Lightning Protection in Buildings

1. Definition

Lightning flash an electrical discharge between cloud and earth, of atmospheric

origin, comprising one or more impulse of many kiloamperes;

Lightning stroke one of the single distinguishable current impulses of a lightning

flash;

Lightning strike a lightning flash attaching to a structure.

2 Introduction

The safety of any structure and its occupants exposed to lightning is dependent on a
correctly designed, manufactured and installed lightning protection system.

But despite ever-improving national and international standards, fatalities and costly
damage to property still occur, often through a complete lack of understanding, or
disregard, of the principles behind modern protection theory and practice.

3. Mechanism of lightning

The only prerequisite for lightning is clouds. There are many details of the
mechanism of charge build-up which remain theory even today. The usual
explanation views the cloud bank as a cell charged positively at the top and negatively
at the base. Inside the cloud, strong and warm convection currents of air carry
moisture up to an altitude of around 10,000 metres from which height super-cooled
water droplets and ice crystals precipitate. Positive and negative charges are
separated within the cloud and the process continually re-creates itself, increasing the
potential all the time.

Initially, lightning begins within the cloud. The energy dissipated by the internal
discharge results in some air being heated and ionised. This accelerates the charge
build-up processes. The discharge of static electricity is generated in parts called
‘cells’ of storm clouds.

Discharges then begin to take place between horizontally separate clouds leading to
even more violent air currents which, in turn. raise the overall potential.

Before the flash takes place, the potential of the charge cell may be estimated very
roughly by assuming the charge Q in the cell to be 100 Coulomb and the radius of the
equivalent spherical cell to be 1 km. C = 10-7 F.

Since Q = CV
V = 109 V

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The current in most ground flashes is from the negatively charged cells in the
thunder-cloud and the flash current is therefore a negative flow from cloud to ground,
less frequently, strokes from a positive part of the cloud also occur.

The lightning stroke starts by a step by step descent from the cloud of a leader stroke
stepping some tens of metres at a time. When the last step brings the tip of the leader
sufficiently close to earth, an upward streamer leaves the earth to join the tip of the
downward leader.

The initiation of this upward streamer depends on a critical field being exceeded at
the earth emission point and so is a function of the charge deposited by the down-
coming leader and any enhancement of the field caused by the geometry of the earth.
The length of the upward streamer will be greater for greater charges and hence high
current flashes will start preferentially from high structures for which the field
enhancement is high.

4. Current in a Lightning Stroke

The magnitude of the current in a lightning stroke follows the distribution:

1% of strokes exceed 200,000 A;

10% of strokes exceed 80,000 A;
50% of strokes exceed 28,000 A;
90% of strokes exceed 8,000 A;
99% of strokes exceed 3,000 A.

The current flow is unidirectional with a rise time of less than 10 μs and then a decay
to a low value in 100 μs or less.

The rate of rise of lightning current may be up to:

di
( ) max = 200 kA/μs
dt

5. Effect of Lightning Strike

5.1 Electrical Effect

As the current is discharged through the resistance of the earth electrode of the
lightning protection system, it may momentarily raise the potential of the
protection system to a high value relative to true earth. The high potential
gradient around the earth electrode may be dangerous to people and animals.

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5.2 Side-flashing

The point of strike on the protection system may be raised to a high potential
with respect to adjacent metal. There is a risk of flashover from the protection
system to any other metal on or in the structure. This flashover constitutes a
risk to the occupant and fabric of the structure.

5.3 Thermal Effects

It is confined to the temperature rise of the conductor through which the

current passes. Although the current is high, its duration is short and the
thermal effect on the protection system is usually negligible.

5.4 Mechanical Effects

Where a high current is discharge along parallel conductors in close proximity

or along a single conductor with sharp bends, considerable mechanical forces
are produced. Also, the lightning stroke may dislodges tiles from the roof and
cause damage to the building fabric.

6. Need for Protection

Structures with inherent explosive risks, e.g. explosives factories, stores and dumps
and fuel tanks usually need the highest possible class of lightning protection system.

In many other cases, the need for protection is self-evident

• where large number of people congregate;

• where essential public services are concerned;
• where the area is one in which lightning is prevalent;
• where there are very tall or isolated structures;
• where there are structures of historic or cultural importance.

However, there are many cases for which it is not so easy to make a decision. Under
these circumstances, an estimation of exposure risk should be carried out.

According to the Practice Note issued by the Building Department of HKSAR,

lightning protection systems are considered to be incorporated into the design of new
buildings.

The need for lightning protection and selection of adequate protection measures may
be assessed by a risk factor which varies according to the size (particularly the height),

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the use and the location (whether isolated) of the building and the number of
thunderstorm days per year. Methods of assessing the risk should comply with
relevant national/international standards such as the British Standard BS 6651,
Australian/New Zealand Standard AS/NZS 1768(Int):2003 and International
Electrotechnical Commission Standard IEC 62305. These standards also advise on
the design, construction and maintenance of lightning protection systems.

7. Estimation of Exposure Risk

The probability of a structure or building being struck by lightning in any one year is
the produce of the ‘lightning flash density’ Ng and the ‘effective collection area’ Ac
of the structure.

Ng is the number of flashes to ground per km per year.

The effective collection area of a structure is the area of the plan of the structure
extended in all directions to take account of its height. The edge of the effective
collection area is displaced from the edge of the structure by an amount equal to the
height of the structure at that point.

For a simple rectangular building of length L, width W and height H, the collection
area has length (L + 2H) and width (W + 2H) with four rounded corners formed by
quarter circles radius H.

Ac = LW + 2LH + 2WH + πH2

The probable number of strikes P to the structure per year is

P = Ac × Ng × 10-6

It should first be decided whether this risk P is acceptable or whether some measure
of protection is thought necessary.

If the overall risk factor is less than the acceptable risk of 10-5 (1 in 100,000), it is
generally considered acceptable.

Overall Risk Factor = P × weighting factors (A × B × C × D × E)

where

weighting factor A : use of structure (Table 7.1);

B : type of construction (Table 7.2);
C : contents or consequential effects (Table 7.3);
D : degree of isolation (Table 7.4);
E : type of country (Table 7.5).

(a) Weighting Factor A : Use of Structure

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This is a factor to consider the usage of the building.

Table 7.1 : Weighting Factor A - Use of Structure

Use To Which Structure Is Put Value of Factor A
Houses and other buildings of large size 0.3
Houses and other buildings of large size with outside aerial 0.7
Factories, workshops and laboratories 1.0
Offices, hotels, residential buildings 1.2
Churches, halls, theatres, post offices, airports, stadiums 1.3
Schools, hospitals, children's and other Homes 1.7

(b) Weighting Factor B : Type of Construction

This is a factor to consider the material, in terms of how attractive it is to

lightning, of the building/construction.

Table 7.2 : Weighting Factor B - Material of Building/Construction

Type of Construction Value of Factor B
Steel framed encased with roof other than metal 0.2
Reinforced concrete with roof other than metal 0.4
Steel framed encased or reinforced concrete with metal 0.8
roof
Brick, plain concrete, masonry with roof other than metal 1.0
or thatch
Timber framed or clad with roof other than metal or thatch 1.4
Brick, plain concrete, masonry, timber framed with metal 1.7
roof
Any building with thatched roof 2.0
A structure of exposed metal which is continuous down to ground level requires
no lightning protection.

(c) Weighting Factor C : Contents of Consequential Effects

This factor not only covers the value of contents but also the consequence of
disruption of essential services, e.g. hospital.

Table 7.3 : Weighting Factor C - Contents or Consequential Effects

Contents or Consequential Effects Value of Factor C
Ordinary domestic and office buildings, factories and 0.3
workshops not containing valuable and specially
susceptible contents
Industrial and agricultural building with specially 0.8
susceptible contents
Power stations, gas installation, telephone exchanges and 1.0
radio station
Key industrial plants, ancient monuments and historic 1.3
buildings, museums, art galleries and other buildings with
specially valuable contents
Schools, hospitals, children's and other Homes, places of 1.7
assembly

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(d) Weighting Factor D : Degree of Isolation

This is a factor to indicate the degree of isolation of the concerned building

from other constructions.

Table 7.4 : Weighting Factor D - Degree of Isolation

Degree of Isolation Value of Factor D
Structure located in a large area of structures or trees of the 0.4
same or greater height, e.g. in a large town or forest
Structure located in an area with few other structures or 1.0
trees of similar height
Structure completely isolated or exceeding at least twice the 2.0
height of surrounding structures or trees

(e) Weighting Factor E : Type of Country

This factor considers the altitude of the location of the building.

Table 7.5 : Weighting Factor E - Type of Country

Type of Country Value of Factor E
Flat country at any level 0.3
Hill country 1.0
Mountain country between 300m and 900m 1.3
Mountain country above 900m 1.7

8. Function of Lightning Conductor

A lightning conductor is incapable of discharging a thunder-cloud without a lightning

flash. Its function is to divert to itself a lightning discharge which might otherwise
strike a vulnerable part of the structure to be protected and to convey the current
safely to earth.

9. Zone of Protection

It is the volume within which a lightning protection conductor gives protection

against a direct lightning strike by directing the strike to itself.

The size and shape of the zone varies according to the height of the building or
vertical conductor.

Generally, for structures not exceeding 20 m in height for a vertical conductor rising
from ground level, the zone has been defined as the cone with its apex at the tip of the
conductor and its base on the ground; for a horizontal conductor the zone is defined as
the volume generated by a cone with its apex on the horizontal conductor moving
from end to end.

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For structures above 20 m, where there is a possibility of such buildings being struck
on the side, it is recommended that the protected volume should be determined using
the rolling sphere method.

10. Protective Angle

For structures not exceeding 20 m in height, the angle between the side of the cone
and the vertical at the apex of the cone is known as the protective angle.

For the practical purpose of providing an acceptable degree of protection for an

ordinary structure up to 20 m high and up to a height of 20 m for a higher structure,
the protective angle of any single component part of an air termination network,
namely either one vertical or one horizontal conductor, is considered to be 45°.
Between two or more vertical conductors, spaced at a distance not exceeding twice
their height, the equivalent protective angle may be taken as 60° to the vertical.

11. Components of the Lightning Protection System

The major components consist of the following:

• air terminations;
• down conductors;
• joints and bonds;
• test joints;
• earth terminations; and
• earth electrodes.

11.1 Air Terminations

Air termination has two forms:

• vertical conductor as illustrated in Fig. 9.1;

• horizontal conductor.

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Figure 9.1 - Typical forms of vertical air terminations

The following requirements should be met:

• no part of the roof should be more than 5 m from the nearest horizontal
conductor;

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• for large flat roofs, the size of the air termination mesh is approximately
10 × 20 m as illustrated in Figure 9.2

Figure 9.2 - Air terminations for a flat roof

• on multiple ridge roofs, additional conductors will be required if

separation, S, of the ridges is greater than 10 + 2H, where H is the height
of the ridge as illustrated in Figure 9.3.

Figure 9.3 - Air terminations for large areas of roof of various profiles

On a reinforced concrete structure, the air termination should be connected to

the reinforcing bars in the number of positions required for down conductors.

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11.2 Down Conductors

The position and spacing of down conductors on large structures is often

governed by architectural convenience. The number of down conductors is
recommended as follows:

11.2.1 For structures below 20 m high

1 down conductor for each 20 m or part thereof of the perimeter at roof

level or ground level, whichever is greater.

11.2.1 For structures above 20 m high

1 down conductor per 10m or part thereof.

11.3 Joints and Bonds

Any joint other than welded represents a discontinuity in the current

conducting system and is susceptible to variation and failure. Accordingly,
the lightning protection system should have as few joints as possible. The
common form of joints is illustrated in Figure 9.4.

Figure 9.4 - Test joints

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Bonds have to join the lightning protection system and a variety of metallic
parts of different shapes and composition. A bond should be mechanically
and electrically effective and protected from corrosion and erosion by the
operating condition.

11.4 Earth Termination Network

The whole of the earth termination network should have a combined resistance
to earth not exceeding 10 Ω without taking account of any bonding to other
service.

Figure 9.5 - Earth terminations: arrangement of earth electrodes

11.5 Earth Electrode

Earth electrodes may consist of metal rods, tubes or strips or a combination of

these or natural earths such as piles and foundations.

12. Protection Measures for Structures Exceeding 20 m in Height

Where there is a possibility of such buildings being struck on the side, it is essential
that adequate measures should be provided for the following types of

12.1 Non-conducting Structures

At least two equally spaced down conductors should be provided and it should
be ensured, using the rolling sphere method that the air termination gives the
desired zone of protection.

12.2 Conducting Structures

A horizontal air termination should be installed at the top and bonded to the
steel frame, but where down conductors are required, not less than two should
be installed and these should be spaced at not more than 10 m apart around the
perimeter.

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12.3 Churches Towers and Spires

Not less than two down conductors should be provided for all church towers
and spires.

For non-conducting structures, an air termination network should be designed

to follow the construction contours of a tower. Flagpoles and other salient
feature above the parapet level should also be included in the system. The
remainder of the church including the ridge, eaves and etc should be protected
by down conductors, earth termination networks and lightning protection
potential equalization.

13. Rolling Sphere Method for Layout Design of the Air Termination Network

Traditionally, the air termination network has been positioned on the uppermost part
of the building only, based on the theory that it afforded protection to all parts of the
structure within a 45° or 60° (depending on the standards used) from the vertical.
However, reports of tall structures suffering damage on their sides caused by lightning
has led to a modification of the 45°/60° zone of protection theory.

To determine the part of building which is likely to be struck by the lightning, the
rolling sphere method is employed. Since the lightning leader can approach the
building from any position, all possible positions for the leader approach can be
simulated by rolling an imaginary sphere, of a radius equal to the last step length, all
around and over the building right down to the ground as illustrated in Figure 13.
Where the sphere touches the building a strike could occur and such a portion or
surface may need an air termination. In general, the smaller the size of the sphere, the
greater the protection but the more costly the installation. In BS 6651, it is
recommended that design should be based on a sphere of radius 20 m.

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Figure 13 – The rolling sphere method of lightning protection system design

14. Prevention of Side-Flashing to Other Metals

When a lightning protection system is struck, its electrical potential with respect to
earth is raised and, unless suitable precautions are taken, the discharge may seek
alternative paths to earth by side-flashing to other metal (which is earthed) in the
structure.

There are two methods of preventing side-flashing:-

(a) Isolation

It requires large clearances between the lightning protection system and other
metal in the structure. Its main drawbacks lie in the difficulty of obtaining and
maintaining the necessary safe clearance and in ensuring that isolated metal
has no connection to ground.

(b) Bonding

It is the more commonly used method.

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14.1 Estimation of Clearances to Prevent Side-Flashing

The necessary clearance to prevent side-flashing depends on the voltage

sustained by lightning protection system with respect to earth, which in turn
depends on the strength of current in the lightning flash. The following
procedures are adopted for estimating the necessary clearance:-

Step 1 : Determination of Expected Current

To determine the current in the lightning flash, the following steps are taken:-

• the risk of structure being struck, P is estimated, i.e.

P = Ac × Ng × 10-6

• the estimate risk P is divided by the acceptable risk Po (Po = 10-5)

• by using Figure 14.1, the maximum current likely to occur is determined.

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Figure 14.1 - Curve for Determining Probable Maximum Current in Lightning

Flash from the Ratio P/Po and the Flashover Voltage in Air as a Function of
Spacing

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Step 2 : Determination of Voltage Sustained by Lightning System

This has two components:-

VR = product of the current and the resistance to earth;

VL = product of the rate of change of current and the inductance of the down
conductor.

(i) VR = IR

where

I = current determined in step 1, with a maximum of 200 kA;

R = resistance of the earth termination network.

* resistance of down conductor is small compared with earth

termination hence can be neglected.

(ii)
di M
VL = ( ) max × T
dt n

where

MT = transfer inductance in μH/m;

= 0.46 × l × log(s/r)

s = separation distance (in m) between the lightning

protection conductor and another vertical metal
component;

r = radius of a vertical lightning conductor (m);

= re (effective radius for non-circular down conductor in

m);
= (width + thickness)/3.5;
di
( ) max = maximum rate of change of current, i.e. 200 kA/s;
dt
l = loop length (in m);

n = number of down conductors sharing the lightning

current simultaneously.

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Step 3 : Judgement

Although VR and VL are different in phase, a scalar addition of VR and VL will

give an estimation voltage sustained in a lightning protection system in the
worst case.

If (VR + VL) is greater than the flash-over voltage for the given spacing in
Figure 7.2.2, bonding of the metallic parts at top is required.

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