Transportation Geotechnics 24 (2020) 100375

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Transportation Geotechnics
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/trgeo

Long-term dynamic behavior of a sandy subgrade reinforced by Waste Tire T

Textile Fibers (WTTFs)
⁎
S.S. Narani , M. Abbaspour, S.M. Mir Mohammad Hosseini, F. Moghadas Nejad
Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Amirkabir University of Technology, Tehran, Iran

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Soil improvement by incorporating different reinforcement materials has been one of the most popular fields of
Waste Tire Textile Fibers study in geotechnical engineering since it can provide the engineers with a practical and relatively easy solution
Scrap tires when dealing with various construction projects. Despite numerous studies carried out on the static behavior of
Soil reinforcement reinforced soils, the dynamic characteristics of these mixtures have not been fully understood. Therefore, this
Resilient modulus
paper aims to shed light upon this issue by conducting repeated loading triaxial tests on a sandy soil reinforced
Damping ratio
Cyclic loading
by different Waste Tire Textile Fiber (WTTF) contents. Various parameters such as permanent strain, resilient
modulus, energy dissipation capacity, and damping ratio were investigated. The results of this study show that
permanent strain is increased as a result of fiber addition. Nevertheless, rutting is not expected to occur since all
soil-fiber mixtures are categorized in groups A (plastic shakedown) and B (plastic creep) of shakedown theory.
Resilient modulus is increased up to 744% with an optimum WTTF content of 2%. Dissipated energy and
damping ratio are also found to increase as a result of fiber inclusion. Furthermore, a new model is proposed to
accurately predict the resilient modulus in terms of the number of cycles and fiber content.

Introduction
When dealing with different civil engineering construction projects
such as buildings, skyscrapers, dams, roads, bridges, tunnels, etc., load
bearing and deformations of the soils are usually of imperative im-
portance due to the undeniable soil-structure interactions. Soils are
inherently weak in shear and tension and might need to be improved
prior to construction. To that end, various methods have been proposed
out of which chemical stabilization [1–5], mechanical reinforcement
[6–8], and a combination of both [9–11] have received the most at-
tention. Mechanical reinforcement is carried out by incorporating a
reinforcement agent in the soil. Fibers and crumb rubbers are among
the reinforcement materials that are gaining more attention by day due
to their effectivity and efficiency.
Assessment of the dynamic characteristics of soils is of paramount
importance since soils may go under a wide range of dynamic loadings
such as earthquakes [12–15], traffic loadings [16–19], machine vibra-
tions [20–22], and so forth. Despite the large number of investigations
available on the static behavior of reinforced soils, the dynamic prop-
erties of such mixtures are not fully studied [23]. Previous researches
on the dynamic characteristics of reinforced soils are mostly im-
plemented on soil-rubber crumb mixtures and studies on fiber-
reinforced soils are very limited. A short review on the literature re-
garding the dynamic characteristics of unreinforced and reinforced
sandy soils are provided here. By conducting cyclic simple shear tests
on two uniformly graded sands, Jafarzadeh and Sadeghi [24] found that
under drained conditions, shear modulus increases and damping de-
creases as the number of cycles is increased. Under saturated condi-
tions, however, dynamic stiffness decreases with the number of cycles
while damping increases in the cycles close to liquefaction. High strain
dynamic investigation of a sandy soil as investigated by Kumar et al.
[25] showed that the conventional symmetrical hysteresis loop tends to
attain an asymmetric shape at high shear strain levels. Therefore, by
modifying the conventional damping calculation method, they found
that the modified damping is 40–70% higher than the conventional
damping. Chattaraj and Sengupta [26] conducted resonant column and
dynamic triaxial tests on Kasai River sand and reported that the shear
modulus decreases as shear strain is increased. Moreover, relative
density was found to have an insignificant influence on the damping
ratio. Small strain torsional resonant column tests on a sandy silt with
various non-plastic fines contents by Payan et al. [27] proved that at a
silt content of about 20%, the behavior of the soil changes from sand-
dominant to silt-dominant. Therefore, the sand characteristics that have
an important influence on damping and shear modulus of sand-

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: shayan.sheikhi@aut.ac.ir (S.S. Narani), mohsen.abbaspour@aut.ac.ir (M. Abbaspour), smmirhos@aut.ac.ir (S.M. Mir Mohammad Hosseini),
moghadas@aut.ac.ir (F. Moghadas Nejad).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trgeo.2020.100375
Received 21 December 2019; Received in revised form 26 March 2020; Accepted 21 May 2020
Available online 01 June 2020
2214-3912/ © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
S.S. Narani, et al.
dominate soils, do not affect those of silt-dominate mixtures. Li and
Senetakis [28] conducted resonant column tests on a polypropylene
fiber-reinforced well graded silica sand and concluded that the small-
strain shear modulus is decreased as fiber content increase. Therefore,
they concluded that fibers are effective only at high strains. Damping
was found to be increased slightly with fiber content. Chauhan et al.
[29] through conducting repeated triaxial tests on a PP and coir fiber-
reinforced fly ash-stabilized silty sand reported that the fiber-reinforced
specimens yielded lower resilient strains as compared with the non-
reinforced mixture. Coir fiber was proven to undergo the least resilient
strains. Permanent strains were also shown to attain the least value in
coir fiber-reinforced specimens which can contribute to the reduction of
rut depth in pavements. Resilient modulus was reported to increase as a
result of fiber inclusion and the best performance was witnessed in the
coir fiber-reinforced samples. Ghorbani and Salimzadehshooiili [30]
investigated the dynamic properties of a rice husk ash-stabilized PP
fiber-reinforced sand by carrying out cyclic triaxial and bender element
tests. Based on their investigations, damping ratio and shear stiffness
undergo an increasing–decreasing trend as the fiber content is in-
creased.
Recently, the use of a waste fiber named Waste Tire Textile Fiber
(WTTF) attained from recycled scrap tires of heavy vehicles has gained
the attention of a few researchers. WTTFs are separated from other
components of scrap tires and are customarily disposed of by being
buried or burned. Such actions can impose a heavy burden on our
troubled environment since burying WTTFs occupies vast areas in the
landfills and burning them leads to extremely hazardous gas emissions.
Therefore, reusing and recycling seem as more reasonable means for
tackling the environmental problems entailed by WTTFs. Especially
when considering the ever-increasing demand for vehicles and tires, it
seems impossible to close our eyes on this issue. Civil engineering
projects, specifically road and geotechnical engineering projects seem
to be prospective areas for reusing WTTFs since scientists in these
disciplines are constantly seeking new reinforcement and improvement
techniques. The possible reuse of WTTFs in road and geotechnical en-
gineering has not been studied comprehensively. The idea of reusing
these waste materials for soil improvement was first put forward by
Abbaspour et al. [31]. In their research, Abbaspour et al. proved that
adding WTTFs to the soil leads to an increase in the ductility of the
mixtures. UCS and California Bearing Ratio (CBR) of the clayey soil
were found to decrease while this parameter was increased sub-
stantially in sandy soil. STS of sandy and clayey soils were found to
increase remarkably as a result of WTTF inclusion. In other studies,
Narani et al. [32] and Abbaspour et al. [33] investigated the potential
reuse of WTTFs as reinforcement materials in expansive soils. Ac-
cording to their researches, STS of the bentonite was found to increase
and the swelling potential was decreased considerably as a result of
WTTF inclusion. The static properties together with the influence of
confining pressure and deviatoric stress levels on the dynamic proper-
ties of a WTTF-reinforced sandy soil were examined by Abbaspour et al.
[34]. The results of their research showed that adding WTTFs could
enhance the shear strength of the soil. This trend was impaired at
higher normal stresses. UCS and yielding strain were increased re-
markably as a result of fiber addition. CBR was increased with an op-
timum WTTF content of 1%. Increasing the deviatoric stress in speci-
mens containing fiber contents up to 1% led to an increase in the
resilient modulus and this effect was boosted as the confining pressure
was diminished. Moreover, damping ratio was proven to increase as the
confining pressure decreased and decreased as the deviatoric stress was
increased under all confining pressures.
Goals and innovations
According to the aforementioned beneficial properties of WTTFs, it
can be expected that WTTF incorporation into soils can enhance their
dynamic responses. As one of the latest and most important research
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Transportation Geotechnics 24 (2020) 100375
topics, reusing the recycled materials as a step towards a sustainable
development and green and low-carbon world has attracted the atten-
tion of researchers in different areas of study all around the globe. Civil
engineering, and particularly pavement geotechnology, is proven to be
one of the potential areas for reusing waste and recycled materials.
Therefore, in this project, the long-term behavior of a sandy subgrade
reinforcement by a novel waste fiber is studied comprehensively.
Through reviewing the literature, one could find out that except for
some few cases, the previous studies on the dynamic behavior of fiber-
reinforced soil as pavement layers has been extensively neglected. As a
result, effort has been made in this study to gain a relatively deep grasp
of different dynamic characteristics of a WTTF-reinforced soil. To that
end, high-cycle repeated loading triaxial tests were conducted on a soil
with various fiber contents. Different dynamic properties, namely per-
manent strain, resilient modulus, energy dissipation capacity, and
damping ratio were investigated. The materials were categorized based
on the shakedown system (briefly explained in Section “Rutting and
Shakedown Theory”) to evaluate the suitability of each WTTF content
as construction materials for subgrade soil in terms of permanent strain.
Moreover, the permanent strains obtained experimentally were com-
pared against the Tseng and Lytton [41] model. In the case of resilient
modulus, a model was proposed that can competently evaluate the in-
fluence of the number of cycles and fiber content and predict the var-
iations of resilient modulus for the unreinforced and WTTF-reinforced
specimens with high accuracy.
Rutting and Shakedown Theory
Occurring as a result of permanent strain accumulation, rutting is
known to be one of the main concerns in road and pavement design.
Therefore, it is crucial to minimize the permanent strains in designing
subgrades to ensure the durability of pavements [35–37]. Cyclic triaxial
test is usually performed in the laboratory to evaluate the permanent
deformations of different pavement layers and Shakedown theory is
commonly used to investigate the granular soil behavior [38,39]. Ac-
cording to this theory, materials can be categorized into three groups
based on their permanent strains (Fig. 1). The first category (A) known
as plastic shakedown is related to the materials which show plastic be-
havior for a limited number of cycles and demonstrate a completely
elastic behavior as the number of cycles increases. The second category
(B) known as plastic creep is associated to the materials that exhibit high
permanent deformations in the first few cycles and as the number of
cycles increases, the permanent deformations decrease or reach a
constant value. The third category (C) known as incremental collapse is
attributed to the materials in which during the first cycles, permanent
strains decrease as the number of cycles increases and starts to increase
drastically during the next cycles and finally the specimen ruptures
within a limited number of cycles. Werkmeister [40] proposed using the
permanent strains induced in the specimens during loading cycles No.
3000 to No. 5000 (ΔεP) to classify soils conforming to the shakedown
theory (Fig. 1). According to this criterion, if the permanent strain in-
duced in the specimen during these 2000 cycles is less than 4.5 × 10−5 ,
the material shows a plastic shakedown behavior. If this value is be-
tween 4.5 × 10−5 and 4 × 10−4 , the behavior is deemed to be plastic
creep. A permanent strain higher than 4 × 10−4 is a testament of in-
cremental collapse. In order to prevent from pavement deterioration
and rutting in asphalt, pavement layers should be chosen from A and B
groups. Using materials from groups C can lead to defects and rutting in
pavements.
Materials and Methods
The investigated soil in this research was acquired from a borrow pit
in Yazd province, central area of Iran. Grain size distribution was de-
termined by sieving and hydrometer analysis and presented in Fig. 2.
Other Geotechnical properties of the soil can be found in Table 1. The
S.S. Narani, et al. Transportation Geotechnics 24 (2020) 100375

Fig. 1. Permanent deformation behavior based on shakedown theory.

soil is categorized as SC-SM according to Unified Soil Classification Table 1

System (USCS). Geotechnical properties of the soil.
The WTTFs used in this project were obtained during the recycling Property Testing Method Value
process of ELTs in Yazd Tire factory. The physical and mechanical
properties and chemical composition of WTTFs can be found in Table 2 Specific gravity ASTM D854 [42] 2.70
and Table 3, respectively. The appearance of WTTFs is illustrated in Passing No. 200 (75 μm) sieve (%) ASTM D1140 [43] 14.91
Liquid limit (%) ASTM D4318 [44] 19.30
Fig. 3. Due to the grooves and bumps on their surface, a relatively good
Plastic limit (%) ASTM D4318 [44] 13.50
bonding between the fibers and soil grains is expected to form. It is Plasticity index (%) ASTM D4318 [44] 5.80
worth mentioning that since WTTFs are derived from worn tires of Coefficient of uniformity, Cu ASTM D2487 [45] 23.61
various heavy vehicles, the difference in their physical and mechanical Coefficient of curvature, Cc ASTM D2487 [45] 1.582
properties may be expected. In order to take this point into account, all USCS soil class ASTM D2487 [45] SC-SM

tests were conducted twice on fibers obtained with a 6-months gap. The
variation between results were found to be less than 7%.
mixtures was initiated by adding around 40%-50% of the required
The WTTF contents used in this study were chosen based on pre-
water to the soil and thoroughly mixing it. The adhesion induced in the
vious researches by the authors [32,34]. In that sense, WTTF contents
soil as a result of this step helped with WTTF distribution in the next
of fc = 0%, 0.5%, 1%, 2%, 3%, and 4% were studied. Preparation of

Fig. 2. Particle size distribution of the sandy soil.

3
S.S. Narani, et al. Transportation Geotechnics 24 (2020) 100375

Table 2
The physical characteristics of WTTFs.
Property Unit Testing Method Values

General Most frequency

Fiber type – – Yarned –

Equivalent diameter Mm ASTM D885M [46] 0.030–1.50 0.80
Length Mm ASTM D885M [46] 0–70 20–40
Tensile strength MPa ASTM D885M [46] 300–2000 600
Twist S (Folded) T/10 cm ASTM D885M [46] 30–50 39 ± 2
Elongation at break % ASTM D885M [46] 18–25 22
Elastic modulus GPa ASTM D885M [46] 2–7.5 2.7
Hot air shrinkage (at 177 °C × 2 min × 143 gr) % ASTM D5591 [47] 3–5 4.5
Linear density Denier1 ASTM D885M [46] 840–1890 1260
Melting point °C ASTM D885M [46] 250–260 256
Water absorption % ASTM D885M [46] 5–13 9.5

1 9 km yarn mass in grams

Table 3 specimens with the diameter of 71 mm and height of 142 mm. In order
Energy dispersive X-ray analyzer (EDAX) Results for WTTFs (%). to attain a completely uniform specimen, a mold conforming to
Composition of element Symbols Percentage (%)
AASHTO-T307 [49] descriptions was used in which the specimen pre-
paration is initiated by compacting the middle layer and carried out by
Carbon C 62.32 compacting 4 other adjacent layers (i.e. total of 5 layers). A complete
Oxygen O 23.9 description of this procedure is available in Abbasour et al. [31]. A
Sodium Na 4.75
Zinc Zn 2.91
servo-controlled GCTS triaxial apparatus was utilized to conduct the
Sulfur S 2.19 RLT tests. Half-sinusoidal cycles with an exertion time of 0.1 s and rest
Aluminum Al 1.83 time of 0.9 s were imposed on the specimens. The loading of these tests
Silicon Si 1.38 comprised a confining pressure (σ3 ) of 41.4 kPa, deviatoric stress (σd ) of
Magnesium Mg 0.72
27.6 kPa, bulk stress (θ ) of 151.8 kPa, cyclic stress of 24.8 kPa, and
constant stress of 2.8 kPa. This stress level is chosen since it is close to
the loading situation often encountered in road construction projects
steps. Afterwards, WTTFs were added in small portions and mixed with
[49,50]. A total number of 10,000 cycles were imposed on each spe-
the soil together with the remaining amount of water. A complete de-
cimen with different WTTF contents to evaluate the high-cycle (long
scription of mixture preparation can be found in Abbaspour et al. [31].
term) dynamic properties of fiber-reinforced soil.
Maximum Dry Density (MDD) and Optimum Moisture Content
(OMC) are the two parameters measured typically by conducting
standard proctor compaction test. In this research, these values were Results and discussions
determined by conducting tests as per ASTM D698 [48]. According to
the results of this test, the MDD of the mixtures containing 0%, 0.5%, Permanent deformations
1%, 2%, 3% and 4% WTTFs is equal to 2.025, 2.01, 1.977, 1.935, 1.885,
1.852 Mg/m3, respectively, and the OMC for the mixtures listed above, Accumulative permanent strain versus the number of cycles for
is equal to 10.55%, 10.85%, 10.7%, 10.44%, 10.8% and 10.8%, re- specimens with various WTTF contents is presented in Fig. 4. According
spectively. The measured MDD and OMC were used as the placement to this figure, WTTF incorporation leads to a 10.3%, 16.7%, 104%,
state for other tests. 378%, and 556% increase in accumulative permanent strain of speci-
Repeated Loading Triaxial (RLT) tests were carried out on mens with a fiber content of fc = 0.5%, 1%, 2%, 3%, and 4%,

Fig. 3. (a) WTTFs, (b) Stereo zoom microscope image of a number of fibers with different diameters, (c) biological microscope image of nylon thread.

4
S.S. Narani, et al.
Fig. 4. Measured and predicted accumulated plastic strain versus the number of loading cycles considering different fiber contents.
respectively, after 10,000 loading cycles. This augmentation can be
attributed to the decreased soil compaction (i.e. decreased MDD as a
result of WTTF addition), high compressibility of nylon fibers, and
weakened soil skeleton as a result of decreased soil grain interactions in
the presence of fibers [51].
The variation in ΔεP versus WTTF content during cycles 3000–5000
is depicted in Fig. 5. Based on this figure, it can be stated that adding
0.5%, 1%, and 2% of WTTFs to the soil leads to a 69.5%, 86.6%, and
57.9% decrease, respectively, in ΔεP and this trend is expedited at
higher WTTF contents (i.e. 630% and 985% decrease at WTTF contents
of 3%, and 4%, respectively). It is also observed in Fig. 5 that the un-
reinforced specimen and reinforced specimens with fiber contents of
0.5% 1%, and 2% show a plastic shakedown behavior (group A) while
at higher WTTF contents (i.e. fc = 3% and 4%) the behavior is cate-
gorized as plastic creep (group B). Therefore, WTTFs can be used in
subgrade reinforcement without raising any rutting concerns.
The value and trend of changes in permanent strains are influenced
by various parameters such as the number of loading cycles, stress level,
fine grain ratio, moisture content, and environmental factors [52].
Tseng and Lytton [41] proposed one of the models frequently used to
predict and estimate the permanent strains in granular materials. This
model is also recommended by Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design
Guide (MEPDG) for determination of permanent strains in pavement
layers [53]. Tseng and Lytton model is presented in Eq. (1).
ρ β
εp (N ) = ε0 e−( N )
whereεp = accumulative permanent strain, N = number of cycles, ε0 =
maximum permanent strain, ρ = scale factor, andβ = shape factor. ε0 ,
Transportation Geotechnics 24 (2020) 100375
ρ , and β are constant coefficients that can be measured by analyzing the
regression of data from experimental investigations for each soil. Re-
gression coefficients versus WTTF contents are illustrated in Fig. 6.
According to Fig. 6a it can be clearly observed that the maximum
permanent strain (ε0 ) increases with WTTF content which can be at-
tributed to decreased MDD and a slight increase in OMC as a result of
WTTF inclusion [34], compressibility of fibers [34], and weakened soil
matrix due to less interaction between soil grains as a result of fiber
presence [54]. Based on Fig. 6b, it can be declared that scale factor ( ρ )
decreases up to the WTTF content of 1% and increases remarkably at
higher WTTF contents. The initial decrease in this parameter can be
attributed to the filling of voids in the soil at low WTTF contents (i.e. up
to fc = 1%). As the WTTF content increases, soil grains are substituted
by the compressible fibers which can in turn lead to weakening the soil
matrix and increasing permanent strains, hence an increase in scale
factor occurs. Fig. 6c shows that adding WTTF content up to fc = 3%
results in a decrease in shape factor (β ) while this factor increases
slightly at fc = 4%. The decrease in shape factor can indicate increased
dependence of permanent strain to the number of cycles which may
happen due to the higher compressibility of WTTFs than soil grains.
Accumulative permanent strain in each cycle can be readily measured
in percentage by determining the regression parameters (i.e. by refer-
ring to Fig. 6) and using Eq. (1). The predicted accumulative permanent
strain values and the actual value measured during the experiment for a
number of cycles are depicted in Fig. 4. According to this figure, ac-
(1) cumulative permanent strain values of unreinforced and fiber-re-
inforced specimens can be predicted with high accuracy (i.e.
R2 = 0.9554, 0.9496, 0.9665, 0.9875, 0.9894 and 0.9843 for mixtures
5
S.S. Narani, et al.
Fig. 5. Analysis of test results using Werkmeister's shakedown range criteria for different fiber content.
whit 0%, 0.5%, 1%, 2%, 3% and 4% WTTFs content, respectively) by
using Eq.1 and Fig. 6.
Resilient modulus
Resilient modulus indicates the stress-strain relationship in pave-
ment layers and the results of this test is used to design these layers.
This parameter simulates the response of pavement layers and subgrade
to the loading induced by the moving vehicles. In the laboratory, the
resilient modulus is determined by cyclic loading triaxial test. Resilient
Modulus is the slope of the stress-strain hysteresis loop. As an example,
the hysteretic cycles of the unreinforced and 4% WTTFs-reinforced
mixtures are provided in Fig. 7. The variation of resilient modulus with
the number of loading cycles is presented in Fig. 8. This figure shows
that resilient modulus increases with the number of loading cycles (in
other words, the reversible strain decreases). This trend has also been
reported in some previous researches [36,37]. This phenomenon can be
rooted in redistribution of soil grains, soil compaction and densification
[52], and further fiber mobilization as a result of previous cycles.
Meanwhile, the results of some other researchers show that resilient
strain increases and resilient modulus decreases with
the number of cycles [29]. This discrepancy can be traced back in
the difference between soils, fibers, stress levels, and loading fre-
quencies. It is worth noting that the rate of resilient modulus aug-
mentation with the number of cycles increases up to the WTTF content
of fc = 3% and decreases at fc = 4%. According to the data presented in
Table 4, resilient modulus increases from cycle no. 3000 to no. 5000 by
1.8, 2.4, 4.58, 6.54, 15.5, and 4.2 MPa, respectively, at fiber contents of
fc = 0%, 1%, 2%, 3%, and 4%. This trend can be attributed to the
higher mobilization of fibers in reinforced soil as the strain increases.
The decreasing trend at fc = 4% can be an outcome of high WTTF
content, inhomogeneous nature of the specimens at this fiber content,
fiber accumulation within the specimens, and high compressibility of
WTTFs that lead to an increase in resilient deformations. Resilient
modulus measured at the 10,000th cycle is also presented in Table 4.
WTTF inclusion with an optimum content of fc = 2% can increase the
resilient modulus by about 744%. Resilient modulus is diminished ra-
pidly at higher WTTF contents in a way that for the specimen with
fc = 4%, this parameter is decreased by 41% as compared with the
unreinforced soil. Therefore, it is observed that elastic (resilient) and
6
Transportation Geotechnics 24 (2020) 100375
plastic deformations (Section “Permanent Deformations”) do not show
the same trend. The reason behind this phenomenon could be explained
due to the difference between elastic and plastic deformations. Elastic
properties (recoverable deformations) of soils depend on the resilient
properties, deformations of the grains themselves, and the arrangement
of soil particles, while plastic properties depend on the behavior of the
soil assembly, particles penetration into each other, and particles re-
location and movement (attaining new packing). During each loading
cycle, elastic and plastic deformations take place simultaneously, and
yet, independently from one another [55]. Therefore, incorporating
reinforcement materials (with high tensile strength) in the soil, could
influence the elastic and plastic deformations of the soil differently.
Opposing trends in permanent and recoverable deformations have also
been witnessed in other studies on the dynamic properties of reinforced
soils. The results presented in Al-Refeai and Al-Suhaibani [56] shows
that adding 0.2% and 0.4% PP fibers (50 mm in length and 0.39 mm in
diameter) to a sandy soil increased the resilient modulus of the un-
reinforced soil under the same stress levels as those in this study by
about 21.3% and 4.9%, respectively. Higher fiber contets (i.e. 0.8%)
induced a 4% decrease in the resilient modulus. Meanwhile, adding
0.2%, 0.4%, and 0.8% fibers decreased the permanent deformations
from 9.8% for the unreinforced soil to 1.24%, 0.57%, and 0.25%, re-
spectively. In other words, a 0.8% fiber inclusion led to a 4% increase in
resilient deformations, while it decreased the permanent deformations
by 39 times.
In another study by Nair and Latha [57], the cyclic behavior of an
unreinforced and geotextile-reinforced clayey soil was investigated and
it was reported that soil reinforcement by one layer of geonet led to a
decrease in resilient deformations and an increase in permanent de-
formations.
A decrease in resilient deformations (or an increase in resilient
modulus) at WTTF contents up to 2% could stem from the pores being
filled by the fibers at low contents (i.e. 1–2%), suitable stress dis-
tribution throughout the specimens due to incorporation of fibers with
high tensile strength [57], increased damping ratio in presence of fibers
up to 2% (Section “Dissipated Energy and Damping Ratio”), and WTTF
mobilization as a result of deformations imparted in the specimens. The
relatively small increase in the permanent deformations of specimens
reinforced with low fiber contents could be attributed to a decrease in
MDD and slight increase in OMC. The increase in both resilient and
S.S. Narani, et al.
Fig. 6. Regression functions of Eq. (1): (a) ε0 , (b) ρ , and (c) β
permanent deformations at higher fiber contents could be attributed to
the floculation of fibers, heterogenous soil matrix, and higher fiber-fiber
interaction at large quantities of fibers and their highly compressibile
nature [58].
Based on the variations of resilient modulus with the number of
loading cycles, the model presented in Eq. (2) is presented to predict the
value of resilient modulus.
Mr (N ) = k1 ×N k2 + k3
where N = number of loading cycles and k1, k2, and k3 are the constant
coefficients that can be measured by analyzing the regression of the
experimental investigations of each mixture. Regression coefficients
Transportation Geotechnics 24 (2020) 100375
versus WTTF contents are tabulated in Table 4. Based on this table, it
can be inferred that k1, which is the controlling parameter of the re-
silient modulus during the primary loading cycles, decreases with fiber
content up to fc = 2% and increases afterwards. Moreover, k2, which
indicates the influence of the number of loading cycles on the resilient
modulus variations, shows the same trend as k1 unless it obtains its least
value at the WTTF content of fc = 1%. Meanwhile, k3, which controls
the influence of WTTF content on the resilient modulus regardless of
the effect of loading cycles, increases up to the fiber content of fc = 2%
and decreases at higher contents. Resilient modulus at a specific loading
cycle can readily be calculated in MPa by referring to Table 4, de-
termining the regression coefficients for the desired fiber content, and
inserting the values into Eq. (2). Fig. 8 presents the resilient modulus
values obtained experimentally versus those predicted by using Eq. (2).
Based on Fig. 8, it can be stated that the resilient modulus of the un-
reinforced and fiber-reinforced specimens can be predicted with high
accuracy by using Table 4 and Eq. (2) (i.e. R2 = 0.9743, 0.9539,
0.9653, 0.9831, 0.9595 and 0.8919 for specimens with WTTF contents
of fc = 0%, 0.5%, 1%, 2%, 3%, and 4%, respectively) .
Dissipated energy and damping ratio
During a dynamic, seismic, or cyclic loading, a part of the energy
received by the soil is dissipated as an increase in the temperature,
particle breakage or displacement, etc. [59–61]. Dissipated energy for
each loading cycle is measured as the area of the load-deformation
hysteresis loop of that cycle [59]. A schematic representation of a
hysteresis loop for a cyclic loading is illustrated in Fig. 9. The area of
the load-deformation hysteresis loop (A1) shows the dissipated energy
in this cycle. Equivalent damping ratio (ζ) is regularly used to measure
the capacity of the system to dissipate energy. As it can be observed in
Fig. 9, the equivalent damping ratio is calculated by dividing the dis-
sipated energy in each cycle (A1) by four times the maximum elastic
energy received by the system (area of the green triangle, A2, in Fig. 9)
during that cycle [59,62]. Therefore, a high dissipated energy does not
necessarily lead to a high damping ratio.
The variations of dissipated energy (i.e. the area of hysteresis loop)
during 10,000 loading cycles for different mixtures are presented in
Fig. 10. According to this figure, for the first 500 cycles, dissipated
energy decreases as the number of cycles is increased. This phenom-
enon can be attributed to redistribution of soil particles, further mo-
bilization of fibers, and a decrease in the resilient deformations of the
specimen. During the first 500 cycles, WTTF incorporation up to
fc = 2% leads to a decrease in dissipated energy while this parameter is
increased slightly at higher WTTF contents. For instance, the dissipated
energy in the 100th cycle for specimens with WTTF contents of
fc = 0%, 0.5%, 1%, 2%, 3%, and 4% are 0.96, 0.73, 0.45, 0.07, 0.57,
and 0.58 millijoule (mj), respectively. Nevertheless, this trend is altered
at higher cycles where the specimen is more compacted and in the
mixtures with WTTF contents up to fc = 3% dissipated energy is in-
creased slightly with the number of cycles, such that during the cycle
no. 10,000, this parameter for fc = 0%, 0.5%, 1%, 2%, 3%, and 4%
specimens are measured to be 0.33, 0.48, 0.3, 0.04, 0.6, and 0.4 mj,
respectively. Another noteworthy point in Fig. 10 is that the influence
of fibers on the dissipated energy reduction is decreased as WTTF
content increases. For instance, the reduction in dissipated energy in
10,000 cycles has decreased from 2.29 mj for the unreinforced spe-
cimen to 1.86, 1.17, 0.23, and 0.14 mj for specimens with fc = 0%,
0.5%, 1%, 2%, and 3%, respectively and has increased slightly to 0.83
mj at the WTTF content of fc = 4%. This behavior can be attributed to
the prevention of soil particle degradation by fibers. The variations of
(2) damping ratio versus the number of loading cycles for mixtures with
different WTTF contents are presented in Fig. 11. Fiber augmentation
with an optimum content of fc = 1% ensues an increase in damping
ratio. Damping ratio increases on average by about 19.8%, 86.6%,
69.8%, 53%, and 27.5% in specimens with a WTTF content of
7
S.S. Narani, et al. Transportation Geotechnics 24 (2020) 100375

Fig. 7. Hysteretic cycles of: (a) unreinforced soil at different cycles, and (b) specimen reinforced by 4% of WTTFs at different cycles.

fc = 0.5%, 1%, 2%, 3%, and 4%, respectively, in comparison with the Summary and conclusions
unreinforced mixture. The studies conducted by Qi et al. [60] also
corroborates that adding a compressible material such as crumb rubber High-cycle dynamic properties of a SC-SM soil reinforced with
to pavement layers leads to a uniform increase in the damping ratio. various WTTF contents (i.e. fc = 0%, 0.5%, 1%, 2%, 3%, and 4%) were

Fig. 8. Measured and predicted resilient modulus versus the number of loading cycles at different fiber contents.

8
S.S. Narani, et al. Transportation Geotechnics 24 (2020) 100375

Table 4 investigation can be classified as follows.

Variations of the resilient modulus from the 3000th to 5000th cycles, calculated
resilient modulus value for the 10,000th cycle and the regression analysis 1. Permanent strain increases substantially as a result of WTTF inclu-
considering different fiber contents. sion and this phenomenon can be traced back into the decreased
Fiber Mr N=5000 - Mr Mr N=10,000 Regression analysis MDD, high compressibility of WTTFs, and decreased interaction
content (%) N=3000 (MPa) (MPa) between soil grains as a result of WTTF inclusion.
k1 k2 k3 2. Reinforced specimens with WTTF content of fc = 0%, 0.5%, 1%, and
0 1.80 156.52 −160.30 −0.194 185.20
2% exhibit a plastic shakedown (group A) behavior while fc = 3%
0.5 2.40 169.75 −79.68 −0.195 176.60 and 4% specimens display a plastic creep (group B) performance as
1 4.58 430.00 −406.90 −0.497 433.00 determined by shakedown theory. Therefore, all mixtures can safely
2 8.54 1321.00 −912.80 −0.179 1524.00 be employed in subgrade construction without any concerns re-
3 15.54 249.02 −257.30 −0.183 264.20
garding rutting in this layer.
4 4.22 92.31 −55.03 −0.185 92.77
3. The value of accumulative permanent strains can be predicted for
each cycle by using Tseng and Lytton model. The variations in the
parameters of this model (i.e. scale factor and shape factor) with
fiber inclusion are determined.
4. Resilient modulus increases with the number of loading cycles. This
parameter is also increased by WTTF inclusion with an optimum
content of fc = 2% that leads to a 744% increase in the resilient
modulus. Higher WTTF contents lead to a decrease in resilient
modulus as a result of weakened soil matrix. A model was proposed
that could accurately predict the resilient modulus by integrating
the influence of first few loading cycles, fiber content, and the
number of loading cycles.
5. The reason behind opposing trends in recoverable and permanent
strains can be explained by the difference between the two strains.
While recoverable deformations of soils depend on the resilient
properties, deformations of the grains themselves, and the ar-
rangement of soil particles, permanent deformations depend on the
behavior of the soil assembly, particles penetration into each other,
and particles relocation and movement. Therefore, elastic and
plastic deformations take place simultaneously but independently
from each other. Due to these inherently differences, adding re-
inforcement materials in the soil could influence the elastic and
plastic deformations of the soil differently.
Fig. 9. Schematic illustration of force-deformation hysteresis loop.
6. Dissipated energy during the first 500 cycles is decreased as the
number of loading cycles increases. Nevertheless, this trend is al-
scrutinized in this paper by utilizing repeated load triaxial tests. Various tered at higher cycle numbers and the dissipated energy starts to
parameters such as permanent strain, resilient modulus, dissipated increase with the number of cycles. Furthermore, damping ratio was
energy and damping ratio were studied. The conclusions drawn in this found to increase with fiber incorporation with an optimum WTTF

Fig. 10. Dissipated energy versus the number of loading cycles at different fiber contents.

9
S.S. Narani, et al.
Fig. 11. Damping ratio versus the number of loading cycles at different fiber contents.
content of fc = 1%. Damping ratio at this fiber content is increased
by 87% as compared against the unreinforced soil.
According to the results drawn in this research (i.e. absence of
rutting, increased resilient modulus, and increased damping ratio),
subgrade reinforcement with WTTFs can lead to a reduction in the
thickness of pavement layers, namely base, sub-base, and asphalt layer.
From economic and environmental points of view, employing WTTFs as
reinforcement materials in subgrade layer of road projects can con-
tribute to both reducing the cost of projects and tackling the environ-
mental hazards entailed by burying or burning the waste fibers.
Moreover, by reducing in the amount of materials needed for con-
struction projects, a big step towards a more sustainable engineering
will be taken.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
S.S. Narani: Conceptualization, Methodology, Formal analysis,
Investigation, Resources, Writing - original draft. M. Abbaspour:
Conceptualization, Methodology, Formal analysis, Data curation,
Visualization. S.M. Mir Mohammad Hosseini: Writing - review &
editing, Supervision, Project administration. F. Moghadas Nejad:
Validation, Writing - review & editing, Supervision.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influ-
ence the work reported in this paper.
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