified but did not exist. While the weight of false
negatives (error type II) was assigned to 50%, as it is more critical to identify faults than
not, the higher weight is considered in this scenario. The remaining 30% refers to the
average precision of the methods for each scenario, so the weighting field is obtained
93
by adding the three weights weighted by the percentages described above. Therefore,
table 14 shows each one of the methods summarizing what is described in table 15:
Table 15 – Critical Analysis of Obtained Results

Critical Analysis of Obtained Results
Ranking ML Technique Error Type I Error type II Accuracy
1° Decision Tree 30.63% 17.81% 49.06%
Support Vector
2° 5.00% 52.44% 46.31%
Machine
Multi-Layer
3° 43.94% 0.00% 57.81%
Perceptron
Source: M. Feliciano, G. Reynoso -Meza, 2020.
As can be seen from table 14, due to the SVM having identified few failures in
every scenario, its number of false positives is minimal, and the opposite is true for the
MLP method, which identified all data as failures, not scoring false negatives. However,
the DT method presented many false positives and a good slice of false negatives.
Finally, as a result of this analysis, it can be said that the only machine learning method
among the three analyzed (DT, SVM, and MLP) that is reliable for application to the
case study proposed by AirBus to IFAC is the DT.
With the exception that it is possible to work on feature engineering (According
to Annex C) of the learning dataset so that the classification presents a sharper
performance, this feature may result from future work. Although the software in the
MVP version will still have the other classifiers in this way due to the possibility of
acquiring data in real-time, the methods that did not present satisfactory performance
may be re-evaluated for other processes.
5.6 THE DEMAND FOR FEATURE ENGINEERING IN SS
After evaluating the results presented in table 14 and having the (V. Ribeiro, R.
Kagami, and G. Reynoso-Meza, 2020) conclusion about DT results over this
benchmark, feature engineering employment became a growing demand. Hence, they
provided a block diagram for Simulink™ implementation in the discrete domain, using
the Z transformation to improve the feature selection in this study case, as shown in
figure 30:
94
Figure 30 – Feature Engineering Block Diagram f or Simulink™ Implementation
Source: V. Ribeiro, R. Kagami, and G. Reynoso-Meza, 2020.
In this sense, at least ten resources are created for each input signal, totaling a
window with forty data processed by blocks of moving average, moving variance,
moving average square, and even zero detection. The data production block capable
of training the model uses the methods of the block above. It guarantees the quality of
the information acquired by some genuine sensor, which may be of the rod type, and
the techniques were responsible for guaranteeing a reliable training base.
95
5.7 EMPLOYING FEATURE ENGINEERING TO THE DATASET
To employ feature engineering to the presented dataset in real time,
5.8 TRAINING DECISION TREE WITH THE FEATURED DATASET
5.9 IDENTIFYING OFCS WITH FEN IN THE ACQUIRED DATA
5.10 PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS

96
6 DISCUSSION
This chapter will discuss the future activities to conclude the master’s degree
dissertation in detail in 6.1 and specify the schedule with every stride planned to reach
the objectives and the main research question in 6.2.
97
7 CONCLUSION
98
REFERENCES
A. Blažič, I. Škrjanc, V. Logar. Soft sensor of bath temperature in an electric arc furnace
based on a data-driven Takagi–Sugeno fuzzy model. Applied Soft Computing, v.
113, n. 1, p. 1-11, 2021.
A. Gal-Tzur, S. Bekhor, Y. Barsky. Feature engineering methodology for congestion
forecasting. Journal of Traffic and Transportation Engineering (English Edition), v. 1,
n. 1, p, 1-14, 2022.
A. Gejji, S. Shukla, S. Pimparkar, et al. Using a support vector machine for building a
quality prediction model for center-less honing process. Procedia Manufacturing, v.
46, n. 2019, p. 600-607, 2020.
A. Guzman-urbina, K. Ouchi, H. Ohno, et al. FIEMA, a system of fuzzy inference and
emission analytics for sustainability-oriented chemical process design. Applied Soft
Computing, v. 126, n. 1, p. 1-16, 2022.
A. Hicks, M. Johnston, M. Mowbray, et al. A two-step multivariate statistical learning
approach for batch process soft sensing. Digital Chemical Engineering, v. 1, n.
October, p. 1-8, 2021.
A. Lew, M. Buehler. Encoding and exploring latent design space of optimal material
structures via a VAE-LSTM model. Forces in Mechanics, v. 5, n. 1, p. 1-8, 2021.
A. Mayr, D. Kißkalt, A. Lomakin, et al. Towards an intelligent linear winding process
through sensor integration and machine learning techniques. Procedia CIRP, v. 96, n.
1, p. 80-85, 2020.
A, Nightingale. A guide to systematic literature reviews, Surg, v. 27, n. 1, p. 381–384,
2009.
A. Theissler, J. Pérez-Velázquez, M. Kettelgerdes, et al. Predictive maintenance
enabled by machine learning: Use cases and challenges in the automotive industry.
Reliability Engineering and System Safety, v. 215, n. 1, p. 1-21, 2021.
A. Tsopanoglou, I. Jiménez del Val. Moving towards an era of hybrid modelling:
advantages and challenges of coupling mechanistic and data-driven models for
upstream pharmaceutical bioprocesses. Current Opinion in Chemical Engineering,
v. 32, n. 1, p. 1-8, 2021.
A. Zolghadri, J. Cieslak, D. Efimov, et al. Signal and model-based fault detection for
aircraft systems. IFAC-PapersOnLine, v. 28, n. 21, p, 1096-1101, 2015.
B. Maschler, S. Ganssloser, A. Hablizel, et al. Deep learning based soft sensors for
industrial machinery. Procedia CIRP, v. 99, n. 1, p. 662-667, 2021.
B. Negash, L. Tufa, R. Marappagounder, et al. Conceptual Framework for Using
System Identification in Reservoir Production Forecasting. Procedia Engineering, v.
148, n. 1, p. 878-886, 148.
99
B. Schumucker, F. Trautwein, R. Hartl, et al. Online Parameterization of a Milling Force

Model using an Intelligent System Architecture and Bayesian Optimization. Procedia
CIRP, v. 107, n. 1, p. 1041-1046, 2022.
C. Alarcon, C. Shene. Fermentation 4.0, a case study on computer vision, soft sensor,
connectivity, and control applied to the fermentation of a thraustochytrid. Computers
in Industry, v. 128, n. 1, p. 1-10, 2021.
C. Chang, C. Lin. LIBSVM: A Library for Support Vector Machines. Department of
Computer Science National. Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan . v. 2022. n. 1. p.1-40,
2001. Available at: <https://www.csie.ntu.edu.tw/~cjlin/papers/libsvm.pdf>. Accessed
in Sep. 2022.
C. Joshi, R. Ranjan, V. Bharti. A Fuzzy Logic based feature engineering approach for
Botnet detection using ANN. Journal of King Saud University - Computer and
Information Sciences, v. 1, n. 1, p, 1-11, 2021.
C. Kumar, S. Chatterjee, T. Oommen, et al. Automated lithological mapping by
integrating spectral enhancement techniques and machine learning algorithms using
AVIRIS-NG hyperspectral data in Gold-bearing granite-greenstone rocks in Hutti,
India. International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation.
Hyderabad: India. v.86, n.01, p.1-15, 2020.
C. Li, Y. Chen, Y.Shang. A review of industrial big data for decision making in intelligent
manufacturing. Engineering Science and Technology, an International Journal, v.
29, n. 1, p. 1-12, 2022.
D. Aguado, G. Noriega-Hevia, J. Ferrer, et al. PLS-based soft-sensor to predict
ammonium concentration evolution in hollow fibre membrane contactors for nitrogen
recovery. Journal of Water Process Engineering, v. 47, n. March, p. 1-7, 2022.
D. Coelho, D. Costa, E. Rocha, et al. Predictive maintenance on sensorized stamping
presses by time series segmentation, anomaly detection, and classification algorithms.
Procedia Computer Science, v. 200, n. 2019, p. 1184-1193, 2022.
D. Gibert, J. Planes, C. Mateu et al. Fusing feature engineering and deep learning: A
case study for malware classification. Expert Systems with Applications, v. 207, n.
June, p.1-18, 2022.
D. Moher, A. Liberati, J. Tetzlaff, et al. Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic
Reviews and Meta-Analyses: The PRISMA Statement, PLoS Med, v. 6, p. 264–269,
2015.
D. Ntamo, E. Lopez-Montero, J. Mack, et al. Industry 4.0 in Action: Digitalization of a
Continuous Process Manufacturing for Formu lated Products. Digital Chemical
Engineering, v. 3, n. February, p. 1-10, 2022.
D. Parmenter. Key Performance Indicators (KPI): Developing, Implementing, and
Using Winning KPIs. 2 ed. Hoboken: New Jersey, USA. 2010. p.320.
100
E. Jalee, K. Aparna. Neuro-fuzzy Soft Sensor Estimator for Benzene Toluene

Distillation Column. Procedia Technology, v. 25, n. Raerest, p. 92-99, 2016.
Elon Musk - I think it's very important to have feedback... - BrainyQuote.
https://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/elon_musk_567271.
E. Roels, S. Terryn, J. Brancart, et al. Self-healing sensorized soft robots. Materials
Today Electronics, v. 1, n. March, p. 1-14, 2022.
F. Burkowski. Evolutionary Optimization Through PAC Learning. Foundations of
Genetic Algorithms. Waterloo: Canada, v.06, n.01, 2000. p.185-207.
F. Chiarello, P. Belingheri, G. Fantoni. Data science for engineering design: State of
the art and future directions. Computers in Industry, v. 129, n. 1, p, 1-17, 2021.
F. Hoppe, J. Hohmann, M. Knoll, et al. Feature-based supervision of shear cutting
processes based on force measurements: Evaluation of feature engineering and
feature extraction. Procedia Manufacturing, v. 34, n. 1, p, 847-856, 2019.
F. Lewis, S. Jagannathan, A. Yeşildirek. Chapter 7 - Neural Network Control of Robot
Arms and Nonlinear Systems. Neural Systems for Control, v. 1, n. 1, p. 161-211,
1997.
F. Souza, A. Francisco, R. Araújo, et al. Review of Soft Sensors Methods for
Regression Applications Francisco. Chemometrics and Intelligent Laboratory
Systems. v.152, n.01, 2016. p.69-79.
G. Dorgo, T. Kulcsar, J. Abonyi. Genetic programming-based symbolic regression for
goal-oriented dimension reduction. Chemical Engineering Science, v. 244, n. 1, p.
1-12, 2021.
G. van Kollenburg, J. van Es, J. Gerretzen, et al. Understanding chemical production
processes by using PLS path model parameters as soft sensors. Computers and
Chemical Engineering, v. 139, n. 1, p. 1-8, 2020.
G. van Kollenburg, R. Bouman, T. Offermans, et al. Process PLS: Incorporating
substantive knowledge into the predictive modelling of multiblock, multistep,
multidimensional and multicollinear process data manuscript revision printed in blue.
Computers and Chemical Engineering, v. 154, n. 1, p. 1-15, 2021.
H. Pacco. Simulation of temperature control and irrigation time in the production of
tulips using Fuzzy logic. Procedia Computer Science, v. 200, n. 1, p, 1-12, 2022.
H. Paggi, J. Soriano, V. Rampérez, et al. A distributed soft sensors model for managing
vague and uncertain multimedia communications using information fusion techniques.
Journal of Chemical Information and Modeling, v. 61, n. 7, p. 5517-5528, 2013.
H. Snyder. Literature review as a research methodology: An overview and guidelines.
Journal of Business Research. Oslo, V.104, n.01, 333-339 p, nov. 2019. Disponível
em: < https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2019.07.039>. Acesso em 08 Mai. 2020.
I. Mendia, S. Gil-López, I. Landa-Torres, et al. Machine learning based adaptive soft
sensor for flash point inference in a refinery real-time process. Results in
Engineering, v. 13, n. January, p. 1-8, 2022.
101
J. Brownlee. Machine Learning Mastery with Python: Understand Your Data, Create
Accurate Models, and Work Projects End-to-End. Machine Learning Mastery, San
Francisco. v. 1, p. 1-249, 2016.
J. Engelbrecht, P. Goupil. Technical Note describing the joint Airbus-Stellenbosch
University Industrial Benchmark on Fault Detection. Aerospace Industrial
Benchmark on Fault Detection, v. 1, n. 1, p. 1-15, 2020.
J. Jang. Fuzzy Modeling Using Generalized Neural Networks and Kalman Filter
Algorithm. Association for The Advancement of Artificial Intelligence (AAAI).
Berkeley, USA. v.32, n.01, 1991. p.762-767.
J. Kabugo, S. Jämsä-Jounela, R. Schiemann, et al. Industry 4.0 based process data
analytics platform: A waste-to-energy plant case study. International Journal of
Electrical Power and Energy Systems, v. 115, n. November, p. 1-18, 2020.
J. Quinlan. "Induction of decision trees" (PDF). Machine Learning. 1: 81–106. 1986.

J. Schimitt, J. Bönig, T. Borggräfe, et al. Predictive model-based quality inspection
using Machine Learning and Edge Cloud Computing. Advanced Engineering
Informatics, v. 45, n. May, p. 1-10, 2020.
I. Kononenko, M. Kukar. Chapter 14 - **Computational Learning Theory. Machine
Learning and Data Mining, Woodhead Publishing, v. 1, n. 1, p. 393-422, 2007.
K. Ranasinghe, R. Sabatini, A. Gardi, et al. Advances in Integrated System Health
Management for mission-essential and safety-critical aerospace applications.
Progress in Aerospace Sciences, v. 128, n. September, p. 1-39, 2021.
K. Rastogi, D. Lohani. IoT-based Indoor Occupancy Estimation Using Edge
Computing. Procedia Computer Science, v. 171, n. 2019, p. 1943-1952, 2019.
L. Breiman, J. Friedman, R. Olshen, et al. Classification, and Regression Trees.
Wadsworth, Belmont, CA, 1984.
L. Fortuna, S. Graziani, A. Rizzo, et al. Soft Sensors for Monitoring and Control of
Industrial Processes. London: Springer-Verlag, 2014. v.53. 271 p.
L. Günther, S. Kärcher, T. Bauernhansl. Activity recognition in manual manufacturing:
Detecting screwing processes from sensor data. Procedia CIRP, v. 81, n. 1, p. 1177-
1182, 2019.
L. Ma, Y. Liu, X. Zhang, et al. Deep learning in remote sensing applications: A meta-
analysis and review. ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, v. 152,
n. March, p. 166-177, 2019.
L. Petruschke, J. Walther, M. Burkhardt, et al. Machine learning based identification of
energy states of metal cutting machine tools using load profiles. Procedia CIRP, v.
104, n. 1, p. 357-362, 2021.
L. Ramona, et al. PHOTONAI—A Python API for Rapid Machine Learning Model
Development. PLoS One, vol. 16, no. 7, Public Library of Science, p. 25-62, 2021.
102
M. Abdar, F. Pourpanah, S. Hussain, et al. A review of uncertainty quantification in

deep learning: Techniques, applications and challenges. Information Fusion, v. 76,
n. 1, p. 243-297, 2022.
M. Abdel-Basset, H. Hawash, K. Sallam, et al. STLF-Net: Two-stream deep network
for short-term load forecasting in residential buildings. Journal of King Saud
University - Computer and Information Sciences, v. 34, n. 7, p. 4296-4311, 2022.
M. Bambach, M. Imram, I. Sizova, et al. A soft sensor for property control in multi-stage
hot forming based on a level set formulation of grain size evolution and machine
learning. Advances in Industrial and Manufacturing Engineering, v. 2, n. February,
p. 1-13, 2021.
M. Barton, B. Lennox. Model stacking to improve prediction and variable importance
robustness for soft sensor development. Digital Chemical Engineering, v. 3, n.
February, p. 1-13, 2022.
M. Ishi, J. Patil, V. Patil. An efficient team prediction for one day international matches
using a hybrid approach of CS-PSO and machine learning algorithms. Array, v. 14, n.
February, p. 1-12, 2022.
M. Feliciano, G. Reynoso-Meza. Soft Sensors: Virtual Sensors Applied to
Engineering problems. Final Project (Control and Automation Engineering Degree)
– Polytechnic School, Pontifical Catholic University of Parana (PUCPR). Curitiba, PR
– Brasil, p.170. 2020.
M. Maggipinto, E. Pesavento, F. Altinier, et al. Laundry fabric classification in vertical
axis washing machines using data-driven soft sensors. Energies, v. 12, n. 21, p. 1-14,
2019.
M. Mowbray, T. Savage, C. Wu, et al. Machine learning for biochemical engineering:
A review. Biochemical Engineering Journal, v. 172, n. May, p. 1-22, 2021.
M. Shapi, N. Ramil, L. Awalin. Energy consumption prediction by using machine
learning for smart building: Case study in Malaysia. Developments in the Built
Environment, v. 5, n. November, p. 1-14, 2021.
M. Siddiqi, B. Jiang, R. Asadi, et al. Hyperparameter tuning to optimize
implementations of denoising autoencoders for imputation of missing Spatio-temporal
data. Procedia Computer Science, v. 184, n. 2020, p. 107-114, 2021.
M. Tabba, A. Brahmi, B. Chouri, et al. Contribution to the implementation of an
industrial digitization platform for level detection. Procedia Computer Science, v. 191,
n. 1, p. 457-462, 2021.
M. Zaghloul, G. Achari. A review of mechanistic and data-driven models of aerobic
granular sludge. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering, v. 91, n. March,
p. 1-57, 2022.
N. Mapes, C. Rodriguez, P. Chowriappa, et al. Residue Adjacency Matrix Based
Feature Engineering for Predicting Cysteine Reactivity in Proteins. Computational and
Structural Biotechnology Journal, v. 17, n. 1, p, 90-100, 2019.
103
N. Tvenge, O. Ogorodnyk, N. Østbø, et al. Added value of a virtual approach to

simulation-based learning in a manufacturing learning factory. Procedia CIRP, v. 88,
n. 1, p. 36-41, 2020.
O. Fisher, N. Watson, J. Escrig, et al. Considerations, challenges and opportunities
when developing data-driven models for process manufacturing systems. Computers
and Chemical Engineering, v. 140, n. 1, p. 1-14, 2020.
P. Bezak, P. Bozek, Y. Nikitin. Advanced Robotic Grasping System Using Deep
Learning. Procedia Engineering, v. 96, n. 1, p, 10-20, 2014.
P. Domingos. The master algorithm: How the quest for the ultimate learning machine
will remake our world. 1 ed. Basic Books: New York, USA. 2015. 330 p.
P. Goupi, S. Urbano, J. Tourneret. A Data-Driven Approach to Detect Faults in the
Airbus Flight Control System. IFAC-PapersOnLine, v. 49, n. 17, p, 52-57, 2016.
P. Nkulikiyinka, Y. Yan, F. Güleç, et al. Prediction of sorption enhanced steam methane
reforming products from machine learning based soft-sensor models. Energy and AI,
v. 2, n. 1, p. 1-10, 2020.
P. Zhu, H. Peng, A. Rwei. Flexible, wearable biosensors for digital health. Medicine in
Novel Technology and Devices, v. 14, n. January, p. 1-9, 2022.
R. Cordeiro, J. Azinheira, A. Moutinho. Actuation failure detection in fixed-wing aircraft
combining a pair of two-stage Kalman filters. IFAC-PapersOnLine, v. 53, n. 1, p, 744-
749, 2020.
R. Forghani, P. Savadjiev, A. Chatterjee, et al. Radiomics and Artificial Intelligence for
Biomarker and Prediction Model Development in Oncology. Computational and
Structural Biotechnology Journal, v. 17, n. 1, p. 995-1008, 2019.
R. Meyes, J. Donauer, A. Schmeing, et al. A recurrent neural network architecture for
failure prediction in deep drawing sensory time series data. Procedia Manufacturing,
v. 34, n. 1, p. 789-797, 2019.
R. Miehe, T. bauernhansl, M. Beckett, et al. The biological transformation of industrial
manufacturing – Technologies, status and scenarios for a sustainable future of the
German manufacturing industry. Journal of Manufacturing Systems, v. 54, n.
November, p. 50-61, 2020.
R. Palmatier, W. Houston, & Hulland, J. Review articles: Purpose, process, and
structure. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, v. 46, n. 1, p. 1–5. 2018.
R. Yao, N. Wang, Z. Liu, et al. Intrusion detection system in the Smart Distribution
Network: A feature engineering based AE-LightGBM approach. Energy Reports, v. 7,
n. 1, p, 353-361, 2021.
S. Aghabozorgi, S. Shirkhorshidi, Y. Wah. Time-series clustering – A decade review.
Information Systems. Elsevier. v. 53, n. 1, p. 16–38. 2015.
S. Baduge, S. Thilakarathna, J. Perera, et al. Artificial intelligence and smart vision for
building and construction 4.0: Machine and deep learning methods and applications.
Automation in Construction, v. 141, n. June, p. 1-26, 2022.
104
S. He, H. Shin, S. Xu, et al. Distributed estimation over a low-cost sensor network: A
Review of state-of-the-art. Information Fusion, v. 54, n. November, p. 21-43, 2020.
S. Maier, P. immermann, J. Berger. MANU-ML: Methodology for the application of
machine learning in manufacturing processes. Procedia CIRP, v. 107, n. 1, p. 798-
803, 2022.
S. Shafiq, E. Szczerbicki, E. Sanin, et al. Proposition of the methodology for Data
Acquisition, Analysis and Visualization in support of Industry 4.0. Procedia Computer
Science, v. 159, n. 1, p. 1976-1985, 2019.
S. Urbano, E. Chaumette, P. Goupil, et al. A Data-Driven Approach for Actuator Servo
Loop Failure Detection. IFAC-PapersOnLine, v. 50, n. 1, p, 13544-13549, 2017.
S. Urbano, E. Chaumette, P. Goupil, et al. Aircraft Vibration Detection and Diagnosis
for Predictive Maintenance using a GLR Test. IFAC-PapersOnLine, v. 51, n. 24, p,
1030-1036, 2018.
T. Grüner, F. Böllhoff, R. Meisetschläger, et al. Evaluation of machine learning for
sensorless detection and classification of faults in electromechanical drive systems.
Procedia Computer Science, v. 176, n. 1, p. 1586-1595, 2020.
T. Krivec, J. Kocijan, M. Perne, et al. Data-driven method for the improving forecasts
of local weather dynamics. Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence, v.
105, n. July, p. 1-14, 2021.
V. Henrique, R. Massao, G. Reynoso-Meza. Decision Tree for Oscillatory Failure Case
Detection in a Flight Control System. International Federation of Automatic Control
World Congress – IFAC, v. 1, n. 1, p. 1-4, 2021.
V. Kocaman, D. Talby. Accurate Clinical and Biomedical Named Entity Recognition at
Scale. Software Impacts, v. 13, n. June, p. 1-7, 2022.
W. Lee, G. Mendis, J. Sutherland. Development of an intelligent tool condition
monitoring system to identify manufacturing tradeoffs and optimal machining
conditions. Procedia Manufacturing, v. 33, n. 1, p. 256-263, 2019.
Z. Janjua, D. Kerins, B. O'Flynn , et al. Knowledge-driven feature engineering to detect
multiple symptoms using ambulatory blood pressure monitoring data. Computer
Methods and Programs in Biomedicine, v. 217, n. 1, p, 1-7, 2022.
Z. Qadir, S. Khan, E. Khalaji, et al. Predicting the energy output of hybrid PV–wind
renewable energy system using feature selection technique for smart grids. Energy
Reports, v. 7, n. 1, p, 8465-8475, 2021.
Zambonin, Guiliano, et al. Machine Learning-Based Soft Sensors for the Estimation of
Laundry Moisture Content in Household Dryer Appliances. Energies. Padova, Italy,
v.12, n.20, p. 1-24, 2019.
Support Vector Machine. Available at: <https://towardsdatascience.com/support-
vector-machine-introduction-to-machine-learning-algorithms-934a444fca47 >. Access
on 10 Oct. 2022.

Marcelo Feliciano Filho Dissertation V00

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Marcelo Feliciano Filho Dissertation V00

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

PONTIFICAL CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF PARANA

MARCELO FELICIANO FILHO

FEATURE ENGINEERING FOR SOFT SENSOR IMPROVEMENT : A CASE STUDY IN

FEATURE ENGINEERING FOR SOFT SENSOR IMPROVEMENT : A CASE STUDY IN

The presented qualification project will be

Supervisor: Ph.D. Gilberto Reynoso Meza.

FEATURE ENGINEERING FOR SOFT SENSOR IMPROVEMENT : A CASE STUDY IN

Dissertation presented to the Industrial and Systems Engineering Graduate Program

Curitiba, March 10th , 2023.

Keywords: Soft Sensors. Industry 4.0. Machine Learning. Systematic Literature

Figure 1 – The Ten Procedures for SLR ........................................................................... 21

Table 1 – The Research Guideline Questions ................................................................. 22

ANFIS Adaptive Network-Based Fuzzy Inference System

transforming extraneous data into relevant information, sustainable practices can be

1.1 MOTIVATION: THE DEMAND FOR SOFT SENSORS

Anomaly detection in an aircraft's Flight Control System (FCS) be improved

1.2.1 General Objective

This project’s general objective is to propose a new feature engineering

1.2.2 Specific Objectives

This dissertation's primary contribution lies in proposing a feature engineering

advancement in Industry 4.0, particularly within cyber-physical systems (Schmitt et al.,

1.4 TOOLS AND METHODS

1.4.1 Software Required

As problematization shows, the benchmark is structured in MatLab® and

1.4.2 Hardware Employed

1.5 RESEARCH IMPACTS

“This benchmark is a competition based on the evaluation of two separate

In this scenario, different Machine Learning (ML) techniques in SS development

1.6 QUALIFICATION DOCUMENT STRUCTURE

This qualification document starts with an introduction in chapter one and

2 THE SYSTEMATIC LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 SYSTEMATIC LITERATURE REVIEW: THE STATE OF ART

An investigation can be scientifically initiated, focusing on recently published

2.2 SLR PROCEDURES: THE TEN STEPS TO SYSTEMATIC RESEARCH

Figure 1 – The Ten Procedures f or SLR

Source: Adapted by the Author, 2022.

2.2.1 Procedure One: Research Areas and Theme

2.2.2 Procedure Two: Qualitative Literature Data Review

In accordance with (Nightingale, 2009), the qualitative literature review focuses

2.2.3 Procedure Three: The Research Guideline Questions

Table 1 – The Research Guideline Questions

RESEARCH GUIDELINE QUESTIONS

2.2.4 Procedure Four: The Most Important Keywords for Research

Table 2 – The Main Research Keywords Synonyms

KEYWORD Synonym 1 Synonym 2

Soft Sensors Sensor Array Virtual Sensor

This research focuses on Soft Sensors, Feature Engineering, and Intelligent

Table 3 – The Main Research Keywords Combination

KEYWORD A Combination KEYWORD B

Intelligent Systems AND Virtual Sensors

2.2.5 Procedure Five: Inclusion and Exclusion (I/E) Criteria Determination

According to (H. Snyder, 2019), “systematic reviews have strict requirements

Table 4 – The Research Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria

THE RESEARCH INCLUSION AND EXCLUSION CRITERIA

2.2.6 Procedure Six: The Survey for Papers in Databases

Table 5 – The Main Research Keywords Combination Results

Index KEYWORD A Combination KEYWORD B Number

1 Soft Sensors AND Intelligent Systems 12

As can be seen, 2,153 articles were found by this keyword’s combination

Figure 2 – Survey f or paper’s initial results

Source: The Author, 2022.

2.2.7 Procedure Seven: To apply the Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria

Table 6 – Number of Selected Papers per Keyword