1

Contents
Propaganda, Stereotypes, and the U.S. Media’s Portrayal of the Lebanese War and the Iraq War (WIP)...2
Introduction.................................................................................................................................................2
Similarities and Differences between the Lebanese War and the Iraq War.................................................4
Political and Economic Interests..................................................................................................................6
Cultural and Historical Stereotypes.............................................................................................................8
Propaganda................................................................................................................................................10
Analysis and Implications.........................................................................................................................11
Impact........................................................................................................................................................15
Conclusion.................................................................................................................................................15
References.................................................................................................................................................17
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Propaganda, Stereotypes, and the U.S. Media’s Portrayal of the Lebanese War and the

Iraq War (WIP)

Introduction

Conflicts in Iraq and Lebanon were two of the most important wars of the latter half of

the twentieth century and the first decade of the twenty-first. Compared to the fifteen years spent

fighting in Lebanon, the eight years spent fighting in Iraq were relatively short. In both conflicts,

regional and global interests and pressures collided in complicated ways. Over the course of the

Lebanese War, which included participation from Christian, Muslim, and Palestinian groups, an

estimated 120,000 people lost their lives. Hundreds of thousands of people lost their lives in the

Iraq War, which began with the invasion of Iraq by a coalition led by the United States and

ended with the overthrow of Saddam Hussein's regime.

Public opinion is greatly influenced by the media, especially during times of war and

conflict. Propaganda, cultural prejudices, and commercial interests, however, can have a

significant impact on how such events are covered in the media. This may lead to slanted and

false reporting that distorts the truth and deceives the general public. Therefore, the goal of this

study is to examine how the media in the United States has covered the Iraq War and the

Lebanese Civil War and spot instances of bias and misunderstanding. Media literacy abilities,

including the capacity to distinguish between news and propaganda, are crucial for

accomplishing this.

There were a wide variety of groups from inside and outside of Lebanon that were

involved in the Lebanese Civil War such as the Lebanese National Movement, the Phalange

Party, the Amal Movement, and the Syrian Army. War exacerbated preexisting divisions

between religious groups, political parties, and participating governments. Factors such as the
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American media's reliance on official sources and news websites, preconceived notions about the

Middle East, and the United States government's interests in the region all influenced how the

conflict was covered in American media (Leavenworth & Kansas, 2005). The media, for

instance, oversimplified the war by portraying it as a conflict between Muslims and Christians,

rather than the myriad of political and socioeconomic factors that contributed to it. For the sake

of reporting and comprehension, the media simplified the situation too much, but this

simplification did not do justice to the complexities at play. In his article, Robert Parry (2010)

highlights how the news coverage of the Lebanese Civil War and the Iraq War was frequently

influenced by official government sources, leading to skewed news accounts. This had a

profound effect on people's perceptions of the conflicts, both domestically and internationally.

Specifically, Parry points out how the US government provided misleading information about

the Iraqi weapons of mass destruction and Saddam Hussein's alleged connection to 9/11, which

contributed to the public support for the war in Iraq. Similarly, the Israeli government's

propaganda efforts during the Lebanese Civil War distorted the media's portrayal of the conflict,

often portraying Palestinians and Lebanese Muslims as terrorists and ignoring the role of Israeli

aggression.

he United States of America and its allies, most notably the United Kingdom, launched a

military intervention in Iraq in 2003. The rationale for the intervention was the allegation that

Saddam Hussein's Ba'athist regime possessed weapons of mass destruction (WMD) and was

providing support to terrorist organizations. The claims were made by officials from the US and

UK governments, including President George W. Bush and Prime Minister Tony Blair.

However, subsequent investigations found no evidence of WMD in Iraq, leading to accusations

that the justification for the war was based on false premises. The invasion was justified by
 4

claims that Iraq held WMDs. Similar to this, political and economic goals, cultural and historical

prejudices, and propaganda all played a significant role in the media's coverage of the Iraq War.

Despite the fact that the conflict was the result of a complex interplay of local and international

factors, the media primarily portrayed it as a struggle for independence and a conflict with

militants, without delving further into the underlying causes. In particular, the US media

frequently used official government reports that might be slanted (Ghosh, 2003). Different

cultural prejudices and historical preconceptions had an impact on how the war was portrayed in

the media, which resulted in the spread of propaganda and false information. For example, the

media frequently depicted the conflict as a conflict between Western civilization and Islamic

fundamentalism, which helped to reinforce stereotypes and false beliefs. Saddam Hussein's

alleged possession of WMDs and his connections to terrorist organizations were some of the

justifications for the Iraq War, but these assertions were later proven to be false.

Biased and inaccurate reporting that bolstered pro-military attitudes and influenced public

opinion was the result of propaganda and political, economic, and cultural biases in the media's

coverage of the conflicts in Iraq and Lebanon. To help promote social justice and inform policy

decisions, an unbiased examination of media coverage is essential. A more just and equitable

society can be achieved through increased public understanding and involvement, which can be

achieved through more accurate and transparent media reporting.

Similarities and Differences between the Lebanese War and the Iraq War

Both the Lebanese War and the Iraq War were devastating to their respective populations

and had far-reaching effects on Middle Eastern politics and society. Complex political rivalries,

local tensions, and external interference all played a role in fueling the conflicts. The media

presented them in contrasting ways despite their similarities. While the Iraq War was widely
 5

portrayed as a fight for independence and against terrorism, sectarian and regional divisions were

front and center in media coverage of the conflict in Lebanon (Harmon & Muenchen, 2009).

Lebanon's civil war, which lasted from 1975 to 1990, involved various political and

religious groups, with support from multiple national and international institutions, including

Israel, Syria, and the United States, each supporting separate factions for their own political

gains. For instance, Israel intervened in the conflict to counter the rise of Palestinian militants,

while Syria sought to maintain its influence in Lebanon. The United States provided support to

various factions that were aligned with its strategic interests in the region. As a result of the

conflict, numerous buildings were destroyed, hundreds of thousands of people were forced to

flee their homes, and countless lives were lost. In terms of specific numbers, it is estimated that

between 100,000 to 150,000 people were killed during the war, while more than a million people

were displaced.

In contrast, the United States invaded Iraq in 2003 to overthrow Saddam Hussein's

government and seize the country's stockpile of WMDs. The war continued until 2011, resulting

in the deaths of thousands of Iraqis, including innocent civilians, and the displacement of

millions of people from their homes. Furthermore, the conflict heightened racial tensions and

laid the groundwork for the rise of terrorist organizations like ISIS, which further worsened the

situation.

The coverage of the Lebanese Civil War and the Iraq War by the media was influenced

by propaganda, cultural biases, and economic interests, resulting in stark differences in the way

these conflicts were portrayed. The media outlets reporting on these conflicts had varied political

and economic objectives, as well as cultural and historical preconceptions, which shaped their

coverage. The coverage of the Lebanese War was influenced by the Israeli-Palestinian conflict
 6

and the Cold War, which portrayed the conflict as a battle between democratic principles and

communist ideology. The Western media depicted Israeli army and Christian militants as

defenders of Western ideas when pitted against leftist forces funded by Syria and the

Palestinians. This portrayal of Arabs and Muslims as aggressive and violent helped to strengthen

support for Israel and the West's participation in the conflict. In contrast, the media's portrayal of

the Iraq War was heavily influenced by the political climate following the attacks of September

11 and the ongoing war on terror. Despite the lack of evidence to substantiate this assertion, the

Western media depicted Saddam Hussein as a threat to world security with affiliations to terrorist

organizations and possession of weapons of mass destruction. This portrayal of Arabs and

Muslims as terrorists and extremists helped to create a narrative that justified the invasion and

occupation of Iraq, despite the lack of evidence to substantiate claims that Saddam Hussein

posed a threat to world security (Jalbert, 1985). It is important to note that the media outlets

reporting on both conflicts differed in their coverage due to the nature of the conflicts and the

cultural and political biases of the media.

During the Iraq War, political and cultural biases also played a role in shaping media

coverage. Initially, the American media presented the conflict as a response to the 9/11 attacks

and a mission to eliminate weapons of mass destruction. However, as the war continued and no

WMDs were found, the media became more critical of the war effort. Journalists faced

challenges reporting from Iraq, which forced them to rely heavily on official government sources

and hindered their ability to provide a comprehensive picture of the situation. Moreover, the

media's portrayal of Iraqis was problematic, with many outlets perpetuating negative stereotypes

and failing to recognize the complexity of Iraqi society. For instance, Iraqis were often depicted
 7

as a monolithic group rather than a diverse population with varied perspectives. Such biases in

the media coverage had profound impacts on the public's perception of the war.

Political and Economic Interests

Covering international wars in the media in Lebanon is only sometimes impartial or

objective because various political and economic interests usually influence it. The involvement

of politicians and other government officials in shaping media narratives, as well as ownership

and control of the media, as well as the conditions surrounding the conflicts in Lebanon and Iraq,

all had a part in defining media coverage. The ownership of the media and the structure of the

media has a significant influence on how successfully the media covers foreign problems. In

2004, media critic Ben Bagdikian discovered that just six media companies controlled 90% of

American news stations. As a result, there is a concern that several journals may have articles

that are almost identical to one another due to the lack of diversity in ownership and control of

news outlets. This demonstrates that a very small group of individuals who share similar

viewpoints had the majority of impact on the news that the general audience takes in (Kull,

2003). Biased or one-sided reporting on international crises and the suppression of information

that may not align with the views of media owners and their audiences are possible consequences

of a small number of media companies controlling the majority of American news stations.

Misinformation and government justifications are often spread through the media, as was

the case with the false information disseminated by the Bush Administration about Iraq's

possession of weapons of mass destruction (Stahl, 2008). The media was used to provide

legitimacy to the decision to invade Iraq, despite the absence of such weapons. Similarly,

throughout the conflict in Lebanon, political and economic concerns were the primary drivers of

media coverage, with initial news sources in the United States largely focusing on Israel's
 8

perspective and portraying the Lebanese as adversaries (Ghannam, 2011). However, it is

important to note that this coverage does not justify the high cost in civilian lives and property

destruction caused by the Israeli military's actions. Furthermore, the U.S. government benefited

from its strong ties to Israel and its belief that some Lebanese were linked to terrorist

organizations like Hezbollah (Western, 2005). This shows how easily media bias and political

opinion manipulation may be used.

The media's coverage of the Iraq War was influential in moulding public opinion, which

in turn was influenced by political and economic considerations. According to Klare (2004),

Iraq's huge oil reserves were a major motivating factor in the United States' decision to launch an

assault on the nation. Writers who opposed the war were often ignored or discarded at this time

(Bagdikian, 2004). Even though no WMDs were discovered and the war led to the emergence of

extremism, the media first concentrated on the claimed danger presented by Saddam Hussein's

WMDs (Gregory & III, 2014), which was relied on greatly by the administration. The media also

painted a picture of Iraqis desperate to get away from Saddam Hussein's rule. Journalists came

under fire for their coverage of the controversy regarding the war's widespread propaganda and

false information.

Given the influence of political and economic interests on how the media depicts topics

relating to other nations, it is vital to recognize and resist prejudice and dishonesty in the media.

To do so, "media literacy," or the capacity to understand and evaluate information presented in

different kinds of media, is recommended by Hobbs and Jensen (2009). One must also consider

the influence of competing interests on media coverage. A comprehensive understanding of

current events and the personalities in positions of authority in the media is also crucial.
 9

The media's influence on public opinion on matters pertaining to conflicts overseas has

been the subject of a great deal of research. The media's reporting, however, is often influenced

by political and economic agendas, which may lead to misconceptions and misinformation. One

must be media literate in order to critically assess the content and context of the news they read

or watch. Media literacy is crucial for navigating the modern, networked, and globalized world.

Cultural and Historical Stereotypes

Media sources exploited cultural and historical stereotypes to represent the individuals

participating in the conflicts in Lebanon and Iraq. These broad strokes painted an unflattering

picture of the troops by simplifying complicated political and social realities. Many Americans,

for instance, wrongly assumed that all Iraqis were threatening, barbaric, and deranged before and

during the Iraq War. The media had a role in perpetuating this misconception by bolstering

preconceived notions about Iraqis while failing to provide necessary background information on

the war (Ibrahim, 2015). Similarly, reportage on the Lebanese War presented Western liberalism

as being at odds with Middle Eastern savagery. In doing so, it reinforced unfavorable perceptions

of the Middle East and contributed to the perpetuation of long-standing cultural and historical

prejudices in Western media (Barnes, 1985). These dehumanizing portrayals of the Middle East

as "barbaric" and "uncivilized" reduced complicated political and socioeconomic concerns, thus

dehumanizing Lebanese and Iraqi people caught in the crossfire. Overall, these representations

led to unfavorable perceptions of the persons involved in the conflicts and perpetuated cultural

and historical prejudices. This highlights the need for both media literacy and critical study of

news reporting, as the topics are often oversimplified.

Media representations of the Lebanese and Iraqi wars that relied on cultural and historical

preconceptions affected how the general public saw both wars. These generalizations
 10

oversimplified serious social and political problems and gave false impressions of the people

involved in the disputes. The 2003 U.S. invasion of Iraq, for instance, was bolstered by media

portrayals of Iraqis as aggressive and uncivilized. Surveys showed that most Americans felt Iraq

was engaged in the September 11 attacks because of this portrayal, even though there was no

proof to back up this assertion. This shows how influential the media can be in changing people's

minds. Just as Melki (2015) claims the United States supported Israel's invasion of Lebanon in

1982 because it was portrayed as a battle between freedom and tribalism, so too was the conflict

in Lebanon framed in this way. These depictions were used to advocate for U.S. involvement,

but they reduced the complexity of the situation and dehumanized the troops.

Iraqis were frequently portrayed as irrational and angry in media coverage of the Iraq

war. This impression was bolstered by media coverage of theft and destruction of museums and

other cultural institutions in Iraq following US bombardment (Howard, 2017). The media,

however, failed to recognize the historical value of these sites and instead used the theft to

illustrate the brutality of the Iraqis. The media's portrayal of the bloodshed in Lebanon as a clash

between Western liberalism and Middle Eastern depravity is eerily similar. The current Syrian

crisis, on the other hand, is being portrayed as a clash between Western liberalism and Middle

Eastern barbarism (Schwalbe, 2015). The US administration backed Israel's invasion of Lebanon

in 1982 on the basis of this narrative, which portrayed Israel as a beacon of democracy in the

Middle East and the Lebanese resistance as barbarous.

Cultural and historical prejudices had a large role in the media's coverage of the Iraq War

and the Lebanese War, shaping how the public saw those conflicts. By focusing on the people

involved, photographs typically simplified complicated political and social situations.

Misleading depictions of the people and governments involved in the wars resulted from the
 11

omission of relevant historical and cultural circumstances. The media's simplification of the

underlying causes of the wars only served to enhance the public's ignorance and misperceptions

of those events. Media coverage of the conflicts had far-reaching effects on public opinion,

which had important political and societal repercussions.

Propaganda

Public and media perceptions of the wars in Lebanon and Iraq were profoundly impacted

by this misinformation campaign. Media outlets were used to spread false information by the US

administration in order to justify military intervention in both nations (Seib, 2015). The media's

portrayal of the civil war in Lebanon as a clash between Christians and Muslims, for instance,

was a fabrication that simplified the underlying political and economic factors that contributed to

the conflict. The US government has exploited this scenario to legitimize its backing for

Christian terrorists while simultaneously smearing Muslim organizations.

Propaganda is nothing new; it has been around for as long as there have been people

trying to influence public opinion. Indeed, propaganda was crucial in swaying public opinion in

support of the war effort during World War I. Similar propaganda efforts were made by both the

Axis and Allied powers throughout World War II (Welch, 2001). Propaganda is still used today,

with many people turning to social media to promote lies and misinformation. Governments and

other organizations may now more easily distribute misinformation and shape public opinion

because to the ubiquitous availability of technology. Therefore, it is more crucial than ever for

individuals to exercise skepticism toward the information they consume and to look to a variety

of sources in order to construct a more complete picture of the world around them.
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Analysis and Implications

It's worth noting that how conflicts are covered in the media can have an outsized effect

on how the international community reacts. While media bias and inaccuracies affected public

opinion in the United States, they also swayed policy and action in other nations during the Iraq

and Lebanon conflicts. The media's influence on how nations react to crises highlights the need

for fair and balanced coverage.

Propaganda and slanted reporting are not exclusive to these two wars; they have been

observed in other foreign conflicts as well. This shows how important it is for people to question

the validity of the information they receive and to look for different perspectives on controversial

topics. It also stresses the need for media to report fairly and accurately to help people make

better decisions and avoid violence.

It takes a critical outlook and skills in media literacy to counter the bias, disinformation,

and outright falsehoods perpetuated by the media. When we talk about "media literacy," we

mean the capacity to acquire, analyze, and produce a wide range of media forms. The critical

analysis aims to identify the assumptions, preconceptions, and attitudes that influence media

products. By studying the media and learning how to analyze it critically, individuals may better

understand the complexity of international conflicts and the role that the media plays in molding

public opinion and the decisions that politicians make.

People knowledgeable about the media and have analytical thought processes may also

be more prepared to detect the impact of cultural and historical biases on how events are

covered. If individuals can identify and confront their assumptions about events and other

people, they may improve their understanding of both. It's possible that doing so may enable

people from different cultural backgrounds better understand one another, which in turn will
 13

reduce the likelihood of violence and conflict (Pettigrew et al., 2006). By analyzing how the

media reported on the crises in Lebanon and Iraq, we can see how vital it is to comprehend and

address how the coverage of events in the media impacts public opinion and the decisions made

by political actors.

People need to be educated to read and analyze the media critically to decrease the

influence of media. Media literacy programs that teach people how to critically analyze the

media by giving them the skills they need to analyze and understand what they see are an

excellent way to do this. These courses might be mandatory for students or made available to the

public in the form of workshops and seminars. Activities such as media monitoring, fact-

checking, detecting media biases, and offering tools for accessing various and credible media

sources are all possible outcomes of such initiatives. It is possible to lessen the influence of

biased and misleading media on public opinion and political decisions by increasing public

knowledge of the need of media literacy and critical thinking. There has to be more transparency

and variety in how the media approaches covering major issues. When we talk about "greater

openness and diversity," we're referring to the media's presentation of differing viewpoints and

information sources, as well as its representation of individuals from a variety of cultural

backgrounds. In light of this, it is imperative that the media avoid stereotyping and give accurate

portrayals of all communities and individuals. Involving a wide variety of sources and expertise,

giving everyone a platform to be heard, and avoiding sensationalism and oversimplification are

all ways the media might do this. If alternative viewpoints and points of view are also featured in

media coverage of a conflict and the persons engaged in the conflict, the coverage may be more

informed and balanced. This may assist individuals in better comprehending the cultures of

others and will reduce the spread of misinformation.

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Holding the media accountable for any instances in which it distorts the truth in its

reporting is essential to ensuring accurate and unbiased coverage of conflicts. This can be

achieved through various forms of advocacy, such as criticism of media sources that perpetuate

damaging stereotypes or distribute false information (Surlis, 2003). Additionally, it is important

to demand more accurate and fair reporting of armed conflicts. By doing so, media outlets will

be incentivized to provide more balanced coverage and avoid spreading misinformation. This

will ultimately lead to a better-informed public and the potential for more effective conflict

resolution.

Examining media coverage of the Iraq War and the Lebanese War reveals the need for

critical thinking and an awareness of the media in the battle against media bias, falsehoods, and

misleading information. It is possible for efforts to encourage more ethical and responsible media

coverage and for the people to be educated on how to read and understand the media to have a

mitigating effect on the influence that media depictions have on public opinion and policy

choices. One method to help people get a more comprehensive and accurate knowledge of global

issues is to campaign for more moral and responsible media coverage.

Impact

Media coverage of conflicts, such as the ones in Lebanon and Iraq, is often influenced by

political and economic interests, cultural biases, and propaganda, all of which are used to

legitimize military action to the public. The impact of such media coverage is significant as it

can shape public opinion, create false narratives, and influence foreign policy decisions. To

counteract this, it is essential to recognize the prevalence of media bias and disinformation and

promote critical thinking and media literacy.

 15

For instance, during the conflicts in Lebanon and Iraq, the American media depicted

these wars as necessary to defend Western values against communist and terrorist threats,

respectively. This portrayal reinforced cultural and historical prejudices about Arab and Muslim

societies as aggressive and violent, while portraying the U.S. military as protectors of

democracy. Such representations legitimized the use of military force and justified the loss of

civilian lives and destruction of infrastructure.

Moreover, media coverage of conflicts is often incomplete and skewed due to reporters'

inability to access the front lines, forcing them to rely on official government sources and

propaganda. In the case of the Iraq War, the media coverage was characterized by the lack of

access to the front lines, which resulted in incomplete and biased coverage. The portrayal of

Iraqis as a homogenous group and the use of negative stereotypes further distorted the reality of

the conflict.

Therefore, it is crucial to recognize the impact of political and economic interests,

cultural biases, and propaganda on media coverage of conflicts. This recognition can help to

challenge false narratives and promote critical thinking and media literacy, which are essential in

understanding the truth of international problems and making informed decisions about foreign

policy.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the research highlights how the media's portrayal of conflicts in Lebanon

and Iraq was shaped by political, cultural, and economic interests. This study emphasizes the

need for media literacy and critical thinking to combat propaganda and biases that can lead to

misleading reporting and a lack of understanding of complex international issues. By recognizing

the power of the media to influence public opinion and policy during times of conflict,
 16

individuals can become more discerning consumers of news and better equipped to engage in

informed discussions about global affairs. Ultimately, the ability to think critically and recognize

media bias is essential for promoting peace and understanding in a world that is often divided by

conflicting narratives. Implications for researchers, journalists, and policymakers are discussed,

as is a proposed paradigm for gauging the veracity and bias of conflict reporting in the media.

The study also emphasizes the importance of media diversity and representation in providing

accurate and nuanced reporting on conflicts.

Future studies could investigate the effect of media literacy initiatives on reducing the

spread of biased or false information, as well as the role that social media plays in shaping

conflict coverage and public opinion.

There needs to be more accurate, balanced, and objective reporting on conflicts, and we

must acknowledge and address the media's role in shaping our understanding of these conflicts.

The more we learn about the nuances of conflict, the better equipped we will be to make

decisions that will have an impact.

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