High-Voltage Engineering

Part V
WS 2017/18
Dirk Uhrlandt
University Rostock /
Leibniz-Institute for Plasma Science and
Technology Greifswald
3. Discharges I

Agenda

 Introduction
 Particle interaction
 Plasma ignition (example dielectric barrier discharge)
 Breakdown mechanism / Paschen law
 Streamer mechanism

D. Uhrlandt, Lecture HVE, Discharges I, Rostock, WS 17/18 2

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 Introduction

Discharges in power distribution systems:

high-voltage transmission lines high-voltage insulation
corona discharges partial discharges

medium
voltage low voltage

high voltage
power
power grid bulk
station small and domestic consumers
consumers

gas insulated switchgear vacuum switchgear switchgear in ambient air

high-pressure arc vacuum arc arc in ambient air

D. Uhrlandt, Lecture HVE, Discharges I, Rostock, WS 17/18 3

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 Introduction

Discharges in power distribution systems:

homogeneous /
strongly inhomo- surfaces voids
weakly inhomo-
geneous field
geneous field

partial
breakdown
(no voltage
breakdown) corona surface partial
no discharge discharge discharge discharge

breakdown
(surge
breakdown partial
voltage) spark / arc surface discharge
flashover breakdown

D. Uhrlandt, Lecture HVE, Discharges I, Rostock, WS 17/18 4

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 Introduction

A plasma is a quasi-neutral gas mixture of electrons,

ions and neutral particles interacting with each other.
Features in excess of a gas:
• conducting
- freely movable charge carriers -
- macroscopic space charges
• reactive / high internal energy +
- large kinetic energy of charge carriers
- excitation of heavy particles resulting
in an additional energy reservoir
- intensive interaction with surfaces
• radiating
- de-excitation of excited atoms,
molecules and ions

D. Uhrlandt, Lecture HVE, Discharges I, Rostock, WS 17/18 5

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 Introduction

Classification of plasmas: high-pressure

arc
arc at
atmospheric
pressure
partial-
discharge
electron density

(DBD)

corona-
vacuum arc discharge

pressure (Pa)
D. Uhrlandt, Lecture HVE, Discharges I, Rostock, WS 17/18 6
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 Particle interaction

Kinetic theory of the ideal gas:

• many particles moving
rapidly and incidentally
• particle trajectory
can be divided into

collision processes
collision-free
sections • interaction radius << mean free path
• movement under the << vessel dimension
action of external fields • collision time  0, particle radius  0
• binary collisions only
• no influence of external field
D. Uhrlandt, Lecture HVE, Discharges I, Rostock, WS 17/18 7
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 Particle interaction

Binary collisions:
• elementary treatment: particle and particle

v V
r r u=v-V
r+r

probability of a collision of particle  with one particle  in time step t:

W  = N (r+r)2 |v-V| t
collision cross section Q   x distance covered by particle 

collision frequency (of particle ): = N Q  |v-V|

mean free path between collisions (of particle ): =1/ N Q 
D. Uhrlandt, Lecture HVE, Discharges I, Rostock, WS 17/18 8
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 Particle interaction

Species in low-temperature plasmas

(up to 30000 K / several eV):
 stable atomic nucleus
 only changes in the atomic shell are of interest
 in most cases: state of the electron in the outer shell (valence
electron) is of interest
outer atomic shell
(non-occupied orbitals)

atomic shell
(orbitals occupied by electrons - negative)

atomic nucleus
(protons - positive, neutrons)

D. Uhrlandt, Lecture HVE, Discharges I, Rostock, WS 17/18 9

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 Particle interaction

Elastic electron-atom collision: A + e-→ A + e-

• energy transfer ~ / , ≪ , ≪
cross section

free electron ( , )

me v e  ma v a  me v´e  ma v´a
me 2 ma 2 me 2 ma 2
ve  va  ve  va
atom ( , ) 2 2 2 2

D. Uhrlandt, Lecture HVE, Discharges I, Rostock, WS 17/18 10

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 Particle interaction

Electronic excitation of atoms: A + e-→ A* + e-

• energy transfer ≥
cross section

free electron

me v e  ma v a  me v´e  ma v´a
me 2 ma 2
ve  va
atom 2 2
excited atom me 2 ma 2
 ve  va  uaex
2 2
D. Uhrlandt, Lecture HVE, Discharges I, Rostock, WS 17/18 11
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 Particle interaction

Electronic excitation of atoms: A + e-→ A* + e-

• energy transfer ≥

De-excitation
free electron A* → A + hν

atom radiation
excited atom

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 Energy levels of excited atom

Radiative de-excitation: ∆ =ℎ =
example
argon (1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6)
radiation emission spectrum:

E (eV)
16 Uio=15,8 eV

15
6s
14 4d 5p
5s 4p
13
419 nm 3d
12 750 nm

11 4s

0
≈ 107 nm

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 Particle interaction

Electronic ionisation of atoms: A + e-→ A+ + 2 e-

• energy transfer ≥ cross section

free electron free electron

me v e  ma v a
 me ( v´e  v´´e )  ma v´a
me 2 ma 2
ve  va
2 2
atom singly ionized atom me 2 2 ma 2
  
(ve  ve )  va  u aio
2 2
D. Uhrlandt, Lecture HVE, Discharges I, Rostock, WS 17/18 14
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 Particle interaction

Electronic ionisation of atoms: A + e-→ A+ + 2 e-

• energy transfer ≥
Recombination
free electron free electron A+ + e- → A + hν

radiation
atom singly ionized atom

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 Particle interaction

Electronic ionisation of atoms: A + e-→ A+ + 2 e-

• energy transfer ≥

source: P.G. Slade,

The vacuum interrupter, CRC Press 2008

D. Uhrlandt, Lecture HVE, Discharges I, Rostock, WS 17/18 16

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 Particle interaction

Electron attachment: A + e-→ A-

Remarks:
free electron • all mentioned collision
processes also
possible for molecules
instead of atoms
• additional processes:
 dissociation of
molecules
 molecule formation
 excitation to
rotational and
atom vibrational states
negative ion

D. Uhrlandt, Lecture HVE, Discharges I, Rostock, WS 17/18 17

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 Particle interaction

Mean free path:

• for elastic collisions: electric field E
m=1/ N0 Qel ~ p ionising
• for ionising collisions: electron collisions
eleastic
io= z m  uio /(e0E)
collisions
(way for acceleration in
the electric field to
reach ionisation energy)

collisions probability for

elastic collisions:
F(m)=1/ m electron drift
velocity v
electron mobility: m
e0 l
be  z m
2me v N 0Qel  nioQio
D. Uhrlandt, Lecture HVE, Discharges I, Rostock, WS 17/18 18
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 Particle interaction

Electron mean free path m

Examples for 1 bar, 20°C: air 280 …545 nm
He 890 … 1675 nm
Ne 580 … 1095 nm
CO2 185 … 345 nm
source: P.G. Slade,
The vacuum interrupter, CRC Press 2008

D. Uhrlandt, Lecture HVE, Discharges I, Rostock, WS 17/18 19

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 Particle interaction

Ionisation coefficient:
• consider number of drifting (accelerated)
electrons N(x) at x
• change of this number dN
N(x)
due to elastic collisions in dx: N(x+dx)
dN=-N(x) dx / m =N(x)+dN
• integration of
dN/N=- dx / m
from 0 to io gives probability of dx x
ionising collision (probability of
acceleration to reach ionisation energy) per unit length:
F(io )=N(io )/N(0)=exp(- io / m ) ~f(E/p)
• Townsend’s first ionisation coefficient
=F(m) F(io )= 1/ m exp(- io / m ) = 1/ m exp(- uio / (e0E m))
• =p f(E/p)

D. Uhrlandt, Lecture HVE, Discharges I, Rostock, WS 17/18 20

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 Particle interaction

Attachment coefficient:
• consider change of number of drifting electrons
due to attachment on atoms / molecules
(in particular for gases SF6, CO2 and air)

• only for slow electrons with an acceleration

way x< att
 /p
• attachment coefficient (probability of
attachment collisions times probability
( -η)/p
of elastic collisions):
η=F(m) F(att )= 1/ m (1-exp(- att / m )) η/p
η=p fatt(E/p)

• effective ionisation coefficient: E/p

eff=  -η=p feff(E/p)

D. Uhrlandt, Lecture HVE, Discharges I, Rostock, WS 17/18 21

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 Particle interaction with surfaces

Particle adsorbtion: Surface recombination:

• sticking coefficient • recombination coefficient
+

Secondary electron emission: Thermoemission of electrons:

• emission coefficient  • emission ~ surface temperature
+

D. Uhrlandt, Lecture HVE, Discharges I, Rostock, WS 17/18 22

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 How a plasma is ignited?

• High voltage between Separation of contacts at

contacts flowing current

--

 

++

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 How a plasma is ignited?

Contact separation:

Vacuum arc:
CuCr contacts (flat),
distance 1.2 mm,
Separation with 2 m/s
DC-pulse 5 ms,
2.3 kA, 3.0 kV

D. Uhrlandt, Lecture HVE, Discharges I, Rostock, WS 17/18 24

 How a plasma is ignited?

High voltage between contacts:

M=

1 mm
1 mm A

source: R. Brandenburg, INP

source: R. Brandenburg, INP Breakdown between insulated electrodes in air
(dielectric barrier discharge)
U0 = 10 kV (voltage pulse of 10 μs)
D. Uhrlandt, Lecture HVE, Discharges I, Rostock, WS 17/18 25
 How a plasma is ignited?

• Breakdown between contacts

-- Critical parameters:
• voltage U
• distance d
U • medium
(gas, pressure,
d temperature)

++

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 How a plasma is ignited?

• Example: dielectric barrier discharge

--
- -

 -
+

++

I charging of the gap

displacement current,
increase of electric field

acceleration of charge
carriers in the gap
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 How a plasma is ignited?

• Example: dielectric barrier discharge

---

-
 +
- -
+ +
- - - -

+++
source:
R. Brandenburg, INP
II pre-breakdown phase
chain reaction of
electronic ionization,
several 100 ns

electron avalanches
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 How a plasma is ignited?

Electron avalanche

++
-
+ +
+
- -
+ + E
- - - -

---

source: H. Raether,
Z. Phys. 112 (1939) 464

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 How a plasma is ignited?

• Example: dielectric barrier discharge

----

 +

++++

III dielectric breakdown

positive streamer
propagation,
avalanches at the head
build up of a
conductive channel
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 How a plasma is ignited?

• Example: dielectric barrier discharge

----

-

-

++++
IV filament
current in the
discharge channel,
few ns

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 How a plasma is ignited?

• Example: dielectric barrier discharge

----

- - - - - -

++++

V relaxation phase
screening of the
dielectric surfaces by
charges (about 20 ns),
reduced electric field,
discharge current stops
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 Breakdown mechanism

cathode
Critical phases: ---
 Multiplication of ionization
 build up of electron avalanches
-
 increase of current
U
 self-sustainment of the
+
- - d
discharge + +
- - - -

+++
anode

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 Breakdown mechanism

Mechanism: cathode
---
1. electric field accelerates N1 free electrons
(initial electrons from UV photo-ionisation
or from thermal emission at the cathode) -
2. collisional ionization of atoms in the gap U +
- - d
3. change of number of electrons in the gap: +
dN=N dx  … ionisation coefficient -
+
- - -
4. integration over gap distance d yields:
N=N1 exp(d) +++
the number of electrons reaching the anode anode
(for =const and N1 initial electrons at the cathode)
5. at the same time: N-N1 ions are produced in the gap
and reach the cathode
6. secondary electron emission at the cathode with  yields
N2 =  (N-N1 )=  N1 (exp(d)-1) electrons at the cathode

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 Breakdown mechanism

Mechanism:
No. of initial electrons electrons in ions arriving at the
avalanche the avalanche cathode

1 N1 N1 exp(d) N1 (exp(d)-1)

2 N2 = N2 exp(d) N2 (exp(d)-1)
 N1 (exp(d)-1) = N1 (exp(d)-1)2

3 N3 = N3 exp(d) N3 (exp(d)-1)
 N2 (exp(d)-1) = 2N1 (exp(d)-1)3

sum of electrons in all avalanches

N = + + +⋯= ∑ −1 = ( )

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 Breakdown mechanism

Mechanism: three cases

i electrons
( − 1) < 1
ions current pulse
(no breakdown)
t
i electrons
−1 =1
ions limit case of
breakdown
t
~0,1 μs ~10 μs
i
−1 >1
electrons breakdown

ions

t
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 Breakdown mechanism

Breakdown condition:
 limit case
expd   1 /   1
  depends on mean free path m and ionization potential uio :
1  uio  e0Em is the energy gained
 
exp  
m  e0 Em  by the electron between collisions

 with voltage U=Ed and m=1/p (p… pressure) follows:

pd  uio pd  1  uio pd   1 
  d  exp 
  
  ln   1  ln pd   ln 1 ln  1 

1  e0 1 U    e0 1 U   
B C
 Paschen law: Bpd Bpd
U ( pd )  
C  ln( pd ) ln Apd
ln1  1 /  
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 Paschen law

Breakdown between contacts: Bpd

if U  Ucrit for given p0d and gas U ( pd ) 
C  ln( pd )

vacuum transition
breakdown area space
charge
space charge free dominated
discharge breakdown
voltage U

(Townsend
breakdown)

breakdown in HID lamp

source: M. Kettlitz, INP
pressure x distance

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 Paschen law

Minimum: Bpd
U ( pd ) 
dU ( pd ) Apd
0 ln
d ( pd ) ln 1  1 /  
e
 ( pd ) min  ln 1  1 /  
A
eB
U min  ln 1  1 /  
A

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 Paschen law

Breakdown between contacts:

Bpd
if U  Ucrit for given p0d and gas U ( pd ) 
Apd
ln
ln 1  1 /  
gas A B E/p    Umin (pd)min
1/(mm kV/(mm kV/(mm for Al for Cu for Fe V bar μm
bar) bar) bar)
air 1130 27,4 11 – 45 0,035 0,025 0,02 330 – 350 7,3
N2 977 25,5 8 – 45 0,1 0,065 0,06 240 – 250 8,6
H2 376 9,8 11 – 30 0,1 0,05 0,06 230 – 270 2 - 14
He 210 2,6 2 – 11 0,02 - 0,015 155 53
Ar 1020 13,5 8 - 45 0,12 0,06 0,06 94 – 265 9
CO2 1500 34,9 37 - 75 - - - 420 6,8
SF6 - - - - - - 507 - 540 2,6 - 3,5

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 Paschen law

Examples:

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 Paschen law

Examples:

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 Streamer mechanism

 space charge effects after generation of high number of charge

carriers (~1010 cm-3) due to avalanches (for sufficient pd)
 generation of a conducting channel (streamer)
positive streamer negative streamer
cathode cathode
---- uncharged ----
gas <
avalanches
+ >
-
 -
+ streamer 
head +
>
-
streamer
≈
++++ ≈ ++++
anode anode
D. Uhrlandt, Lecture HVE, Discharges I, Rostock, WS 17/18 43
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 Streamer mechanism

Conditions:
 streamer propagation:
v~104 … 105 m/s = 10 … 100 cm/μs
 condition for streamer establishment:
>
 this is typically fulfilled
in air for E/p > 24 kV/(bar cm)
U > d 2,44 kV/mm + 2,12 kV/mm-1/2 (p=1 bar)
and in SF6 for E/p > 88 kV/(bar cm)
U > pd 8,77 kV/(bar mm) + 0,7 kV
 estimations valid only for static fields and voltages

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 Streamer mechanism

Conditions for fast increasing voltages – delayed breakdown:

 consider time until full development of a (macroscopic)
conducting channel (break down of applied voltage),
time lag:
tD=t0 + tS + tA + tF
 t0 … time for increase of voltage until (static) breakdown voltage
(voltage delay time)
tS …statistical time for availability start of streamer
of initial electrons u(t) avalanches propagation
voltage
(statistical time lag) Umax breakdown
tA …time for establishment of the
first conducting channel A
(formative time lag)
tF …time for establishment of the Ud
highly conducting channel
- depends on electrical circuit
(spark growth time)
t t t t t
 consider voltage-time area A*d 0 S A F

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 Streamer mechanism

Conditions for fast increasing voltages – delayed breakdown:

 streamer propagation velocity ~ voltage u(t)-Umax
 gap distance: t0 t S t A

d~  (u (t )  U
t0 t S
d )dt  Ad

 relation Ad  const
 voltage characteristic for given configuration (gap distance d)

u(t)
example:
lightning
impulse
voltage
1 … 50 μs Ud

t
D. Uhrlandt, Lecture HVE, Discharges I, Rostock, WS 17/18 46
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