Chapter 1: Vertical Transportation

Hong Kong Institute of Vocational Education

Higher Diploma in Building Services Engineering (EG114702)
Electrical Services and Building Management Systems (MBS4244)

Lecture Notes

Chapter 1: Vertical Transportation

1. Introduction

Lifts are installed into buildings to satisfy the vertical transportation needs of their
occupants and visitors and are necessary by virtual of human comfort and
convenience or by statuary regulations. In offices and other commercial buildings,
lifts are provided to improve efficiency by saving occupants time and avoid from
exhaustion after climbing up a long flight of stairs. During the past 20 years, the
number of high rise buildings has been increased drastically in Hong Kong. This has
urged a great demand on the elevator system.

Different buildings require different considerations on the lift system, a hospital lift
layout (shape of car to accommodate beds, minimum width of doors, special control
features, etc) would differ greatly from a lift system for a residential building or an
office building, a flatted factory building, car park buildings, godowns, hotels etc.

It should be pointed out that for economical reasons almost no lift system is perfect in
every respect but rather forms a comprise and summation of a number of factors
whose pros and cons have to be carefully weighed against each other.

Different mathematical methods of expressing the performance of lift installations

have long been established. Most of the large lift companies have deviced their own
methods and added their own experience and statistics into it, all with the same aim,
which is to predict as accurately as possible the characteristics of a lift installation.

2. Assessment of Transportation Demand

The difficulty in planning a lift system does not lie in calculating the lift performance
but in estimating

(a) what the demand is likely to be before the building is occupied; or

(b) the building population;

(c) what type of tenants or tenancy arrangement in speculative developments.

The maximum peak demand is expressed as the no. of persons who will be carried
during a given time period (i.e. a five-minute period for up-peak only).

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2.1 Assessment of Building Population

Statistical data shows that the space standards may vary from 7.5 to 19 m2 per
person for speculative developments. Experience on existing building shows
9.5 to 11.25 m2 as a good average range for office building.

2.2 Transportation during the Peak Period

Surveys show that between 10 and 25% of the building population will require
transportation during a five-minute peak period according to whether they start
or finish work at different times, as the building is let to:

(a) many tenants following different business interests;

(b) a single tenancy.

For buildings designed for letting, data can only be accumulated from similar
buildings in the area.

Staff punctuality may be affected by the efficiency of horizontal transportation

in the vicinity of the building (e.g. an office building adjacent to a railway
station or MTR station) and affects the up peak-demand.

2.3 Traffic Histogram for Typical Office Building

Fig. 1.1 below shows the vertical traffic pattern for a typical office building
occupied by a single tenant. For office buildings, the peak demand is usually
heaviest in the down direction.

Fig. 1.1 - Traffic Histogram for Typical Office Block

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2.4 Economic Considerations

The quality of lift service is affected by the no. of lifts provided. A building
with a high rental-potential will clearly demand a better quality of service than
a building with a low rental potential.

As a rule of thumb, the minimum no. of lifts required for an average office
building without detailing car sizes or speeds is given below:

Installation Quality of Service

1 lift per 3 storeys Excellent
1 lift per 4 storeys Acceptable
1 lift per 5 storeys Below average

For hotels or residential buildings, a lower standard will be acceptable.

3. Calculation of Lift Performance

The lift performance depends on characteristics such as

(a) acceleration;

(b) retardation;

(c) speed of door operation;

(d) switch timing and brake speed on starting;

(e) the degree of advance door opening offered etc;

(f) type of control strategy used.

4. The Round Trip Time (RTT)

It consists of the following components

(a) total running time;

(b) total door operating time;

(c) total passenger transfer time (entry and exit).

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RTT = Tup + Tdown + Tdoor + Tpt

where

Tup = total upward journey running time;

Tdown = total downward journey running time;

Tdoor = total door operating time, open and close;

Tpt = total passenger transfer time.

5. Lift Traffic Analysis for Equal Floor Population/Demand and Equal Interfloor
Distance

The following assumptions are made:

(a) all floors are equally populated;

(b) contract speed is achieved for a single floor jump;

(c) interfloor heights are assumed constant;

(d) the traffic supervisory system is assumed ideal;

(e) various lost times such as passenger disturbance, despatch intervals, loading
intervals etc are neglected.

5.1 Probable Number of Stops (S)

The probable no. of stops in the upward journey is given by:

P
 N - 1
S = N - N 
 N 

where

S = probable number of stops;

N = number of floors above the main terminal floor served in that zone;
P = number of passengers (assumed 80% of contract load).

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5.2 Highest Reversal Floor (H)

The average highest reversal floor reached

P
 i
N -1
H = N - ∑ 
 
i=1 N

Some designers, for the sake of simplicity, assume H to be N or in tall

buildings, N-1. This assumption gives the longest time in the calculation of tup
which is on the safe side under the worst condition.

5.3 The Upward Journey Running Time (Tup)

In the derivation of Tup, the following assumptions are made:

(a) the highest floor in the zone is reached;

(b) the distance between the consecutive probable stops is equal

(c) acceleration and deceleration of lift car is l m/s2 for comfortable ride

 L 
Tup = S + 2v
 Sv 

where L = total lift travel;

v = lift contract speed.

5.4 The Downward Journey Running Time(Tdown)

In the derivation of Tdown, it is assumed that the lift car travels down from the
highest reversal floor to the main terminal floor without any stops. This
assumption holds true since the peak demand is almost unidirectional at 9:00
a.m., 12:00 noon, 1:00 p.m. and 5:00 p.m.

L 
Tdown =  + 2v
v 

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5.5 Door Operating Time (Tdoor)

It is a function of door width, the door type and the operating speed and is
given by:

W
Tdoor = 2( S + 1)
vd

where

Tdoor = door operating time, open & close;

W = width of door;
vd = door operating speed.

5.6 Passenger Transfer Time (Tpt)

The average total time taken for each person to get into and out of a lift car
may be taken as 2 seconds and the total passenger transfer time Tpt is given by:

Tpt = 2p

where
p = no. of passenger in and out during the round trip

6. Lift Traffic Analysis for Unequal Floor Population/Demand and Unequal

Interfloor Distance

Floor population in a building can be diverse greatly and result in unequal demand.
Alternatively floor population may be substantially equal but the work routines may
be such as to cause unequal rates of population arrival during the peak period. The
effect of unequal floor demands is to modify the derivations of H and S.

All the floors in a building may not be of equal height. The main effect of unequal
floor heights is to increase the travelling time and to further change interfloor flight
times.

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6.1 Number of Stops S and Highest Reversal Floor H for Unequal Demand

Consider a building with:

N floors above main terminal floor;

P the average number of passengers present in a car as it leaves the.main
terminal floor;
U the total building population above the main terminal floor;
Ui the population of ith floor.

 1 N  Ui  P 
S = N 1 - ∑  1 -  
 N i =1  U  

P
 j Ui 
N -1
H = N - ∑ ∑ 
j=1  i=1 U 

6.2 Unequal Interfloor Distance

It is unlikely that the floor heights will vary in a gross fashion, and so probably
the easiest method to account for the additional times involved is to adopt the
following procedure:

(a) add together the incremental floor distance, extra to the typical
interfloor height;

(b) multiply (a) by two to account for both directions of travel and divide
by the contract speed to obtain the additional time.

6.3 Interfloor Flight Times

In a high speed lift system, for example, contract speed is 5 m/s or above, it is
very often impossible for the lift car to reach contract speed value between
two consecutive probable stops in the travel. This implies that the acceleration
or deceleration process may take several floor, invalidating the assumption
that jumps of greater than one floor are travelled at contract speed. A
difficulty does exist as it is not known how many single, double, triple etc
floor jumps are made during each round trip.

The simplest approach is to determined the most likely number of floors

jumped by evaluating the expression H/S and then to approximate to the
nearest integer below (J). If contract speed has been reached for jumps equal
to or less than J, all other floors will be travelled at contract speed. If J is
greater than two, some estimate of the number of jumps must be made.

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To allow for the interfloor jumps, an incremental correction to the Round Trip
Time is proposed as follows:

(a) determine H/S and approximate to integer below (J);

(b) estimate if jumps greater than J are possible and if contract speed is
reached in less than J floors;

(c) estimate proportion of jumps less than J;

(d) propose a statement for the spectrum of interfloor jumps and calculate
incremental values;

(e) add to the round trip time the incremental difference in flight time.

7. Lift Zoning

Zoning is useful in commercial buildings in improving the overall efficiency of a lift

system because of the reduced round trip time. It is cost saving because the lower
zone lifts can be operated at lower speeds and the number of landing door openings
can be reduced.

The degree of zoning is restricted by the minimum number of lifts which operate in a
group. Further the interval time is adversely affected by reducing the number of lifts
in a zone. The maximum number of lifts per zone is recommended not to exceed 6.

8. Lift Lobby Arrangement

Some lift lobbies arrangement are preferred as shown in Fig. 1.2 and is believed to
provide more efficient passenger circulation.

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Fig. 1.2 - Lobby arrangements for lift groups

9. Lift Controls

An operating system is that control that governs the automatic response of a single car
or a group of cars for service. Several control systems are:

9.1 Single Automatic Push-Button Control

It only handles one call at a time providing an uninterrupted trip for each call.
A single corridor button at each level can register a call when the car is not in
motion. To indicate the availability of the car, an “in use” light is placed over
the hall call button. It is applicable to a short-rise, inactive elevator.

9.2 Selective Collective Control

It is arranged to collect all waiting “up” calls on the trip up and hall “down”
calls on the down trip.

9.3 Group Supervisory Control

A group of passenger lifts require a supervisory system to coordinate the

operation of individual lifts, which are on collective control and are
interconnected. The system regulates the despatching of individual cars and
minimise uneven service, excessive waiting time and the presence of idle cars.
The control is done by microprocessor which is tailored made with specific
traffic algorithm.

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9.4 Attendant Control

The movement of car is controlled by a handle-operated switch which has UP,

DOWN and STOP positions. The lift is controlled manually by the attendant.

10. Technical Aspect of Electric Lifts

The following technical features need to be considered:-

10.1 Roping Arrangement

It can be of single-wrap traction, double-wrap traction and compensating rope

configuration to relieve loading on sheave and provide efficient travel
operations of the lift car.

10.2 Brakes

It is an electrical mechanical brake and is designed to fail safe. When the car
is stationary or the power supply is failed, the brake is applied by the disc
spring.

10.3 Guides

The car and counterweight guides are machined tee sections finished to very
fine limits. The car is guided on the rails by means of sliding shoes or roller
assemblers. For high speed lifts, the shoes may be provided with renewable
nylon linings.

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Fig. 1.3 - Structure of Lift Car

10.4 Counterweight

This consists of a rigid steel frame containing the required number of cast-iron
weights. The counterweight is normally 40-50% of the weight of the car plus
its load and friction. Friction is generally 20% of the counterweight.

10.5 Overspeed Governor

It is used to prevent the car from overspeeding due to the ropes breaking or
stretching or by some electrical fault. It is fitted with a pulley at least 300 mm
in diameter which is driven by a governor rope. One end of the rope is
attached to a braking system underneath the car, while the other end extends
upwards from the car, wraps around the governor pulley and extends down the
shaft to a tension pulley at the bottom and then returns to the car (Fig. 9.5)

Fly weights with spring control respond to overspeed and their movement is
used to break electrical contacts and trigger a mechanical device which arrests
the governor rope to operate the brake under the car.

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Fig 1.4 - Overspeed Governor and Equipment

Fig. 1.5 - A bi-directional overspeed governor installed with elevator

(Source:
https://vignette.wikia.nocookie.net/elevation/images/2/20/Kone_MonoSpace_governor.jpg/re
vision/latest?cb=20130304054813)

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10.6 Safety Gears

The safety gears are fitted below the car. When actuated by the overspeed
governor mechanism, the safety gear engages on a guide rail. There are 2
types:

(a) Instantaneous action - it consists of cams with machine-cut gripping

surface of hardened steel fixed to the underside
of the car. There are two cams on either side of
car and a mechanism is used to operate all four
cams instantaneously (used for low or medium
speed);

(b) Gradual action - it consists of hardened steel wedges which,

when brought into contact with the guide rail,
slide into position and exert a steadily increasing
pressure on the surface of the rail.

For both type of safety gears, a switch is provided to cut off the power supply
should the safety gear come into action.

11. Traction Machine

11.1 Arrangement of Elevator Machines, Sheave and Ropes

The driving force of the motor is transmitted to the car by means of friction
between the traction sheave and the hoist rope. Large friction is secured by
providing specially shaped sheave grooves.

Fig. 1.6 - Typical sheave groove

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Fig. 1.7- Elevator roping and sheave arrangement

(a) is the single wrap system. T is the sheave and S is a guide pulley. It is
called the deflector sheave. Usually the four or more supporting ropes pass
over the sheave.

Double wrap systems (b) provides greater traction than the single wrap
systems (a) and is used in high speed elevators (≥ 4 m/s).

The 2:1 (c) or 3:1 (d) roping has a mechanical advantage of 2 or 3, which
results in a high-speed, low-power, and therefore low-cost traction machine.
The 2:1 and 3.1 roping may be in single or double wrap arrangement. System
(c) allows the machine room be placed in the basement (which may be
desirable for architectural or other reasons), but much longer rope is required
in such arrangement, and consequently the problems of rope maintenance are
increased.

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11.2. Drive Control

Variable-voltage, variable-frequency (VVVF) control of an a-c traction motor

In Hong Kong, this arrangement is used in many high quality new installations. The
system consists of a rectifier, which changes the incoming 50 Hz a-c to d-c, and an
inverter, which creates variable voltage, variable frequency, and three-phase a-c from
the d-c.

This a-c is then applied to a standard induction motor, which operates essentially at
the speed corresponding to the frequency of the input. By controlling both the voltage
and frequency of the input to the motor, it is possible to provide continuously variable,
highly accurate speed control at extremely high efficiencies throughout the full speed
range of the motor.

Its major characteristics are:

• overall system efficiency is high at all motor speeds;

• traction motors are of economical single speed induction type;
• motors are 10- 15% smaller than equivalent drive systems;
• system power factor is close to unity;
• speed control and levelling are of very high quality; equal to d-c traction
motor control;
• requiring less maintenance;
• low starting current;
• system is applicable to all height and speeds;
• first cost is higher than the competing alternatives

Type Rise (m) Speed Control Initial Performance

(m/s) Cost
Gearless Unlimited > 2.0 VVVF High Excellent
ac

Fig. 1.7 - Speed control for VVVF control elevator drives

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