BI

BITS

IADC Drilling Manual 12th Edition

IADC Drilling Manual • Copyright © 2015

 BITS BI–i

CHAPTER

BI
BITS

he IADC Drilling Manual is a series of reference guides assembled by volunteer drilling-industry professionals with
T expertise spanning a broad range of topics. These volunteers contributed their time, energy and knowledge in
developing the IADC Drilling Manual, 12th edition, to help facilitate safe and efficient drilling operations, training, and
equipment maintenance and repair.

The contents of this manual should not replace or take precedence over manufacturer, operator or individual drilling
company recommendations, policies or procedures. In jurisdictions where the contents of the IADC Drilling Manual may
conflict with regional, state or national statute or regulation, IADC strongly advises adhering to local rules.

While IADC believes the information presented is accurate as of the date of publication, each reader is responsible
for his own reliance, reasonable or otherwise, on the information presented. Readers should be aware that technology
and practices advance quickly, and the subject matter discussed herein may quickly become surpassed. If professional
engineering expertise is required, the services of a competent individual or firm should be sought. Neither IADC nor the
contributors to this chapter warrant or guarantee that application of any theory, concept, method or action described in
this book will lead to the result desired by the reader.

PRINCIPAL AUTHORS
Tyler Cobb, Baker Hughes
Dan Scott, Baker Hughes
Ron Dirksen, Halliburton
Alfazazi Dourfaye, Varel International
Craig Fleming, Schlumberger
Richard Rivera, National Oilwell Varco
Jorge Silveus, Ulterra

REVIEWERS
Bob Radtke, Technology International, Inc.
Ernesto Medialdia, Drilling Consultant

IADC Drilling Manual Copyright © 2015

BI–ii BITS

This is a chapter of the IADC Drilling Manual, 12th edition.

Copyright © 2015 International Association of Drilling Contractors (IADC), Houston, Texas.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form
without the prior written permission of the publisher.

International Association of Drilling Contractors

10370 Richmond Avenue, Suite 760
Houston, Texas 77042
USA

ISBN: 978-0-9909049-0-8

Printed in the United States of America.

IADC Drilling Manual Copyright © 2015


CHAPTER BI
BITS
Introduction......................................................................BI-1
Roller cone development.........................................BI-1
Early diamond bit development.............................BI-2
PDC arrives..................................................................BI-2
Dual/dueling bit evolution......................................BI-2
Directional drilling considerations........................BI-3
Motor roller cone................................................BI-3
Steerable PDC......................................................BI-3
King diamond.......................................................BI-4
Emerging technology.........................................BI-4
Drill bit basics....................................................................BI-5
History..........................................................................BI-5
Drilling bits classification....................................... BI-6
Design basics............................................................. BI-6
Roller-cone bits....................................................BI-6
Offset......................................................................BI-6
Journal (bearing pin) angle.............................. BI-7
Soft formations: low journal angle................ BI-7
Hard formations: high journal angle............. BI-7
Design factors summary........................................ BI-8
Lubrication and pressure compensation system....BI-8
Roller cone.................................................................. BI-8
Diamond bits...............................................................BI-9
Bit profile...............................................................BI-9
Bit profile types....................................................... BI-11
Blade geometry: straight or spiral..................... BI-11
Specialized roller-cone bits.................................. BI-12
Air bits..................................................................BI-12
Jet deflection bits..............................................BI-12
Specialized fixed-cutter bits..........................BI-12
Sidetrack bits......................................................BI-12
Impregnated bits...............................................BI-12
Surface-set diamond bits/natural
diamond bits.......................................................BI-13
Core bits..............................................................BI-13
Hybrid bits (PDC and roller cone)...............BI-13
IADC Drilling Manual
BITS BI-iii
Contents
Hole openers.................................................... BI- 14
Hammer bits.......................................................BI-15
Casing-while-drilling bits................................BI-15
Two-cone bits....................................................BI-15
Impreg and PDC hybrid bit............................BI-15
Cutting structures..........................................................BI-16
Roller cone.................................................................BI-16
Steel tooth...........................................................BI-16
Tunsgten carbide inserts................................BI-16
Diamond bits.............................................................BI-16
PDC cutter technology....................................BI-16
PDC types...........................................................BI-17
Diamond table...................................................BI-17
Cutter shape.......................................................BI-17
Thermally stable polycrystalline cutters.................BI-18
Leaching..................................................................... BI-18
TSP application........................................................ BI-18
Cutter design............................................................ BI-18
Finite-element analysis......................................... BI-18
Impact test................................................................ BI-18
Abrasion test.............................................................BI-19
Thermal stability......................................................BI-19
Substrate interface..................................................BI-19
Related equipment.........................................................BI-19
Additional bit accessories.....................................BI-19
Installation................................................................ BI-20
Nozzle and plug installation and removal.............. BI-20
PDC nozzle installation......................................... BI-20
PDC ports, plug removal...................................... BI-21
PDC nozzle installation and removal tools...... BI-21
Roller cone, nozzle installation........................... BI-21
Snap ring........................................................... BI-21
Retaining pin.................................................... BI-21
Large diamenter bits – center jets
and ports................................................................... BI-21
Roller cone, nozzle removal................................. BI-21
Copyright © 2015
BI–iv BITS
Roller cone nozzle installation
and removal tools................................................... BI-21
Bit make-up procedure.......................................... BI-21
Bits run on special BHA tools............................. BI-22
Suggested operating recommendations.......... BI-22
Optimizing parameter overview......................... BI-23
Mechanical specific energy....................................... BI-23
Importance in drilling operations....................... BI-23
Definition................................................................... BI-23
Application................................................................ BI-23
Monitoring drilling parameter procedures.............BI-24
Data sources............................................................ BI-24
General overview of monitoring......................... BI-24
Rotary speed............................................................ BI-24
Torque........................................................................ BI-24
Weight on bit........................................................... BI-24
Flow rate.................................................................... BI-24
When to pull the drill bit...................................... BI-25
Pull the bit for ROP.......................................... BI-25
Pull the bit for mechanical damage............ BI-25
PDC bits..................................................... BI-25
Roller-cone bits........................................ BI-25
Factors in premature bearing failure:........ BI-25
Pull the bit for bit balling............................... BI-25
Pull the bit for nozzle problem..................... BI-25
Lost nozzle................................................. BI-25
Plugged nozzle......................................... BI-27
Dull grading and forensics.......................................... BI-27
System enhancements.......................................... BI-27
Evaluating “cutting structure”............................. BI-28
Inner/ourter rows: spaces 1 and 2............ BI-28
Dull characteristics: space 3....................... BI-28
Location: space 4............................................ BI-28
Other evaluation criteria....................................... BI-28
Bearing: space 5.............................................. BI-28
Gauge: space 6................................................ BI-28
Other dull characteristics: space 7........... BI-28
Reason pulled: space 8 ................................ BI-29
IADC Drilling Manual
Impact on other stages of drilling, completion and
production....................................................................... BI-29
Proper storage considerations............................ BI-29
Tricone bit storage.................................................. BI-29
Sealed tricone bits.................................................. BI-29
Non-sealed tricone bits........................................ BI-30
Storage method 1: greasing the cones..... BI-30
Storage method 2: submersed in oil......... BI-30
Prior to use............................................................... BI-30
Locked cone.............................................................. BI-30
Fixed cutters bit storage....................................... BI-30
Drill bit repairs................................................................ BI-30
PDC............................................................................. BI-30
Post-run evaluation........................................ BI-30
PDC cutting elements and secondary
components replacement and reclaim..... BI-31
Drill bit body and gauge.............................. BI-31
Pin connections and upper sections (matrix
bits)..................................................................... BI-31
Miscellaneous modifications....................... BI-31
Roller cone................................................................ BI-31
Re-tipping.......................................................... BI-31
Post-repair documentation
and inspections............................................... BI-31
Important calculations................................................. BI-32
Drilling hydraulics........................................... BI-32
Pressure drop................................................... BI-32
Hydraulic horsepower................................... BI-32
Hydraulic horsepower/square inch........... BI-32
Jet velocity........................................................ BI-33
Jet impact force.............................................. BI-33
Drilling economics.......................................... BI-33
Cost per foot.................................................... BI-33
Break-even line................................................ BI-33
Proper handling............................................... BI-34
Safety and handling...................................................... BI-35
Governing standards & guidelines/references.... BI-36
Copyright © 2015
 BITS BI–1

Table BI-1: Alternate names, acronyms & slang

Introduction
Rotary rigs drilling for oil in the early 1900s used a drag- Bit type/subtype Alternate names
type fishtail bit that made hole by scraping and shearing the Drill bits Earth-boring bits
bottom of the wellbore (Figure BI-2a and 2b). Although this
Fixed cutter bits Diamond bits, drag bits
was an improvement over percussion-style cable-tool rigs,
the fishtail bit limited rotary drilling to soft, plastic forma- Polycrystalline diamond PDC bits, diamond bits, drag
tions because they were not durable enough to penetrate compact (PDC) bits bits, fixed-blade bits, matrix
hard and abrasive formations. In 1909 a two-cone rolling bits, steel body bits
cutter bit conceived by Howard Hughes, Sr. was introduced Impregnated bits Impregs
at Spindletop field near Beaumont, Texas.1 The cutting struc-
ture was created by milling circumferential and axial grooves Natural diamond bits Surface set
into a steel conical rolling cone, producing a series of sharp Eccentric bits Bi-center bits
teeth. The rolling cones, combined with the sharp cutting
Thermally stable poly- --
structure, created a unique crushing action. The roller-cone
crystalline (TSP)
bit revolutionized oilfield drilling by enabling operators to
use rotary rigs to efficiently penetrate hard and abrasive Roller-cone bits Tricone bits, rolling cone bits
formations to gain access to the reservoir without hole de- Tooth bits Steel tooth (st), mill-tooth,
viation issues and costly delays associated with previous rock bits
methods.
Insert bits Tungsten carbide, tci bits,
Roller cone development insert bits, button bits,
During the following years, several major enhancements Hugheset® bits
driven by Floyd Scott and his team increased the roller-cone One-cone bits Uni-cones, single-cone bits
bit’s footage and rate of penetration (ROP) capabilities. Two-cone bits Bi-cone bits
In 1925 engineers devised a method for welding tungsten
Three-cone bits Tricone bits, roller-cone bits
carbide hard facing to the milled-tooth cutting structure,
increasing durability. In 1933, a three-cone version was Air bits
produced by perfecting offsetting cone geometry to ac- Hole opener tools Hole enlargement tools,
commodate the third cone. In 1951, precision machine tools expandable borehole tool
allowed manufacturers to force-press tungsten carbide in-
Fixed reamers --
serts (TCI) into pre-drilled holes in the cone steel, creating
the TCI roller-cone bit. This focused effort was once again Expandable reamers Concentric reamers
driven by the need to further enhance a bit’s ability to effi- Roller-cone reamers --
ciently drill hard and abrasive formations. The “Jet” bit, em- Eccentric reamers Bi-center bit
ploying the predecessor of today’s nozzles, was introduced
Specialty bits --
to help deal with the bottomhole cleaning. The underlying
problem of low ROP was caused by a phenomena known as Hybrid – impreg and PDC --
bottomhole balling that becomes progressively worse with Hybrid – PDC and Hyb
increased depths and mudweights. 2 Also, cutter tracking roller-cone
and off-center running further exacerbate the problems. In Casing-while-drilling CwD
1959, the first functional sealed bearing roller-cone bit was
Core bits --
introduced, offering extended life by allowing the bearing to
operate in a clean grease environment. 3 In 1969, an O-ring Hammer bits Percussion bits
sealed friction-bearing design revolutionized bit life by dis- Mills Diamond mills, speed mills,
tributing bearing loads over larger surfaces, reducing stress junk mills
levels in critical areas and leading to runs of three to four Coil-tubing --
times the prior life.4 However, limitations in drilling shale
Junk bits Junk mills
and other soft formations remained to be solved.
Casing-exit bits --
To further address the low ROP issues, research and devel- etc. The knowledge gained led to updated roller cone cutting
opment (R&D) focused on the rolling action and how the structure designs with bearing pin angles, optimized skew
cutting structure engages the formation. Engineers experi- angles and cone profiles that featured innovative TCI shapes
mented with different cone angles and made modifications and recent hardfacing materials that dramatically improved
to the cutting structure teeth shape, projection, orientation, steel tooth bits. 5-9 Due to their innovative design and unique

IADC Drilling Manual Copyright © 2015

BI–2 BITS
crushing action, roller-cone bits accounted for approximate-
ly 96% of the total oilfield footage drilled worldwide be-
tween the years 1909-1986.
Early diamond bit development
During the time roller cone reigned supreme, different man-
ufactures were experimenting with natural diamond bits,
and in 1946 a diamond coring bit was successfully run in
Rangely Field, Colorado In 1952, the first non-coring surface
set natural diamond bit developed by Christiansen was suc-
cessfully run in an oilfield application. This design utilized
an erosion-resistant carbide matrix and a new powder met-
allurgical process for mounting natural diamonds in the bit
crown. In 1960, an impregnated diamond bit was introduced
that featured sintered cutting segments composed of sharp,
grit-size diamonds mixed with tungsten carbide and a me-
tallic binder. The resulting grinding action enabled an im-
pregnated bit to drill the hardest, most abrasive formations
but at a much lower ROP compared to alternative bit types.
Other similar bits had the diamond grit dispersed in the car-
bide matrix and infiltrated with a copper-based binder, and
others chose to make the bit crown and bit face as a unit,
casting the new impregnated segments into the bits.
PDC arrives
In 1976, after four years of development and isolated bit
runs by General Electric Superabrasives, the first commer-
cial synthetic PDC bits specifically designed for oilfield ap-
plications were manufactured and field-tested. The work by
the innovative leaders proved the capability of stud-mount-
ed synthetic diamond drill blanks, which would evolve into
today’s PDC cutters, to efficiently shear soft formations10,11
In 1982, the first cylindrical PDC cutters were introduced
using new materials and bonding techniques to attach the
synthetic diamond cutters to the bit body. PDC bit develop-
ment continued during the early 1980s with the introduction
of a parabolic face profile that increased cutter density in the
gauge area to improve durability when drilling with a motor
at high RPM.
In 1986-87 the price of crude oil plummeted to $9/bbl,
causing a dramatic decline in drilling activity and bit devel-
opment. In spite of the downturn, the industry produced
an application-specific three-bladed PDC bit with dedicat-
ed hydraulics specifically designed to drill soft and sticky
shale.12 The combination of technologies alleviated bit ball-
ing issues drilling soft formations in water-based mud and
served as the basis for next generation soft formation PDC.
Drilling research work led to the discovery of bit whirl and
the effects of this dynamic dysfunction on cutter durability.
The proposed solution from a team at Amoco produced a
much more robust cutting structure, and a step change in
life was noticed. Competition from new suppliers entering
the market aided the development of improved PDC cutters.
IADC Drilling Manual
Dual/dueling bit evolution
Increased drilling activity in the 1990s rejuvenated demand,
and both types of bits continued to evolve with R&D efforts
focused on increasing service life of roller-cone bits and ex-
panding the PDC application envelope into harder and more
abrasive formations while attempting to maximize penetra-
tion rates of both types of bits. During this time span, the
bits were generally applied as follows: 1) roller cone was uti-
lized in hard/abrasive and interbedded formations and for
complex directional work, and 2) PDC was applied in mostly
soft to medium formations and for less demanding direc-
tional applications. However, the drive to advance bit tech-
nology intensified when global engineering studies quan-
tified the large impact improvements in bit design have on
overall drilling efficiency and its vast potential for lowering
project costs.13,14 Manufacturers responded with a series of
systematic advancements in bit technology that improved
performance in both product lines in the world’s most de-
manding drilling theaters.13,14
In 1987, a diamond-enhanced insert improved roller cone
gauge-holding capabilities on TCI bits and increased bore-
hole quality.15-22 During this same time, design and applica-
tion engineers experimented with PDC blade count and cut-
ter configurations. The industry also focused attention on
modeling cutter loading and analyzing drilling mechanics to
quantify and mitigate downhole vibrations. 23-24 As operators
continued to explore the outer boundaries of the PDC appli-
cation envelope, the industry began to describe the damag-
ing effects that downhole vibrations have on PDC bits and
cutters. 25-30
The inefficiencies drove the industry to explore new manu-
facturing methods to develop cutter technology that could
withstand with a punishing downhole environment and
develop bit bodies that would remain dynamically stable
in targeted applications. 31-36 Non-planer interfaces, appli-
cation-specific PDC cutters, low-friction polished cutters,
improved edge geometries and ultra-thick high-toughness
PDC cutters were introduced. The next major step involved
producing cutter technology using a deep leaching pro-
cess25, and that led to a new process that involves a two-step
high-temperature/high-pressure procedure that produces
a cutter capable of maintaining a sharp, efficient cutting
edge. 37,38 In 2013, a fully rotating cutter was introduced that
effectively utilizes the entire 360° diamond cutting edge
to reduce frictional heat/wear while increasing drilling ef-
ficiency and bit life, and a cutter with a non-planer cutting
face that was documented to stay cooler was introduced39,40,
41
( SPE-168000).
Copyright © 2015
 BITS BI–3

Diamond vs Roller Cone: Footage drilled, historical trend

100%

80%

60%
Gold Series Genesis
40% Anti-whirl
20%
0%
1985 1990 1995 2000 2004
Tricone Footage (%) Diamond Footage (%)
Figure BI-1: Industry philosophy of continuous improvement led to the rapid advancement of
PDC technology to solve application challenges. Courtesy Baker Hughes Inc.

Directional drilling considerations scribing problems while steering with PDC bits. They de-
Another key driver influencing bit development is the ev- termined that controlling PDC torque response to weight-
er-increasing requirement for directional drilling. The indus- on-bit changes in motor steerable applications is critical to
try requires complex wellbore trajectories and multilaterals maximize ROP while rotating without compromising direc-
to economically develop offshore oil and gas reserves and in tional control when sliding. The issues of toolface control
difficult-to-reach reservoirs in land applications. The evolu- with PDC bits has been discussed in the literature, and a
tion in motor- and rotary-steerable tools has played a vital number of approaches have been used to improve perfor-
role in drill bit development. Properly matching the bit to mance, including increased cutter back rake, higher blade
the formations to be drilled and other bottomhole assembly counts, small cutters, wear knots, large chamfers and most
(BHA) components is critical to project success, and a num- recently a patented depth of cut (DOC) feature that has a
ber of bit technologies have been incorporated into roller bearing surface to limit reactive torque. The objective of
cone and PDC bits to accomplish these objectives. each of these design changes is to reduce bit aggressiveness
with increased weight on bit (WOB). However, the conse-
Motor roller cone quence of this approach can lower drilling efficiency and
The high rotational speed of motor drilling was one of the ROP in hard formations to gain steerability in soft rock if not
primary drivers in the accelerated advancement of seal and properly applied. At times the bits are too aggressive to drill
bearing technology. A unique twin elastomer sealing system soft formations at high angles.46-51
was developed to protect the bearing from corrosive drilling
and formation fluids in hot/high-pressure formations.42,43
An innovative metal-sealed bearing has also been incorpo-
rated into a wide range of bits to accomplish the same objec-
tives with the added ability to operate reliably at high rotary
speeds.44,45 Improved cutting structure configurations in the
gauge and heel rows were developed for TCI, and enhanced
hard-facing materials and application techniques were per-
fected on the milled tooth bits. Manufacturers have also
increased tungsten carbide hard-facing on the shirttail and
up the leading edge of the leg for additional protection in di-
rectional applications. Although roller cone provides drillers
with good directional control, its slower ROP and limited run
life relative to the latest PDC bits led to significant research
into steerable PDC bits.

Steerable PDC
With PDC bits continually encroaching on traditional roller Figure BI-2a & 2b: Fish tail bit and percussion bits.
cone applications, engineers began experiencing and de-

IADC Drilling Manual Copyright © 2015

BI–4 BITS

Figure BI-3: Howard R. Hughes was granted US Patent 930759 on August 10, 1909, for two-cone bits.
Courtesy Baker Hughes Inc.

damage to the brittle synthetic diamond cutters. The stable

bit allowed the bit companies and cutter suppliers to more
reliably evaluate improvements in materials and processes.
The result has been a dramatic improvement in cutter tech-
nology and bit performance. If the cutters remain intact, the
bit can continue to drill at an acceptable ROP. This gives PDC
bits a distinct advantage over roller cone and other bit types
in the majority of today’s applications, with an increasing
number of shoe-to-shoe runs being the norm in many ap-
plications.

Emerging technology
Today we are seeing a combination of PDC and roller-cone
components to produce a hybrid bit. 52 It employs the crush-
ing action of a roller cone combined with the scrapping
action of PDC. It performs well in interbedded formations

Figure BI-4: Howard R. Hughes was granted US

Patent 959540 on May 31, 1910, for a three-
cone roller bit. Courtesy Baker Hughes Inc.

King diamond
In today’s drilling environment, PDC bits are the industry’s
workhorse accounting for approximately 75% of total foot-
age drilled in worldwide oilfield applications. The shift to
majority PDC drilling took only 28 years to achieve and oc-
curred in 2004 when footage drilled by PDC increased to
54% (see Figure BI-1). The dramatic swing was made pos-
sible by stabilizing the bit body with various techniques to Figure BI-5: : Synthetic diamond (grit).
significantly reduce downhole vibration and mitigate impact

IADC Drilling Manual Copyright © 2015


Figure BI-6: Development paths for today’s drill bits.
handling the transitions without the vibrations of a PDC, and
in those where the PDC is not consistent enough to make
the required interval reliably. An adjustable DOC control
feature is being introduced which will alleviate some of the
concerns mentioned with earlier technologies. Further, new
cutter technology is emerging with cutters which are free to
rotate in a PDC bit, and others have innovative chamfers or
a contoured face to control chip flow and temperature. A
resurgence in the science of the HTHP apparatus for making
PDC cutters has led to substantial improvements in the base
underlying cutter technology.
Drill bit basics
The drilling bit industry is changing rapidly in the areas of
manufacturing technology and the use of new materials.
Computers have also caused dramatic changes in the drill-
ing bit manufacture process, as today the use of bottomhole
simulation software in order to have a new bit design “virtu-
ally tested” before it gets manufactured is a very common
practice in this industry.
History
The drill bit history timeline actually stars about 5,000 years
ago in ancient China. There is some historical evidence indi-
cating that water wells were drilled using cable drilling tech-
nology with percussion bits.
More recently:
• 1845: Pierre Pascal Fauvelle invented the rotary drilling
system. It was used in the early years of the oil industry
IADC Drilling Manual
BITS BI–5
in some of the oil-producing countries in Europe. Fish
tail-type bits were used (Figure BI-2a);
• 1859: Edwing Laurentine Drake drilled the first oil
commercial well in Titusville, Pennsylvania. Percussion-
type bits were used (Figure BI-2b);
• 1900: The rotary drilling system was in general use in
Texas;
• 1901: On January 10 a well at the Spindle Top oilfield, a
salt-dome structure located in south Beaumont, Texas,
was drilled, marking the birthdate of the modern
petroleum industry;
• 1909: Howard R. Hughes granted US Patent 930759 on
August 10 for two cone bits (Figure BI-3);
• 1910: Howard R. Hughes granted US. Patent 959540 on
May 31 for a three-cone roller bit (Figure BI-4);
• 1925: Cutting structures with intermesh were invented;
• 1928: Use of tungsten carbide hard-facing first used in
the drilling industry;
• 1939: “Offset” criteria was introduced to roller-cone bit
design;
• 1940: Natural diamond bits introduced to the market;
• 1951: TCI first used in roller-cone bits;
• 1953: General Electric Company created synthetic
diamond crystals (Figure BI-5);
• 1963: Sealed bearing roller-cone bits first used;
• 1969: O-ring sealed journal bearing introduced;
• 1976: The PDC cutter was introduced by General Electric;
• 1986: Diamond-enhanced inserts (DEI) introduced on
roller-cone bits by MegaDiamond;
• 1994: PDC technology introduced the non-planar
interface (NPI) between tungsten carbide substrate and
Copyright © 2015
BI–6 BITS

Figure BI-7: The bit cone’s “offset” is the horizontal distance between the bit axis and a vertical plane through the axis of the journal.
Soft formations usually experience a high offset, while hard formations usually have a low offset. Courtesy Schlumberger.

• 2013: Rotating PDC cutter and a PDC cutter with a

contoured face to improve chip flow and run cooler.

Drilling bits classification

There are two big groups of drilling bits, including its respec-
tive divisions and sub-divisions, as follows:

The PDC bits can be sub-classified as:

• Matrix-body PDC;
• Steel-body PDC.

The same type of sub-classification applies to bi-center bits:

• Matrix-body bi-center;
• Steel-body bi-center.

Also, impregnated bits can be sub-classified as:

• Conventional impregnated matrix;
• Impregnated inserts or segments.

Note: Matrix is manufactured from a tungsten carbide pow-

der and metallic binder.

Design basics
Based on the drilling mechanics differences between roller
cone bits and diamond bits, different design concepts apply
for each group of bits.

Roller-cone bits
There are three basic design factors for roller-cone bits:
• Cone offset;
• Journal (bearing pin) angle;
• Cone profile.
Figure BI-8: The top image shows a low offset, while the lower
drawing shows a high offset. Notice the difference between the Offset
centerline and the offset on each cone. Courtesy Schlumberger.
The bit cone’s “offset” is defined as the horizontal distance
diamond table. Diamond table thickness was increased between the axis of the bit and a vertical plane through the
to maximize wear resistance and cutter life; axis of the journal.
• 1995: Polished cutters, stress engineered cutter
placement and application-specific cutters introduced Offset is established by moving the centerline of a cone
commercially; away from the centerline of the bit in such a way that a ver-
• 2003: Surface-leached PDC cutters commercialized; tical plane through the cone centerline is parallel to the ver-
• 2003: Depth of cut control for steerable PDC introduced; tical centerline of the bit.

IADC Drilling Manual Copyright © 2015

 BITS BI–7

Figure BI-9 (above): The journal angle is formed

by a line perpendicular to the bit axis and the
journal axis. Courtesy Schlumberger.

Figure BI-10 (top and center right): Usually bits with

smaller journal angles (30°-33) are best for drilling
softer formations requiring lower WOB. Conversely,
larger journal angles are better for harder formations
requiring higher WOB. Courtesy Schlumberger.

Soft formations usually experience a high offset (3⁄8 in.),

while hard formations usually have a low offset (1⁄32 in.).
• Gauge contact and length;
Soft formation bits use high offsets values to increase this • Cone diameter;
cutting action and thus increase ROP, while harder bits use • Cone shell thickness;
lower offsets values to reduce cutter wear induced by the • Bearing space availability;
sliding action. • Leg strength.

These images show a low offset (up) and a high offset
(down). Notice the difference between the centerline and
the offset on each cone.
Basic cone geometry directly affects increases or decreases
in either journal or offset angles and a change in one of them
requires a compensating change in the other.
Journal (bearing pin) angle
The journal angle is the angle formed by a line perpendicular
to the axis of the bit and the axis of the journal. Journal angle
influences the design of many key bit features, including:
• Intermesh depth;
• Insert projection and milled tooth depth;
• Heel surface length and angle;
It also affects the relationship between scraping and crush-
ing actions produced by the cutting elements of the bit.
Soft formations: low journal angle
Generally, bits with relatively small journal angles, 30°-33°,
are best suited for drilling in softer formations that require
lower weight on bit (WOB). These formations require goug-
ing and scraping actions.
Hard formations: high journal angle
Larger journal angles, 34°-39°, are better when drilling in
harder formations that require higher WOB amounts. Hard
formations require a chipping and crushing action.

IADC Drilling Manual Copyright © 2015

BI–8 BITS
Figure BI-11: The basic design factors associated with designing bits for particular formation types. In a very soft formation, for
instance, the bit teeth are spaced farther apart, are longer and gouge and scrape more than chip or crush. Courtesy Schlumberger.
Figure BI-12: Roller-cone bits boast one of the highest unit
loads for any bearing and require specialized grease.
Design factors summary
Figure BI-11 identifies the basic design factors associated
with designing a bit for a particular type of formation. For
example, in a very soft formation, the teeth of the bit are
spaced further apart, longer in length and provide more
gouging-scraping action; the journal angle is lower, while the
offset is higher.
IADC Drilling Manual
Figure BI-13: Seals contribute significantly to the effectiveness of
the lubrication and pressure compensation system by preventing
drilling contaminants from entering the bearings. Non-sealed
bearing designs allow mud to enter the bearing to cool and
lubricate, but suffer shorter bearing life than sealed bearings.
Lubrication and pressure compensation
system
Roller cone
The lubrication and pressure compensation system equal-
izes pressure across the seal and provides lubricant to op-
timize temperature and load pressure within the bearing
system. Roller-cone bits have one of the highest unit loads
of any bearing and require specialized grease. Each drill bit
manufacturer has developed custom-engineered roller cone
bearing grease compatibility with all bearing components.
The grease has been designed to have higher heat capaci-
ty, greater resistance to oxidation, and higher load capacity
Copyright © 2015
 BITS BI–9

than conventional bearing greases. Collectively these char-

acteristics minimize wear and friction and extend the life of
the bearing system.

The pressure compensation system serves to accommodate

grease expansion, cone movement and annulus pressure
and maintain a stable environment for the bearing system.
The seal contributes significantly to the effectiveness of the
lubrication and pressure compensation system as its dy-
namic properties keep drilling contaminants from entering Figure BI-14: The apex is the geometric center of a diamond bit. The
the bearings. cone can have a deep or shallow profile. Courtesy Schlumberger.

The pressure compensation system has a diaphragm that

moves inwards to equalize internal pressure with the outside
pressure from the annulus or changes in volume from cone
movement. The diaphragm moves outward to increase the
internal volume from grease expansion and cone movement
to equalize with external pressure. In doing so, grease can
vent through the diaphragm into the annulus to equalize the
pressure.

Some bearing designs incorporate solid lubrication com-

ponents such as thrustwasher or hardmetal inlays; others Figure BI-15: A bit’s nose is described by the radius (R) of it’s
incorporate a silver-plated bearing surface. These compo- curvature and the horizontal distance (L) from the bit centerline
nents serve to form a dissimilar material system that miti- where the curvature begins. Courtesy Schlumberger.
gates adhesive wear when carrying the thrust component of
the bearing load. These run against Stellite® inlays, in many
cases, which also provide a dissimilar material system that
mitigates adhesive wear. The inlays have higher wear resis-
tance properties than steel so as to reduce bearing letdown.

Not all roller cone drill bits have sealed bearings. Non-sealed
bearing designs allow mud to enter the bearing for cooling
and lubrication. Non-sealed designs have a shorter bearing
life than sealed bearings as mud contains particles that can
cause excessive wear to the bearings therefore shortening
the bearing in comparison to sealed designs. Figure BI-16a & 16b: The bit above features a nose location
close to the apex. This means higher cutter density on the
shoulder. Therefore, there is more diamond volume, creating a
Diamond bits bit suitable for abrasive formations. Courtesy Schlumberger.

Bit profile
The first factor is the bit profile, which is a vertical cross-sec-
tion of the bit head.

The profile has a direct influence on stability, steerability,

cutter density, durability, ROP, cleaning efficiency and cutter
cooling.

The profile is divided as follows:

The apex is the geometrical center of the bit. Figure BI-17a & 17b: When the nose moves further from
the apex, higher cutter density exists along the cone.
This increases cone durability, suitable for drilling strong
The cone area can be: formations, such as dolomite and limestone, as well
• Deep cone profile; as transitional drilling. Courtesy Schlumberger.

IADC Drilling Manual Copyright © 2015

BI–10 BITS
Figure BI-18: In addition to the nose location, nose radius affects
bit aggressiveness. A large radius increases surface area for better
load distribution in hard and transitional drilling. A smaller radius
provides higher point loading on the cutters, which is more suitable
for soft, homogeneous formations. Courtesy Schlumberger.
Figure BI-19: The bit shoulder stretches from the outside nose
tangent to the start of the outside diameter radius (ODR).
Courtesy Schlumberger.
Figure BI-20: The outside diameter radius (ODR) is the transition
between bit shoulder and gauge areas. Courtesy Schlumberger.
IADC Drilling Manual
• Shallow cone profile.
A deep cone profile has a cone angle of 90°. Due to the deep
profile, the cone area has substantial lateral support, which
makes it more stable. The lateral support also makes a bit
with a deep cone profile harder to steer.
A deep cone profile allows for higher cutter density and in-
creases durability. The additional cutters increase the num-
ber of cuttings, and the depth of the cone means that the
cuttings need to travel further to evacuate from the bottom
of the hole.
A shallow cone profile has a cone angle of approximately
150°. Unlike a deep cone, the shallow cone offers less lat-
eral support, making it much easier to steer. This makes a
shallow cone profile suitable for downhole motors, rotary
steerable system (RSS) and any directional application. It is
less stable than a deep cone bit.
Cutting evacuation is much more efficient with a shallow
cone bit. The cuttings have less distance to travel to evac-
uate the bottomhole.
The more shallow the cone profile, the fewer cutters on the
bit. Fewer cutters results in a higher point load on each cut-
ter, making a shallow cone more aggressive.
A bit’s nose is described by the radius (R) of its curvature
and the horizontal distance, or location (L), from the bit cen-
terline where the curvature begins.
The location of the bit nose and the sharpness of the radius
curvature influences the bit’s aggressiveness and durability.
A nose location closer to the apex permits more surface area
on the shoulder. In turn, this means higher cutter density on
the shoulder. The increase in the number of cutters means
the point-load for each cutter is less than ideal for drilling
in homogeneous soft formations. Because of a higher cutter
density, there is more diamond volume, thus making the bit
suitable for more abrasive formations.
In a bit where the nose is moved further away from the
apex, there is a higher cutter density along the cone. The
increased number of cutters results in an increase in cone
durability suitable for drilling strong formations, such as do-
lomite and limestone, as well as transitional drilling.
Along with the nose location, the radius of the nose affects
bit aggressiveness. A large radius increases the surface area
for better load distribution in hard and transitional drilling. A
smaller radius provides higher point loading on the cutters,
which is more suitable for soft, homogeneous formations.
Copyright © 2015

Figure BI-21: Nose locations are shown by the vertical
lines intersecting the curves of each of four main profile
types. The nose location changes with each profile type.
Long parabolic profiles are considered the most aggressive,
while flat profiles are the least. Courtesy Schlumberger.
The bit shoulder is from the outside nose tangent to the start
of the outside diameter radius (ODR). The ODR is the transi-
tion between bit shoulder and gauge areas.
The gauge is the outward-most part of the bit and helps to
stabilize the bit and maintain an in-gauge wellbore. Under-
gauge holes impede or prevent entry and removal of tools.
Bit gauge features can also provide stabilization to the bit
and help prevent undesirable operating problems such as
bit whirl. Various gauge types and lengths are available to
achieve maximum drilling efficiency.
Bit profile types
Figure BI-23 graphically summarizes the four main profile
types. Note how the nose location changes with the various
profile types, from long parabolic to flat. In general, long par-
abolic profiles are considered the most aggressive, while flat
profiles are considered the least aggressive.
Long parabolic profiles work best in soft, abrasive forma-
tions such as shales, clays and mudstones. They are typical-
ly used in high-speed positive-displacement motors (PDMs)
and turbine applications.
Medium parabolic bit profiles are less aggressive and work
best in medium-to-hard abrasive formations such as sand-
stone, limestone and hard shales. Medium parabolic bits are
used in rotary, PDM, RSS and turbine applications.
Short parabolic bit profiles are most effective in hard forma-
tions with medium abrasion such as sandstone, limestone
and some cherts. This bit profile has the sharpest nose of
the three parabolic profiles. The short parabolic is most like-
ly the most versatile; it provides an effective compromise
between ROP, wear and cleaning. Short parabolic bits are
used in rotary, downhole motor and turbine applications.
IADC Drilling Manual
BITS BI–11
Figure BI-22a & 22b: Straight blades stay on the same
vertical plane form the apex to the gauge. Spiral blades are
curved, which increases the overall blade length. That in turn
provides room for more cutters. Courtesy Schlumberger.
A flat bit profile drills best in harder, less abrasive formations
such as limestone and dolomites. It is easy to predict the di-
rection and behavior of a flat profile bit in a given formation.
These bits are most often found in sidetracking applications.
The number of blades on a bit affects bit performance. A
matrix body bit can support from 3 to 20 blades, whiles
a steel-bodied bit is generally limited to between 3 and 8
blades. The majority of PDC applications require between
4 and 9 blades. Each blade has PDC cutters brazed into it;
collectively, these are called the cutting structure.
Bits are considered symmetrical when the angles between
successive blades are equal. If one or more angles are un-
equal, the blade arrangement is considered asymmetrical.
Symmetrical bits are prone to vibration, and asymmetrical
bits are less prone to this damaging behavior.
Blade Geometry: Straight or Spiral
Blade geometry and layout influence bit vibration. There are
two types of geometries, straight or spiral.
A straight blade is one where the blade stays on the same
vertical plane from the apex to the gauge. The cutter ra-
dial forces are summed together as a whole on the gauge.
Straight blades are more hydraulically efficient because
of the straight geometry; the flow exiting the nozzles can
sweep efficiently along the blade.
A spiral blade introduces a curve on the blades and increas-
es the overall blade length. This provides room for more cut-
ters, and the circumferential contact area on the gauge is
increased.
Only the perpendicular component to the gauge of each ra-
dial force is used, and the net effect on gauge is less than
that of straight blades. Spiral blades are not as hydraulically
efficient as straight blades; including an extra nozzle in the
bit design improves cutter cleaning.
Copyright © 2015
BI–12 BITS

In addition to standard roller cone and fixed cutter bits, many

manufacturers custom-produce bits with features suited for
a particular purpose.

Specialized roller-cone bits

Air bits
Air bits use air or gas as the drilling fluid in underbalanced
drilling (UBD). Air bits might have screens over the bearings
to protect them from clogging with cuttings. They can also
have thicker hardfacing on the shirttail to protect them from
the abrasive, high-velocity air or gas drilling fluid.

Jet deflection bits

On directional drilling operations, jet deflection bits are
sometimes used in soft formations. Jet deflection bits have
Figure BI-23: A jet deflection bit.
an oversized jet nozzle. Without rotating, the bit is run to
bottom and the oversized nozzle is pointed (oriented) in the
direction required to start the deflected hole. Then the mud
pump is started. Because the bit is not rotating, the over-
sized nozzle washes out the formation and forms a pocket
in the wall of the hole. This pocket helps start the directional
drilling (Figure BI-23).

Specialized fixed-cutter bits

Unlike most fixed cutter bits, some specialty bits are de-
signed and manufactured for very specific drilling needs.

Sidetrack bits
Sidetracking bits, when made up on a downhole motor, are
used to drill around broken drillpipe or casing that is perma-
nently stuck in the hole. Drilling around non-removable ob-
jects requires a form of directional drilling. These bits have
Figure BI-24: Sidetracking bit.
a flat profile and a short gauge length (Figure BI-24). Some
have large fluid outlets so that a high volume of drilling mud
can circulate without losing pressure across the face of the
bit.

Figure BI-25: Impregnated bit. Courtesy Baker Hughes Inc.
Impregnated bits
Impregnated drill bits are drilling bits where the cutting ele-
ments contain diamond grit throughout. The elements might
be sintered segments containing diamond grit (synthetic or
natural) compacted in a matrix of tungsten carbide. The im-
pregnated parts, where the segments are pre-sintered, are
generally incorporated into the body of the bit when being
processed through the furnace, as with diamond-set bits. It
is also possible to fix the impregnated segments in place by
brazing, although this technique is less used at present. In
other styles the diamond grit is mixed with the bit matrix,
forming an integral cutting structure. Like surface-set dia-
mond bits, impregnated bits are used when none of the PDC
and roller-cone bits are suited to economically drill a very
hard and abrasive rock (Figure BI-25).

IADC Drilling Manual Copyright © 2015

 BITS BI–13

Surface-set diamond bits/natural diamond bits

The use of a single layer of surface-set diamonds in the pe-
troleum industry began in the 1940s by Franck Christensen.
The diamonds were hammered in steel bit alveolus, or cav-
ities, and filled with a thin layer of copper. Enhancement in
the manufacture of fixed cutter diamond drill bits was made
by setting the diamonds into a metal blend called a matrix.
The matrix combined grains of tungsten carbide in an alloy of
copper and nickel. This new technology allowed for the de-
velopment of increasingly economical and custom-shaped
bits (Figure BI-26).

Core bits
Core bits are shaped like a ring (Figure BI-27). The ring drills
the formation on both its inside and outside circumference,
so it has two gauge surfaces. The center hole surrounds a Figure BI-26 Surface-set diamond bit.
Courtesy Varel International.
solid cylinder of rock (the core) that the driller recovers later.
Once the core is retrieved, the operating company sends it
to a laboratory for formation analysis.

Hybrid bits (PDC and roller cone)

The PDC and roller-cone hybrid bit combines the two tradi-
tional cutting structure types into one tool (Figure BI-28).
This drill bit uses the crushing action of the rolling cutting
structure to fail the rock and the shearing action of the PDC
cutter to clean the bottom and accelerate the ROP.

The rolling, pre-fracturing action decreases the common

PDC tendency for high torque fluctuations, establishing a
smoother, more efficient drilling response. Lower torque
magnitudes mean reduced stick-slip and downhole vibra-
tion. The resulting drilling dynamics create smooth transi-
tions between interbedded formations of varying strength
Figure BI-27: Core bits—PDC and natural diamond.
and reduce overall vibrations for more reliable operation of
Courtesy Corpro (a company of ALS Oil & Gas)
downhole tool components. The more consistent torque
responses also improve toolface control, and the hybrid bit
is capable of achieving high buildup rates on push-the-bit,
point-the-bit, bent-housing motors and other directional
systems.

Hybrid bit technology tends to generate less torque than

a PDC with a lower WOB requirement than roller-cones,
which can be beneficial in drilling environments where these
parameters are limiting factors with traditional bit solutions.

The conventional bit breaker for the manufacturer’s PDC

should be used. The nozzles are interchangeable with the
manufacturer’s PDC bits and are installed the same way.
Hybrid bits might be repaired and rerun, much like any PDC
bit. Care, handling and storage instructions for both the roll-
er cone and PDC bits should be followed.
Figure BI-28a & 28b: PDC and roller-cone
hybrid bits. Courtesy Baker Hughes Inc.

IADC Drilling Manual Copyright © 2015

BI–14 BITS

Table BI-2: Representative pass-through and hole

size for eccentric tools. Figure BI-29a shows a
bi-center bit, and Figure BI-29b shows
an eccentric reamer.
Drill diameter (in.) Pass-through diameter (in.)
3.000 2.700
3.250 2.740
4.125 3.750
5.000 4.125
5.750 4.750
7.000 6.000
Figure BI-29a & 29b: Bi-center bit (left) and eccentric 7.500 6.500
reamer. Figure BI-29a courtesy Varel International.
Figure BI-29b courtesy Baker Hughes Inc. 8.500 7.500
9.500 8.500
Representative applications, operational parameters and 9.875 8.375
performance of the hybrid bit can be found in SPE litera-
10.500 9.750
ture. 52,53,54,55
12.250 10.625
Hole openers 13.500 12.250
The past twenty years have seen the birth and tremendous 14.500 12.200
growth of hole openers in the oil and gas drilling business.
14.750 12.250
Reasons for utilizing these more expensive BHAs have in-
cluded drilling of difficult formation, preventing stuck BHA 16.000 14.750
due to swelling formations, simplifying completions and 17.500 14.500
allowing better cement jobs, which will be more and more 19.500 16.500
critical in the future.
20.000 17.000
First to come into the market were bi-center bits, followed 22.000 18.000
by eccentric reamers. They are designed to pass through a
given diameter of hole, and when rotated on bottom will drill These are still available for the foreseeable future. They are
a larger diameter hole by having the gauge cutting blades relatively low-priced and have the reliability advantage of
on one side only. See Table BI-2 for representative pass- no moving parts or seals. Just go to bottom and turn to the
through and hole sizes for eccentric products. Contact your right, and the hole is drilled and enlarged. In the case of many
supplier to verify the actual dimensions for the brand and eccentric reamers, the pilot bit diameter is stabilized before
style you might be running, as these are custom-made and the eccentric blades enlarge the hole. Maintaining the pilot
vary by application and the customer requirements. hole size allows the creation of the proper-sized enlarged
hole. A larger pilot hole allows an undersized reamed hole.
In the 1990s, bicenter bits came into use on Gulf of Mexico
deepwater wells. Here they solved several problems unique Concentric reamers followed eccentric bits and reamers
to deepwater GOM. These wells encounter drilling prob- into the industry, first as near-bit flow-activated reamers,
lems, including plastic flow of salt formations, sloughing and and later placed above the measuring tools. Ball-drop ac-
swelling of shale formations, and inflows and outflows of tivated reamers displaced flow-activated reamers due to
fluids. Compounding these difficulties is the depth of water. ease of use and reliability. This accounts for the majority of
the market today. Upon introduction into the industry, many
Drill-out bicenter is a special design developed because the suppliers provided reamers properly balanced to their pilot
casing tends to be damaged by the gauge cutting elements bits56, 57. Without properly balanced relative aggressiveness,
mounted on the bicenter drill bit when drilling the plug. unacceptable levels of BHA vibration can restrict ROP to un-
When the bit is inside the casing, the pilot section of the bit acceptable levels and damage the BHA components. Vibra-
tends to rotate about the center of the drillstring, causing the tion control continues to be a focus area.
reamer gauge cutters to engage the casing. This damages
the casing and the cutters on the bit.

IADC Drilling Manual Copyright © 2015


Ultra-deep wells have successfully implemented ball-drop
concentric reamers, probably the deepest being document-
ed in SPE 14525958. This particular tool is not susceptible to
hydrostatic pressure problems and completed the well to
31,400 ft (9,571 m).
Flow-activated on-off reamers have made a resurgence.
They can be difficult to operate, but they offer the advantage
of being able to be placed below the measurement string as
a rathole reamer, immediately above the pilot bit. This al-
lows the operator to drill with flow-activated reamer closed
until TD and then activate it and ream the rathole without
a dedicated cleanout run, saving a trip. Other reamers are
being developed that are activated or de-activated by RFID,
or by electronic signal in the case of a wired pipe operation.
A mud-pulse-activated tool is now available in two sizes on
a limited basis 59 and is expected to grow in popularity given
its compatibility with many existing rig systems.
In hole openers and stabilizers with movable blades, care
must be taken in handling to not damage the moving parts,
which could result in an inoperable tool on bottom, or worse,
one which opens but does not close.
Hammer bits
Hammer bits are a unique style of bit that designed for use
on a downhole percussion hammer. They feature a solid
head bit with either tungsten carbide or diamond-enhanced
carbide inserts. The typical application is situations where it
is not possible to put sufficient weight on bit on a standard
bit to efficiently drill, such as very hard rock at the surface.
Casing-while-drilling bits
The unique bits are growing in popularity where the oper-
ator desires to drill with casing to the chosen TD for that
interval and leave it in the hole as opposed to pulling the bit
and drillstring. There are two styles of bits. One is run on a
retrieval tool and is removed after reaching the casing point.
The more common bit is designed to be drillable and is left
on the end of the casing, cemented in and drilled out with
the following bit.
Typical application are in areas with heavy lost circulation,
where the formations are easily PDC-drillable and the op-
portunity to save a trip and NPT, where heavy back reaming
to get out of the hole was encountered on offsets, through
depleted sands, shallow water flows and many others.
For a detailed discussion of casing while drilling, refer to the
dedicated chapter of the IADC Drilling Manual, 12th editon,
on CwD.
Two-cone bits
Two-cone bits are a specialized roller-cone bit with all of the
IADC Drilling Manual
BITS BI–15
premium bearing, seal and insert technology of the three-
cone. They are sometimes used in very soft drilling appli-
cations.
Impreg and PDC hybrid bit
This is a unique style of bit employing both PDC cutters and
impregnated inserts as backups, as the substrate behind the
PDC table or in the matrix behind the PDC cutter. In isolat-
ed applications, the bit might have PDC cutters and impreg
materials both as the primary cutting structure in different
areas on the bit.
Cutting structures
Roller cone
Steel tooth
A steel-tooth cutting structure is valuable for various appli-
cations, especially soft formations. These bits are normally
hardfaced with tungsten carbide pellets in a hardened steel
matrix. The size and shape of the teeth and location of the
hardfacing varies by the intended application and the design
criteria amongst the manufacturers of the bits. A modifica-
tion of this uses a composite cone made by powder metal-
lurgy, which has the hardfacing integrally molded into the
cone during the manufacturing process.
Tungsten carbide hardfacing on steel tooth cones is neces-
sary to provide wear resistance.
Tungsten carbide inserts
Tungsten-carbide inserts (TCI) are manufactured in a vari-
ety of shapes, sizes and lengths with specialized grades of
carbide designed for specific applications and formations.
The size of the bit and the type of formation it is designed
for has a direct effect on the insert needed. The physical
appearance of cutting structures designed for soft, medi-
um and hard formations can readily be recognized by the
shape, length and geometric arrangement of the inserts.
Bits with large inserts with large projections and generally
chisel-shaped inserts are designed for softer formations.
Those for hard formations contain smaller ball-nose-shaped
inserts with an increased number of inserts. A bit designed
for medium-strength formations typically has a conical or
a blunt stubby chisel insert with moderate projection (see
Figure BI-30).
The inserts are composed of cemented tungsten carbide,
which is a mixture of tungsten grains in a metallic binder,
usually cobalt. The carbide grain size and cobalt content are
adjusted to produce the desired combination of wear resis-
tance and toughness required for the particular application.
This mixture is pressed to shape, sintered at a high tempera-
Copyright © 2015
BI–16 BITS
Figure BI-30: Tungsten carbide inserts (TCI) can be designed for soft, medium and hard formations. The TCI bit above was designed for
medium-strength formations, and features a conical or a blunt stubby chisel insert with moderate projection. Courtesy Schlumberger.
ture in a furnace and finished to the final shape. They are
then press-fit into precision holes in the cones. This material
has the combination of wear resistance and toughness to
perform well in the TCI bits.
One specialized form of a TCI bit uses a diamond-enhanced
insert (DEI) for added wear resistance of the cutting struc-
ture in extremely abrasive applications. These insets em-
ploy a specialized layer of polycrystalline diamond over a
TCI. They are typically used in medium-to-hard and very
abrasive applications and in directional drilling applications
where wear and rounding of the gauge and heel area would
have a negative impact on the bit performance. These bits
have been documented to have longer life and improved
bearing and seal reliability. There are other downhole ben-
efits. One is a reduction in the amount of reaming needed
by maintaining a full gauge hole. Another benefit is the pre-
vention of heat checking on the heel and gauge row inserts,
more commonly seen with downhole motors and high rotary
speeds. Operating parameters are the same as for a conven-
tional TCI bit.
Another specialized feature on rolling cone bits is a mechan-
ical or metal-faced seal, as opposed to the more common
elastomer seal. The distinguishing feature from the external
examination of a bit is the very easy rotation of the cones.
Care should be taken in handling to prevent pinching of a
hand or finger between cones when handling the bits. Typ-
ical applications are high rotary speeds and large-diameter
bits where the heat generated from the friction of the tightly
squeezed elastomer seal leads to high heat and damage to
the seal.
IADC Drilling Manual
Diamond bits
PDC cutter technology
A PDC is the cutting element on a PDC bit. It is composed of
very fine diamond crystals sintered under extreme pressure
and high temperature to a tungsten carbide carrier known as
a substrate. Diamond is the hardest known substance and
is also the best-known conductor of heat. It also has a very
low coefficient of friction against rock. This combination of
unique properties was the driving force in the development
of the PDC cutter in the 1970s. In other words, diamond is
the best material in resistance to abrasion, has the ability to
withstand and transmit compressive forces, removes heat
from the cutting tip efficiently, and generates less heat from
friction than other materials.
To manufacturer the PDC cutter, the provider utilizes spe-
cially designed high-pressure, high-temperature equipment
known as HPHT apparatuses or diamond presses.
There are a variety of different system designs. These sys-
tems are known as the cubic press, the belt press and the
piston-cylinder press. All three press systems are capable of
generating the ultra-high pressures (800,000-1,000,000
psi or more) and high temperatures (2,700°F) required to
sinter the polycrystalline diamond (PCD) used in the bit.
(Note: Polycrystalline diamond, or PCD, is a term used by
materials scientists working on synthetic diamond. But,
somewhat confusingly, the cutter on the bit is typically
called PDC.) Each of these press designs are used commer-
cially, and each has its own particular advantages relating
to sintering characteristics and properties imparted to the
product.
Copyright © 2015

Figure BI-31: Types of grain. Courtesy Schlumberger.
The application for the PDC cutter is determined by the
grade of diamond used in the manufacturing process. Dia-
mond grit size, distribution and density have an effect on the
final cutter properties.
If the initial diamond grit is fine (1-6 microns), the cutter
has high abrasion resistance but lower impact resistance.
Medium-grain grit (7-15 microns) cutters display moder-
ate abrasion and medium impact resistance. Coarse-grain
grit (16+ microns) cutters have low abrasion resistance
and better impact resistance. Most PDC cutters employ a
multi-modal mixture of grain sizes in which the mixture of
fine-medium-coarse grains is chosen to impart a particular
balance of wear resistance, impact resistance and diamond
density for the intended application. Some PDC cutters used
in the industry have a unique layered structure that utilizes
the wear-resistant fine-grained diamond on the face and the
coarser and tougher diamond feed backing it up to provide
a combination of excellent abrasion resistance supported by
a tough and durable underlayer between it and the carbide
substrate.
Figure BI-32: Two primary PDC designs exist, the cylinder and the
stud. Cylinder cutters can achieve greater cutting densities and
are the most common today. Stud cutters offer greater flexibility
to achieve a particular cutter exposure. Courtesy Schlumberger.
IADC Drilling Manual
BITS BI–17
PDC types
There are two primary PDC designs: the cylinder and the
stud. Cylinder cutters are able to achieve greater cutting
densities on a given bit profile and are the most common
used on today’s bits. Stud cutters have greater flexibility to
achieve a particular cutter exposure. Although cylinders are
more common, both types of cutters are used by leading bit
manufacturers.
Diamond table
A key element with both types of cutters is the diamond ta-
ble. The thickness of the diamond table is typically 2-4 mm
thick. The thickness is a variable utilized by the fabricators to
provide cutters that have properties and behaviors tailored
to the specific application of the bit.
Cutter shape
PDC cutters are manufactured in a cylindrical wafer shape.
Round cutters are the most common shape used on PDC
bits. PDC cutters can be precisely cut to shape using a laser
or electrical discharge machine. Other shaped PDC cutters
are made directly to their shape in the diamond press.
Figure BI-33: The diamond table is typically
2-4 mm thick. Courtesy Schlumberger.
Copyright © 2015
BI–18 BITS
Figure BI-34: PDC cutters are manufactured in a cylindrical wafer shape. The cutters can be cut
precisely to shape with a laser or electrical discharge machine. Courtesy Schlumberger.
Thermally stable polycrystalline cutters
First developed in the 1980s as an alternative cutting ele-
ment, today thermally stable polycrystalline (TSP) cutters
are primarily used in the gauge of a matrix PDC bit. There are
a limited number of bits still made for unique applications
that use the TSP as a primary cutting element. They might
be a fully leached PDC element where the cobalt catalyst is
removed by an extensive acid treatment, or they might be
a diamond matrix with a silicon carbide material disposed
within the area between the diamonds.
After the leaching process, TSPs are cut into the desired
shape based on application. Unfortunately, TSPs are not
wettable, which limits their application.
Leaching
TSP cutters are PDC cutters that have gone through the
leaching process. The patented leaching process is used to
remove the cobalt and increase the thermal coefficient of
the cutter.
TSP application
TSP cutting elements can be used in a variety of applica-
tions. Ideally, these cutters were designed to drill harder and
more abrasive formations such as sandstone, limestone and
granite. A higher tolerance to abrasion is required, which is
accomplished with the significantly stronger diamond-to-di-
amond bond and removal of the cobalt catalyst
The variety of shapes and sizes that are most commonly
in used include triangles, rectangles and cylinders. Ma-
trix-bodied bits provide an excellent medium for TSP cutters.
When the cutter is set in the bit face with a matrix backing,
very aggressive exposures can be achieved. Self-sharpening
characteristics can then be utilized, with the cutting element
IADC Drilling Manual
exposing new diamond as it is worn. The tungsten carbide
matrix, with its lower abrasion resistance, wears away soon-
er, exposing more cutter and maintaining a positive angle
between the cutter wear flat and the formation.
Cutter design
Now that the manufacturing process has been explained, let
us examine cutter design characteristics. The various design
characteristics greatly affect the overall cutter performance.
The characteristics that directly influence performance in-
clude impact, abrasion, shear strength and thermal stability.
Finite-element analysis
Finite-element analysis (FEA) is a mathematical process
used by engineers to design cutting structures that are used
in all types of formations for analyzing a geometrical shape
and calculating the effectiveness of the interfaces. The mod-
els produced reflect the stress state and magnitude. They
also serve to predict high-stress areas that could be prone to
failure and allows mitigation through selective modification
of the interfaces and other parameters. This valuable pro-
cess is used in the design of cutters, inserts and nearly every
component and bit style in use today.
Impact test
Impact damage is the mechanical failure that occurs when
the forces from the formation are able to overcome the bond
of the diamond table to the substrate or the bond in the di-
amond table.
In conjunction with FEA analysis, the industry is continually
mechanically testing PDC cutters for impact resistance us-
ing a specially designed testing apparatus. This is a way of
experimentally validating and comparing cutters before field
testing commences. The drop tower test is performed to
Copyright © 2015

test impact. During the test, an up-sharp cutter is fastened
onto a steel bar with material properties and surface finishes
that are carefully controlled. Tests are performed at sever-
al energy levels using multiple cutters per level. Cutters are
then ranked according to the degree of failure by percent
of spalling, number of hits to failure defined as whenever
spalling area is over 30% of the diamond table surface area,
and failure mode. The final number is a relative number that
gives a general indication of impact resistance. Most sup-
pliers have some form of impact test, although there is no
industry standard.
Abrasion test
Abrasive wear occurs on a microscopic level through a pro-
cess of impact shock and fatigue on the individual diamond
grains. On impact with rock particles, some diamond grains
experience crushing in which the edge of the diamond grain
is gradually removed. Other grains might experience cleav-
age fracturing across the entire plane of the diamond grain.
During an abrasion test, an up-sharp cutter is rotated
against a granite block until failure. At the end of the test,
the volume of rock removed until the point of failure is mea-
sured, and results for each cutter type are ranked.
There is also a granite mill test, which tests abrasion as well
as impact fatigue.
Most suppliers also conduct additional abrasion testing run
on large vertical turret lathes on large blocks of stone. As for
impact testing, however, there is no industry standard.
Thermal stability
Thermal stability is the ability of a cutter to maintain its in-
tegrity at higher temperatures. PDCs used at temperatures
below 1,380°F are primarily worn down by impact. Unfa-
vorable stress conditions increase in PDCs at temperatures
over 660°F. At this temperature, micro-chipping intensifies
due to degradation of the bond between individual diamond
grains. The hardness of the diamond table decreases linear-
ly as the temperature approaches 1,290°F.
At temperatures over 1,380°F, the wear changes from mi-
croscopic chipping of diamond grains to macroscopic loss
of entire grains. Wear rates resulting from high tempera-
tures are elevated and unpredictable. PDC cutters have no
practical life under those conditions. TSP cutters might be
necessary in applications where there are excessive tem-
peratures.
An abrasion/thermal wear test is conducted to evaluate
PDC cutter wear and depth of cut when the cutter is rotated
on a rock sample.
IADC Drilling Manual
BITS BI–19
Substrate interface
Substrate geometry at the interface area seeks to enhance
bonding with the diamond table. Generally, geometries that
increase interface surface area improve bonding. Geome-
tries also attempt to hold stresses at the bond to the lowest
possible level.
Geometrically, the shape of a diamond table seeks to in-
clude the highest possible diamond content. Geometric fea-
tures of the interface between the diamond table and the
substrate can significantly improve the ability of a diamond
table to withstand impact. For this reason, the interface be-
tween the diamond table and substrate is geometric rather
than planar in premium cutters used in sever applications.
Different types of interfaces are used based on the type of
application and the location of the cutter on the bit.
Depending on the type of application, the interface on the
substrate is either planar or non-planar. High-temperature
cutters have optimized diamond table thickness through the
use of NPI in conjunction with FEA.
Different interface geometries were developed by PDC cut-
ter suppliers to minimize residual stresses concentrated in
the diamond table during the manufacturing process.
Related equipment
Additional bit accessories
Several items support bits being used at the rig site. Exam-
ples are listed below.
• Nozzle kit: This kit includes the items needed to change
out the nozzles safely at the rig site if some hydraulic
modifications are needed from the initial requirements.
This kit likely varies among the various drill bit
manufacturers. Never assume the nozzles from one
manufacturer fit another despite visually similar
appearances;
• Lifting straps: Appropriate lifting straps must be used
depending on the weight of the bit being lifted. Refer to
the appropriate bit handling procedures for more
information on how to handle bits;
• Lifting bail and cap: These are used to help move the bit
around the rig. They are screwed to the end of the shank
threads. There are both pin and box thread types
available, depending on what type of upper connection is
on the tool (see Figure BI-35);
• Bit breakers: The appropriate bit breaker needs to be
available at the rig site to make up and breakout the bit.
Refer to the bit make-up and breakout procedures for the
specific drill bit in question. Use the bit breaker from the
manufacturer of the bit. Do not attempt to use a breaker
Copyright © 2015
BI–20 BITS
Figure BI-35: Lifting bail for pin. Lifting bails are used to help move
the bit around the rig. They are screwed to the shank threads. Both
pin and box thread types are available. Courtesy Baker Hughes Inc.
Figure BI-36: Connections with and without thread
protectors Thread protectors must always be used
when the thread is not screwed into a BHA component,
lifting bail or cap. Courtesy Baker Hughes Inc.
Figure BI-37: Ensure that the correct ring gauge is being
used for the appropriate bit type. Manufacturing tolerances
on roller cones and PDCs differ enough to require
separate gauge rings. Courtesy Baker Hughes Inc.
IADC Drilling Manual
from another supplier as it could result in damage to the
bit or could be damaged and cause an injury;
• Thread protectors: These help protect the thread on the
bit shank so the threads (usually made of plastic) do not
get damaged. They must always be used when the
thread is not screwed into a BHA component, lifting bail
or cap. One could use a pin or box type depending on
what type of connection the tool has (Figure BI-36);
• Ring gauge: The appropriate ring gauge should be
available to verify bit gauge. The gauge of the bit must be
verified prior to the bit run. (See API Spec 7-1
Specification for Rotary Drill Stem Elements.) Drill bit
vendor employees or rig site crew personnel can perform
this task. Dull grading gauge measurements must be
taken once the bit has been run (Figure BI-37).
Note: Be sure the ring gauges being used are for the ap-
propriate bit type. Due to the API specifications, the manu-
facturing tolerances on a roller-cone and PDC are different
enough to require separate gauge rings for the two products.
Installation
When installing drill bits, or making-up, it is traditionally ac-
complished via attaching it securely to the end of the drill
stem by using a bit breaker. Not all bits of the same size or
type or from the same vendor might use the same bit break-
er. Roller-cone bit breakers often have a bottom-plate versus
the gate-style prevalent with the fixed cutter bits. It is best
to check with the vendor to ensure the proper bit breaker is
used with the bit to prevent lost time or injury while trying to
make up the bit with the incorrect breaker.
Nozzle and plug installation and removal
PDC nozzle installation
1. Determine the nozzle requirements;
2. Gauge the nozzle orifice to ensure proper nozzle size.
Nozzle gauges might be obtained from the vendors and
should be readily available on the rig;
3. Inspect the nozzle threads or nozzle retainer threads and
the nozzle socket threads. Remove all debris with a small
brush and environmentally safe solvent if needed;
4. Inspect the O-ring. Ensure that the O-ring is properly
seated and is not cracked or damaged. If the O-ring is
damaged, it should be replaced;
5. Apply anti-seize to both the threads of the nozzle socket
and the nozzle. If there is a problem or history of nozzles
backing out in an area or application, then do not use any
anti-seize and apply approximately three drops of Loctite
242 to the threads of the nozzle;
6. Carefully thread the nozzles into the nozzle sockets;
7. Using the wrench provided, slowly turn the nozzle or
nozzle retainer clockwise until resistance is felt. Then
Copyright © 2015

back the nozzle out ½ turn counter-clockwise and
continue rotating clockwise until a firm resistance is felt
to finish seating the nozzle against the O-ring;
8. Tighten all nozzles by hand or using a torque wrench to
35 ft-lb.
PDC ports, plug removal
1. Use provided hex wrench to remove the two plugs;
2. Keep removed plugs and O-rings in a cool, dry place, in
case the reinstallation is necessary.
PDC ports, plug installation
1. Inspect and clean ports using the same method used for
nozzles;
2. Remember that plugs are sized specifically for the given
port size;
3. Use anti-seize on the threads of the plug;
4. Fit the first plug and hand-tighten it, using the provided
hex wrench;
5. Install a clean, undamaged O-ring on top of the first plug;
6. Thread and hand-tighten a second plug on top of the
O-ring and first plug.
PDC nozzle installation and removal tools
• Nozzle extractor;
• Nozzle wrench.
Roller cone, nozzle installation
Depending on the manufacturer, roller-cone nozzles might
be installed using threads or snap rings to hold in place. For
threaded nozzles, use similar process to the PDC nozzle in-
stallation described previously.
Snap ring
1. Determine the nozzle requirements;
2. Select and clean and inspect the nozzles for any damage.
Do not use cracked or chipped nozzles;
3. Gauge the nozzle orifice to ensure proper nozzle size;
4. Place the bit on its pin with the cones facing up;
5. Lubricate the nozzle socket and O-ring with light grease
or lubricating oil. Make sure that the O-ring is not
damaged and is properly seated in the O-ring groove;
6. Insert a nozzle into the nozzle socket with the smaller
opening of the nozzle facing out. Push the nozzle with
both thumbs until it passes the O-ring and seats with the
top of the nozzle below the snap ring groove. Never
hammer the nozzle into place. This can chip or crack the
nozzle and damage the O-ring. Protective eye wear
should be worn, since tungsten carbide nozzles can chip
easily from any impact;
7. Place the tips of the snap ring pliers into the holes of the
snap ring with the flat side facing up and compress the
snap ring until it fits into the nozzle socket. Insert until
snap ring aligns with groove and release the snap ring
until it seats in the groove;
IADC Drilling Manual
BITS BI–21
8. Rotate the snap ring with the snap ring pliers to ensure
that the snap ring is seated;
9. For applications in corrosive environments, coat exposed
snap ring with water-repelling grease.
Retaining pin
1. Retaining pin type installation follows steps 1-6 of snap
ring installation;
2. Choose the retaining pin length that correlates to the
nozzle and then insert the pin into the retaining pin hole.
Tap it with a hammer until the head is flush with the bit
body. A properly installed pin could be slightly loose-
fitting.
Large diameter bits - center jets and ports
Each drill bit company and third-party nozzle provider pro-
vides specific installation procedures for center jets and
ports located in the throat of the roller cone.
Roller cone, nozzle removal
1. It is easiest to remove the nozzles immediately after the
bit is pulled out of the well;
2. Clean the nozzle and nozzle sockets of mud and cuttings;
3. Place the bit on its pin end with the cones facing up;
4. If the nozzles are not being removed immediately after
running, apply water or penetrating oil to the nozzle
sockets. Wait several minutes to allow the water or
penetrating oil to work before proceeding;
5. Orient the snap ring so the ears are toward the outside of
the bit;
6. Insert snap ring pliers in the holes of the snap ring,
compress and remove the snap ring from the nozzle
socket;
7. Insert the nozzle puller into the nozzle and pull up with a
twisting motion to remove the nozzle.
Roller cone nozzle installation and removal tools
• Nozzle gauge;
• Snap ring pliers;
• Nozzle extractor;
• Nozzle hammer.
Bit make-up procedure
1. Proper lifting techniques and equipment must be used to
bring the tools to the rig floor. Drill bit in the bit box/
container and appropriate bit breaker (where applicable)
should be brought up to the drilling rig floor;
2. When picking up a bit, take all the precautions normally
taken while lifting and handling a bit, along with the
following additional precautions;
3. When removing the bit from its box, handle it carefully.
Do not roll it out on the rig floor and let the cutting
structure get damaged, which will reduce the life and
performance of the bit. PDC bits must be placed on a
Copyright © 2015
BI–22 BITS
Figure BI-38: Bit breaker and breaker box in rotary table
with BHA tool above bit. Courtesy Baker Hughes Inc.
wood or rubber mat to ensure that the diamond cutters
are not damaged;
4. Perform a visual inspection of the interior (center
waterway) of the bit to ensure that no debris is left inside
prior to making up the bit to the drillstring. Rags, gloves
and other debris can plug a nozzle and result in hydraulic
back pressure problems on the rig equipment and
improper fluid flow across the bit, resulting in poor
cleaning and cooling of the cutting elements and leading
to bit balling or damage to the cutting structure;
5. Ensure that appropriate nozzles are installed for the
application;
NOTE: Some smaller bit sizes (less than 5 in.) might not
require a bit breaker. These small bits generally weigh
less than 50 lb (22 kg) and can be lifted by a person,
unless there are personal limitations.
6. Install the appropriate bit breaker that is designed for the
bit as required;
NOTE: The bit breaker should be visually inspected to
verify that there is no possible way for the bit breaker to
malfunction. The system of bit, bit breaker and master
bushing should match up for proper fit.
7. Place the bit and bit breaker assembly into the rotary
table. Do not allow any junk to go down into the borehole
while setting the assembly in the rotary table;
8. Prior to applying the thread compound, inspect the pin/
box threads;
9. Apply the threads compound to the bit threads and/or
the next tool above the bit;
10. Carefully bring the bit thread and tool above bit
together to engage the threads. One or the other (bit or
tool above bit) should be rotated to engage the threads;
11. When the bit and tool are engaged, the rotary table
IADC Drilling Manual
should be locked so as to not allow rotation, where
applicable;
12. Use the tongs system or appropriate wrench system to
apply the torque to the connection. API Recommended
Practices 7G lists the torque requirements for the tool
connection type. The unique bit specification sheet will
also have the torque requirements.
Bits run on special BHA tools
Note: Make all personnel aware of the correct bit lifting pro-
cedures in the pre-tour safety talk or drill floor tool box talk.
Some BHA components might require special consider-
ations. One example would be that some rotary steerable
directional drilling tools might require a breaker box to lift
the bit off the rotary table to allow the bit to be made-up or
broken out of the BHA tool, just above the bit (Figure BI-38).
The bit has to be lifted up off the table to help get the tongs
on the tool above the bit to allow the bit to be made up or
broken out.
Suggested operating recommendations
It has been said by some industry experts that more dam-
age is caused getting to bottom and in the first 10 minutes
of a bit’s life than in the rest of the run. “Tagging” bottom
can damage the cutting structure and, in extreme cases, the
bearings and seals. Care should also be taken when running
to bottom not to hit a ledge from a prior run. Forcing a bit to
bottom in an undergauge hole results in a pinched bit and
can result in premature bearing and seal failure, and/or cut-
ting structure interference and damage. PDC bits might suf-
fer premature damage to the shoulder and gauge. Rotating a
PDC bit on a motor and adjustable kick-off (AKO) motor in
the casing can result in damage to the casing and also bro-
ken shoulder and gauge cutters on the bit. Optimizing drill-
ing performance through operating parameter optimization
is frequently interpreted as maximizing the ROP, but this is
not always appropriate and might cause poor overall per-
formance.
In some applications, drilling performance is optimized by
maximizing the bit run length, thus reducing the number of
trips. In these cases, the goal is to protect the cutting struc-
ture, so it might be necessary to reduce penetration rates to
gain increased durability of the cutting structure and save
more time with reduced trips than the upside potential of
short-term ROP gains.
In some applications, drilling performance is optimized by
minimizing reactive torque, thus reducing the occurrence of
vibrations. This can be achieved by running the drill bit with
reduced parameters: for example, with low WOB. In other
applications, best life is obtained by using higher WOB and
Copyright © 2015

lower rotary speed. Contact your bit representative for spe-
cific recommendations for the BHA design and formations
being drilled.
In some applications, borehole quality for logging purpose
or casing running issues might need the application of re-
duced parameters and a decrease of the ROP.
Operating parameters optimization strategy should be guid-
ed by:
• Understanding what the primary aim of the application
is;
• Understanding the challenge of the environment being
drilled;
• Understanding the constraints on performance
associated with the drilling equipment you are working
with.
Optimizing parameter overview
• A diligent driller that performs frequent drill-off tests for
drilling parameter optimization always drills further and
faster than the driller who “sets and forgets;”
• Be on the rig floor (physically or virtually) at all crew
changes. This is critical to ensure optimum drilling
parameters are maintained and to update the new driller
of the current drilling/rig issues and any drilling
parameter testing in progress;
• If running a motor, try setting the automatic driller to run
off motor differential pressure rather than WOB. This
generally corrects the weight faster; consequently, the
weight is applied more consistently and better
performance is achieved;
• Conduct a series of drill-off tests to find the optimum
drilling parameters to achieve satisfactory penetration
rate or to minimize bit/BHA damage;
• Formation changes can result in a penetration rate
change; if the ROP reduces and reasonable torque is still
generated, the formation is likely to be harder so the
rotary speed should be reduced and weight increased. If
this generates too much torque, weight should be
reduced and RPM increased;
• Monitor mudweight. As mudweight increases, ROP
generally decreases. When closer to balanced drilling
(where the mud pressure equals the formation pore
pressure), ROP generally increases;
• Maintaining good notes is very important for optimizing
drilling performance over an entire run. It also aids
understanding/problem solving if the drilling becomes
problematic; real-time visualization of the drilling
parameters makes it easier for you to see trends over
time;
• Parameter readings are more accurate if read directly
from the gauges (Martin Decker for WOB, the stand pipe
gauge for pressure, etc.) than those displayed on the rig
IADC Drilling Manual
BITS BI–23
floor monitor. The rig floor monitor can be inaccurate
unless data are frequently recalibrated as hole is drilled;
• There are no rotary speed limitations for a PDC bit in
rotary and motor applications. Rotary speed constraints
are established by rig and downhole motor capabilities;
• Critical drillstring RPM (destructive drillstring harmonics
initiated) should be avoided;
• Use the RPM that gives the best performance, avoiding
critical drillstring harmonics;
• It should not be necessary to use the maximum WOB
value for the bit—exceeding this significantly increases
the risk of catastrophic failure.
For more on vibration mitigation in bits, as well as other
guidelines for running bits efficiently, please refer to the sep-
arate Drilling Practices chapter of the IADC Drilling Manu-
al, 12th edition. The Drilling Practices chapter also includes
physics-based guidance on connection practices, reaming
to condition holes, hole cleaning, tripping, wellbore stability
management and lost circulation.
Mechanical specific energy
Importance in drilling operations
Fundamental to any drilling optimization program is know-
ing what the energy balance is downhole. Is the energy be-
ing input into the system being used efficiently in the drilling
of the rock?
• Where energy is not being used efficiently, that energy is
invariably used in phenomena that are detrimental to the
bit and BHA: for example, vibrations that can lead onto
cutter damage;
• Due to this, it is important in all drilling operations to be
aware of the energy usage in the subsurface, and one of
the ways of doing this is by monitoring mechanical
specific energy (MSE) values.
Definition
MSE is the amount of energy consumed to remove a unit
volume of rock and expressed in lb/sq in. (psi).
• MSE values are best measured (if possible) at multiple
points along the BHA, as that way you get a better idea
of the energy distribution and its application;
• For the best understanding of what energy is available
for the bit, you need to get MSE values from as close to
the bit as possible;
• These downhole MSE values are provided by specialist
downhole drilling dynamic measuring tools. If they are
not being recorded and transmitted, then you are
generally limited to surface MSE alone.
Application
If drilling were taking place with 100% efficiency, the energy
Copyright © 2015
BI–24 BITS
being input into the system would match the rock’s confined
compressive strength (CCS expressed in psi).
• In reality, there is never 100% efficiency, but what should
be seen in efficient drilling is a trend for MSE values to be
approaching the rock’s compressive strength;
• When analyzing MSE values, do not fixate on the
absolute values—the best way of using MSE is as a trend
indicator;
• For example, an observed increase in MSE value with no
corresponding change in lithology type and strength
indicates that a drilling inefficiency is appearing (for
example, cutter dulling, bit balling, vibration, etc.).
Interpreting what the drilling inefficiency is, and what is
causing it, can be a complex task, so appropriate training is
needed to use MSE analysis proactively.
As mentioned, the best MSE analysis is done where you can
access values from various positions in the BHA.
Monitoring drilling parameter procedures
Data sources
• Fully understand the source of the data, as the source
influences how much credence is given to it during
decision making;
• If several measurements of the same parameter exist,
analyze those drilling parameter values measured as
close to the bit as possible;
• Surface data need to be treated more circumspectly,
especially if you have the likes of a motor present in the
BHA; in that scenario, the values should be used more
qualitatively as trend indicators than quantitatively in the
likes of MSE analysis;
• In the best-case scenario, you should be monitoring both
surface and downhole measurements simultaneously.
Doing so delivers the most accurate representation of
what is happening in the wellbore.
General overview of monitoring
Closely monitor the following parameters:
• ROP;
• Rotary speed;
• Torque;
• WOB;
• Flow rate;
• Standpipe pressure;
• Pump stroke rate.
Undertake this while reaming as well as when drilling a new
formation.
Ensure that the mud logging unit (or rig data system if ap-
IADC Drilling Manual
propriate) records all relevant parameters when drilling and
when reaming.
Continuously compare the observed drilling performance
(ROP, torque, standpipe pressure) and cuttings interpreta-
tion with the prognosis for the well. Any discrepancies be-
tween the observed and anticipated performance should be
evaluated and explained.
Compute the MSE (if not already being generated by any
of the rig data systems being used). Compare this with the
prognosis unconfined compressive strength (UCS) for the
formation being drilled to get an idea of the overall drilling
efficiency. In the ideal world, with 100% energy efficiency,
the MSE value should be coming close to the UCS value.
Rotary speed
Total bit RPM is equal to the surface RPM plus the downhole
motor/turbine rotary speed.
• High rotary speed should be avoided in abrasive
formations to prevent rapid thermal abrasive wear;
• High rotary speed should be avoided if the drill bit starts
whirl;
• Some rotary speeds can initiate drillstring resonance and
should be avoided. This can be done by determining
critical RPMs;
• High RPM in hard formations might reduce ROP, as the
cutters are unable to dig in the formation;
• Rotary speed might be limited due to drillpipe or drive
limitations.
Torque
Rotary torque is an indicator of what is happening at the drill
bit. In soft formation, torque might indicate the bit is on bot-
tom before the WOB does. The torque could be considered
high when it starts to slow down surface rotary speed and
stalls the motor, rotary table or top-drive.
Interbedded formations produce torque changes as the bit
moves in and out of formation beds that have different rock
strength and drillability, while homogeneous formations
produce smooth constant torque signals.
If downhole torque measurements are available, they can be
used in combination with surface measurements for greater
accuracy.
Weight on bit
As the bit wears, more WOB is required to achieve the same
ROP in a homogeneous formation. In general WOB should
be applied before excessive RPM so that the cutting struc-
ture maintains a significant depth of cut to stabilize the bit
and prevent whirl.
Copyright © 2015

Flow rate
Generally, high flow rate provides better hole cleaning than
low flow rate, as it removes the cuttings more efficiently due
the resulting high velocity and high hp/sq in. (HSI). Howev-
er, excessive HSI might result in poor borehole quality due to
washout. Flow rate must match with junk slot area (JSA) to
prevent bit erosion, particularly in the case of rock bits and
steel body PDC bits.
When to pull the drill bit
There are many reasons why an operator might desire to or
need to pull a drill bit. Below is a detailed list of some of the
most common reasons and guidelines for when they might
be applicable.
Pull the bit for ROP
The decision to pull the bit because of low ROP should be
based on a review of the observed ROP, drilling efficiency,
cuttings interpretation and their comparison to expecta-
tions.
• Be aware of offset performance in all the relevant
formations;
• ROP could be poor because of a transition into a hard
formation and not necessarily because of a damaged bit;
• If no relevant offsets exist, it is crucial to focus on the
drill bit response to parameter changes before deciding
to pull the drill bit.
1. Estimate the ROP to section TD with the current bit and
compare it to the ROP of a new bit;
2. Could the bit currently in the hole be able to drill to the
next planned trip, to section TD or to the next change of
BHA? If not, pull the bit;
3. Compare the cost of leaving the current bit in the hole
longer, with the cost of tripping the bit and replacing it
with a new bit. Would the time saved by the higher
penetration rate of a new bit be sufficient to compensate
for the time spent on the trip and the cost of the new bit;
4. Do not leave a bit on bottom once it is determined that
the bit should be pulled. Grinding away on bottom
destroys the dull characteristics that could reveal the
cause of the bit’s loss of performance or damage. It could
also leave junk in the hole, such as a cone from a
roller-cone bit or nozzles from a fixed-cutter bit.
Pull the bit for mechanical damage
The evaluation of possible mechanical damage to the bit dif-
fers between bit types.
»» PDC bits
• A worn cutting structure tends to require more WOB to
achieve comparable ROP compared to a bit with sharp
cutters. The bit becomes less aggressive, which means
the reactive bit torque generally decreases for a
sustained WOB;
IADC Drilling Manual
BITS BI–25
• With a worn bit, torque tends to gradually decrease as
the consequence of ROP drop, while the MSE tends to
increase;
• Sudden PDC cutter damage causes an instantaneous
reduction in penetration rate, as opposed to a
progressive reduction;
• A fixed cutter bit should be pulled as soon as it is
believed to have suffered major mechanical damage such
as a “ring-out” or a broken blade;
o Ring-out and broken blades can occur when the cutting
structure is damaged by a high impact event, i.e., lateral
vibration. The high lateral vibration can damage a set of
cutters, which subsequently requires the remaining
cutters to increase their work rate, which ultimately
accelerates the wear rate on the remaining cutters;
o Ring-out and broken blades can occur during period of
high stick-slip. During the stick phase, the cutters and
blades are loaded the greatest amount.
»» Roller-cone bits
• The most frequent mode of failure for a roller-cone bit is
bearings failure. A roller cone bit should be pulled as
soon as there are good reasons to believe that a bearing
has failed. The threat of leaving junk in the hole is very
serious and could lead to very costly fishing jobs for the
customer;
• With correct operating parameters and procedures, a
sealed roller cone bearing can operate for hundreds of
thousands of bit revolutions before it wears to the point
of a failure;
• Open bearings have a much shorter operating life and
should not normally be used in applications that require
runs much in excess of 24 hours;
• Bearing failures can occur sooner than the target life
span. If a bearing failure is not detected rapidly, there is a
real prospect of a cone becoming detached from the bit
and left downhole.
Factors involved in premature bearing failure:
• Incorrect operating parameters;
• Unsuitable cutting structure;
• Severe gauge wear;
• Incorrect reaming practices;
• Unsuitable BHA;
• Axial and torsional drilling string vibrations.
Pull the bit for bit balling
1. First, try to remove the balling before deciding to trip the
drill bit;
2. If attempts to remove the balling are unsuccessful,
perform the cost/ft analysis to assess the cost of the trip.
Copyright © 2015
BI–26 BITS

Figure BI-39: Format of IADC dull grading chart.

IADC Drilling Manual Copyright © 2015

 BITS BI–27

Pull the bit for nozzle problem

»» Lost nozzle
The primary symptom of a lost nozzle is a sudden decrease
in pump pressure due to an increase in the total flow area
(TFA).
• If ROP isn’t affected significantly, the drilling operation
could continue. The lost nozzle in the hole could damage
the drill bit’s cutting structure;
• Drilling with a missing nozzle could increase the risk of
eroding the drill bits nozzle ports. Monitor the pump
pressure; if the ports are eroding, the pump pressure
would gradually decrease;
• A lost nozzle could increase the risk of bit balling due to
the reduction in HSI.

»» Plugged nozzle
The primary symptom of a plugged nozzle is an increase in
the standpipe pressure due to the blockage in the flow area.
The symptoms are the opposite of what is seen in the case
of lost nozzle.

There are various factors that could clog up a nozzle, rang-

ing from swollen or sticky formation cuttings to loose mud
motor stator chunking (junk inside bit).

Dull grading and forensics

Paper SPE/IADC 23939, developed under the auspices of
IADC and presented the 1992 IADC/SPE Drilling Confer-
ence held in New Orleans, Louisiana, February 18-21, 1992,
outlines the dull-grading procedure for fixed-cutter bits. Fig-
ure BI-40 shows examples of dull characteristics.

The IADC Fixed-Cutter Work Group during 1991 audited the

1987 Fixed-Cutter Dull Grading System and determined that
some minor refinement was necessary. As was the case with
introduction of the fixed cutter dull grading system in 1987,
the objective of this revision was to facilitate creation of a
“mental picture” of a worn bits physical condition through a
standardized evaluation of certain bit characteristics.1

Because the system provides an industry-wide standard for
recording the physical condition of the worn bit for future
reference, the meaning of a dull grade should be subject to
as little misinterpretation as possible. Therefore, committee
discussions focused on two specific areas: improving the
definition of “usable cutter height” as it relates to evaluation
of PDC cutter wear, and making minor enhancements to the
wear characteristic codes.
System enhancements
The format of the dull grading chart, shown in Figure BI-39,
shows eight factors to record. The first four spaces describe
the extent and location of wear of the “Cutting Structure”.
The next two spaces address other criteria for bit evalua-
tion, with the fifth space reserved for grading “Bearing” wear
of roller cone bits. This space is always marked with an “X”
when fixed cutter bits are graded.
The sixth space indicates “Gauge Measurement.” The last
two positions allow for “Remarks” which provide addition-
al information concerning the dull bit, including “Other (or

IADC Drilling Manual Copyright © 2015

BI–28 BITS

Inner Area Outer Area

2/3 Radius 1/3 Radius
GAGE GAGE
SHOULDER SHOULDER
CONE CONE TAPER
TAPER
NOSE NOSE

1 2
3
0 4 GAGE
GAGE

5 SHOULDER SHOULDER
CONE
NOSE
6 TAPER
CONE
NOSE A1-4
7
Figure BI-42: Location designations.
Figure A1-4 Location Designation

Figure BI-41: Location designations.
Secondary) Dull Characteristics” and “Reason Pulled,” re-
spectively.
The system grades all PDC cutters based on condition of
the visible diamond table of the cutter, regardless of cutter
shape or exposure. This differs from the former practice of
grading PDC cutters based on “usable cutter height” re-
maining. It was determined that the definition of “usable
cutter height” for PDC bits was subject to misinterpretation,
given the initial positioning of some PDC cutters “within” the
bit blade on some designs.
Rather than evaluating “usable cutter height”, PDC cutter
wear is now measured across the diamond table, regardless
of the cutter shape, size, type or exposure. This eliminates
the difficulty in determining the initial cutter height on a bit
in which PDC cutters are designed with less-than-full expo-
sure.
For both surface-set and PDC bits, the average amount of
wear for each area is recorded, with two-thirds of the radius
representing the “inner rows” and the remainder represent-
ing the “outer rows” (Figure BI-41). Average wear is cal-
culated by simply averaging the individual grades for each
cutter in the area.

Additional enhancements include addition of a dull charac- Dull characteristics: space 3

teristic code, “BF”, to distinguish “bond failure” between the
cutter and its support backing from “LT”, loss of a cut- ter. In
addition, the optional designations “RR” or “NR” were added
to allow for indication of whether a bit is “re-runnable” or
not.
Application of these minor revisions will further “standard-
ize” the meaning of a dull grade. Examples of dull character-
istics are shown in Figure BI-40.
Evaluating “cutting structure”
Inner/outer rows: spaces 1 and 2
Refer to Figures BI-41 and B-42. Using a linear scale from
0 to 8, as before, a value is given to cutter wear in both the
inner and outer rows of cutters. Grading numbers increase
with amount of wear, with 0 representing no wear, and 8
meaning no usable cutters left. A grade of 4 indicates 50%
wear.
For surface-set bits, the scale of cutter wear is determined
by comparing the initial cutter height with the amount of us-
able cutter height remaining.
The most prominent or “primary” physical change from new
condition of a cutter is recorded in the third space. “Other”
dull characteristics of the bit are noted in the seventh space
the difference being that space 3 describes cutter wear,
while space 7 may concern other wear characteristics of the
bit as a whole. Codes for dull characteristics of both catego-
ries are listed in Figure BI-39.
Location: space 4
The fourth space is used to indicate the location of the pri-
mary dull characteristic noted in the third space. Locations
are designated in the diagrams of Figure BI-53. One or more
of these codes may be used to indicate the location of the
characteristic(s) noted. They include: C-cone, N-nose (row),
T-taper, S-shoulder, G-gauge, A-all areas, M-middle row and
H-heel row.
Other evaluation criteria
Bearing: space 5
This space is used only for roller cone bits. It will always be
marked “X” for fixed-cutter bits.

IADC Drilling Manual Copyright © 2015


Gauge: space 6
The sixth space is used to record the condition of the bit
gauge. “I” is used if the bit is still in gauge. Otherwise, the
amount the bit is under-gauge is recorded to the nearest 1/16
in.
Other dull characteristics: space 7
In the seventh space, secondary evidence of bit wear is not-
ed. Such evidence may relate specifically to cut- ting struc-
ture wear, as recorded in the third space, or may note iden-
tifiable wear of the bit as a whole, such as “erosion”. Many
times, this “secondary” dull grade identifies the cause of the
dull characteristic noted in the third space.
Codes for grading both “primary” and “secondary” dull char-
acteristics are listed in the table shown in Figure BI-50. The
designations “RR” and “NR” have been included as options
for noting whether the bit is re- runnable or not.
Reason pulled: space 8
The eighth space is used to record the reason the bit was
pulled. A list of codes is shown in Figure BI-50.
Impact on other stages of drilling,
completion and production
The drilling process itself always starts with a careful de-
sign and engineering analysis, where the objectives for this
specific and unique drilling case must be approached, con-
sidering the overall situation, even under well-known offset
conditions and mature drilling developments, or with risky
wildcats.
Factors to be taken into account might be driven by some
questions. Equipment could be affected by the following:
• Risk analysis: How fast in terms of drilling time and
directional work one desires to work. The analysis
should include critical factors such as drillability,
steerability and available technologies for
operations with remote or difficult logistics.
Considering items such as pore pressure and kicks
probability, equivalent circulating density (ECD) will
help drill under controlled, near-balance
environment;
• Drilling mud: Borehole interaction in terms of
reactiveness and well aging;
• Geological objectives: The target’s trail when we found
more than one , scale, and the necessary type of
well to reach the target;
• Well profile and trajectory: The selected path to be
followed to hit the targets impacts the necessary bit
selection, cutting structure, stability and
aggressiveness in terms of the formations to be
IADC Drilling Manual
BITS BI–29
drilled. The path might include geological obstacles,
high dip, salt dome, igneous rocks, unconsolidated
formations, non-desired high-pressure zones;
• Marketing plan: This factor is more related to
economic and strategic models, and is the proper
time to show drilling capacity and time reduction.
Sometimes large drilling projects depend on the
result of the small ones, and bit selection plays a key
role on the marketing plans for drilling;
• Equipment availability: What types of drilling systems
are used or planned to be used under the umbrella
of the project feasibility, and what technology is
available? Some of the equipment indirectly affected
by the bit selection can be directly affected by
vibrations, like drilling line (hesitation and pendular
vibration), conventional rigs, hydraulic pistons at the
super singles, or rack-and-pinion rigs, and of course
all of the downhole tools, like mud motors, RSS
systems, etc;
• Other effects: Drilling an oversized hole results in
increased cost in the completions and cementing
operations. A tortuous hole or one with ledges
might result in difficulty with getting casing to
bottom, further increasing time and cost to the
complete the well. These effects can be minimized
or are generally preventable with good drilling
practices.
Proper storage considerations
The storage procedures differ depending on the bit type to
be stored. Not all bits are manufactured or maintained the
same. Below are general recommendations, but always con-
sult the appropriate drill bit representative and documenta-
tion for best practices.
Tricone bit storage
Tricone bits have bearings that are either sealed or non-
sealed. The sealed bits must have component parts (like
elastomers) protected from the environment. Extreme tem-
peratures also degrade the elastomeric properties, which
could diminish the performance of the bit.
Sealed tricone bits
• Sealed bearing rolling cone drill bits must be stored
properly to protect them from damaging environmental
conditions. Store sealed bearing rock bits in a bit box;
• When stored properly, sealed bearing drill bits should
retain their full performance potential for a period of five
years from the date of manufacture. Bits over five years
old might experience a slow degradation in performance,
due to the elastomer (rubber) components in the bit;
• Elastomer components, such as bearing seals and
pressure compensator parts, continue to age with time.
Aging causes the parts to harden and become less
Copyright © 2015
BI–30 BITS
Figure BI-43: Location of grease holes in non-sealed bits.
resilient. The deterioration of elastomer components can
be aggravated or accelerated by improper storage
conditions, which result in decreased seal life in
demanding drilling applications;
• Do not store bits in a place where they could be exposed
to dampness, harmful vapors, radiation or temperatures
in excess of 120°F (49°C) or lower than 30°F (-1°C). Do
not place close to a heater, because the elastomer
components will be damaged;
NOTE: Do not rotate the cones on a bit that is cold (below
30°F or -1°C) to avoid damaging the bearing seals; warm the
bit up before rotating the cones.
• Sealed bearing rock bits must be stored at least six ft
away from ozone-producing equipment, such as electric
motors.
Non-sealed tricone bits
There are two methods to servicing and storing non-sealed
rock bits between runs. Prior to storage, the non-sealed rock
bit must be cleaned thoroughly by washing with a high-pres-
sure hose. Wash down the bit, and rotate the cones to flush
out cuttings through the weep holes. Make sure all the cones
can be rotated freely.
Storage method 1: greasing the cones
The first method is to grease each cone individually with
a grease gun. Cones can be greased through the pre-cast
holes, as shown in Figure BI-43. Several pumps of grease
should be forced into the grease holes. During this process,
the cone should be rotated fully in order to spread the grease
inside the roller bearing. This procedure should be repeat-
IADC Drilling Manual
ed until grease appears at the outer edge of the cones be-
tween the cone backface and the leg. The rock bit can now
be stored safely.
Storage method 2: submersed in oil
Another acceptable practice is to store an unsealed bit in a
drum of oil. The oil should completely cover the cones. Af-
ter sitting in oil for two or three days, the cones should be
turned and the bit returned to the oil bath until needed.
Prior to use
Prior to use, clean and install new nozzle o-rings and noz-
zles. Re-grease each cone bearing through the weep hole;
try to fill the entire bearing cavity by rotating the cones sev-
eral times until plenty of grease comes out the backface.
Clean the shank and shoulder area as well and apply pipe
grease (dope) to these areas.
Locked cone
If an unsealed bit has a locked cone, submerge it in a diesel
tank for a day, then try again to rotate the cone. If the bit was
submerged for a couple of days or more and the cone still
does not break free, then consider scrapping the bit.
Fixed cutters bit storage
• Fixed cutter bits (PDC, casing and impregs) need to be
stored in the bit box they arrived at the wellsite in;
• The PDC cutters on the bit need to be protected from
sustaining damage in any manner;
• Steel bits should be placed in an environment where
there is minimal chance of corrosion on the bit body, i.e.,
away from wet/damp/humid conditions.
Drill bit repairs
PDC
In the current market and under current operating parame-
ters and limits of the BHA and drillstring components, PDC
drill bits typically can be run multiple times after minimal re-
pairs. Repairing PDC drill bits is a common practice amongst
the larger drill bit manufacturers, and each manufacturer
has a specific set of acceptance criteria or standards for a
repairable bit. The drill bits are repaired to specific manufac-
turing tolerances, and non-destructive examinations (NDE)
are performed to satisfy manufacturer quality management
procedures. These standards provide product reliability in
line with customer expectations and standard operating pa-
rameters and are requirements per ISO 9001 standards.
Post-run evaluation
After a drill bit is run, the dull bit is cleaned and evaluated
for reparability. The procedure for reparability inspection
involves a visual inspection that classifies drill bits with ob-
Copyright © 2015

vious non-repairable damage as damaged beyond repair
(DBR), and the bit is subsequently scrapped. PDC cutting el-
ements and components are visually inspected for wear and
damage. Dye penetration inspection is used to further eval-
uate the dull drill bit to determine reparability at the repair
or manufacturing facility. The dye penetration can be used
to indicate the need for replacing secondary components on
the drill bits that have passed visual inspection, e.g., TCI or
posts. The pin connection might be magnetic-particle tested
based on manufacturing standards. Drill bits designated for
offshore use might be required by the customer to be DS-1
Category 5 tested before and after repairs.
PDC cutting elements and secondary components
replacement and reclaim
PDC cutting elements are brazed in during the original man-
ufacturing process and can be replaced after running. Each
PDC cutting element is inspected for wear or damage and
classified for scrap or reuse. The wear to the diamond ta-
ble and the tungsten carbide substrate is evaluated. If ac-
ceptable for reuse, the cutting element is reclaimed and in
future use be rotated to use an edge that has not engaged
formation. In some areas there is no reclaim process, and all
cutting elements are replaced. The PDC cutting element re-
placement and reclaim process involves complete removal
of the cutting elements, braze material and corrosion/oxida-
tion products through a heating cycle and blasting/grinding.
The bit is allowed to cool, and the cutting element pockets
are then shot blast, chemically cleaned and preheated for
re-braze. The reclaimed cutting elements are also cleaned
for re-braze. Whenever heat is being used, thermocouples
are required to monitor heat magnitude and cycles. Caution
is taken during repairs due to the inherent risks associated
with heat cycles. Detailed procedures are specified for drill
bit repairs outlining preheat, heating and brazing tempera-
tures and various other critical steps in the repair process.
For welding and brazing, specific settings are outlined, and
thermocouples are used to monitor temperatures.
Upreaming PDC cutting elements and secondary compo-
nents are replaced in the same manner as the primary cut-
ting structure PDC cutting elements. Various other types
of tools, such as reamers, variable-gauge stabilizers and
bi-center bits that use PDC cutting elements are repaired
using similar procedures.
Drill bit body and gauge
Wear to the drill bit body and gauge can be either cosmetic
or functional, each requiring a specific procedure for repair.
Cosmetic body and gauge repairs are typically performed
immediately after cutter replacement brazing to prevent un-
necessary heat cycles. The body is prepared by shot blast
and cleaned of all foreign material. Graphite plugs are used
to protect cutting element pockets. Using approved mate-
IADC Drilling Manual
BITS BI–31
rials and an oxy-acetylene torch, worn areas of crown and
all the joints between cutters and pockets are covered and
repaired.
For functional wear repairs, drill bits are repaired using a
flame spray method. The difference between cosmetic and
functional might differ between drill bit manufacturers. The
functional gauge wear has limitations, and bits that exceed
the functional repair limits are classified as scrap. After
hardfacing is applied, the bit is visually inspected, and wheel
brushing or grinding is used to clean-up or remove any over-
spray or cosmetic imperfections. The gauge is ground radi-
ally to nominal specified diameter. Other components that
might be affected by the temperatures involved in these re-
pairs should be replaced.
Pin connections and upper sections (matrix bits)
Pin connections and certain upper sections can be removed
and replaced. The drill bit is cleaned by pressure washing
and shot blast. The pin or upper section is removed by ma-
chining the weld groove or the entire pin connection down
to the original blank make-up threads. Care must be taken
to leave the original blank make-up threads intact to enable
the threading make-up of the replacement pin connection.
Threads shall be properly de-burred. The weld groove shall
also be cleaned out as necessary by machining to provide for
a suitable weld groove for the replacement upper section.
The replacement pin connection shall be made up, welded,
inspected and completed in accordance with appropriate
requirements.
Miscellaneous modifications
Drill bit gauge modifications can be made by grinding both
in diameter and length. These modifications have limitations
and are outlined by manufacturing and engineering policies.
Ports can also be closed using welding methods.
Roller cone
Re-tipping
Re-tipping of the teeth of steel-tooth roller cones is not a
common practice for standard drilling environments. How-
ever, numerous third-party re-tippers will provide this ser-
vice for non-challenging or special applications. Re-tippers
have developed a procedure for cosmetic repair of tooth
gauge, face, flank and crest. The procedure involves the
building-up the teeth of the drill bit by welding steel and hard
metal to the surface of the teeth. Smaller cosmetic discrep-
ancies are repaired using “liquid steel” or equivalent product
to the voids. These repaired areas are filled slightly above
flush with the base material and sanded to create a blended,
uninterrupted surface.
Copyright © 2015
BI–32 BITS
Table BI-3: Approximate weight of roller-cone bits (boxed).
Post-repair documentation and inspections
Drill bit manufacturers are required keep detailed records
regarding serialized components. These records detail post-
run inspections, repair comments, temperature logs, NDE
results and tolerances compliance. Various stages in the
repair process require meticulous inspection and quality as-
surance checks:
• ASME SEC V: Non-Destructive Examination;
• ASTM E709: Standard Practice for Magnetic Particle
Examination;
• ASTME 1316: Standard Terminology for Non-Destructive
Examinations;
• Standard DS-1: Drillstring manufacture, design,
inspection and specialty tools.
Important calculations
Drilling hydraulics
Good hydraulics is essential in ensuring the economic suc-
cess of a drill bit. The drilling fluid must at the same time
clean the cutting elements, avoid clogging (balling up), cool
and lubricate the cutters. To ensure and fulfill these objec-
tives is therefore mandatory to design the hydraulic power
to meet the bit performance target. For a given flow rate,
the choice of a greater TFA reduces the fluid velocity at the
exit of the nozzles. The jet impact is the force with which the
fluid leaving the nozzles hits the hole bottom. This impact
force, mainly a function of the fluid speed and mudweight, is
at its maximum when the pressure drop at the bit is 49% of
the pump pressure.
Pressure drop
The pressure drop across a bit is defined as the difference
between the pressure of the mud exiting the nozzles and the
pressure of the mud within the drillstring immediately prior
to entering the bit.
If the bit pressure drop is extremely high for a given flow rate
IADC Drilling Manual
and mudweight, the fluid exiting the nozzles has a corre-
spondingly high velocity. A lower-pressure drop, on the oth-
er hand, under the same conditions of flow and mudweight,
results in fluid exiting the nozzles with lower velocity.
Pressure drop is dependent on flow rate, mudweight and the
bit TFA.
Units system:
• Pressure drop (psi);
• Flow rate (gal/min);
• Mud weight (lb/gal)
• TFA (sq in.);
• 10,856 is a unit conversion factor.
Hydraulic horsepower
The total hydraulic hp developed at the bit (HHP) is a func-
tion of flow rate (gal/min) and pressure drop (PD) according
to the formula in U.S. units:
Hydraulic horsepower/square inch
Hydraulic HSI provides a measure of the hydraulic power
consumed at the bit per hole section and is a function of
flow rate and bit pressure drop, as well as hole diameter, and
therefore increases as the flow rate is increased.
However, as flow rate becomes higher, the TFA eventually
needs to be increased to maintain a suitable pressure drop,
in which case the HSI once again falls.
Copyright © 2015

HSI is at maximum when the pressure drop across the bit is
65 % of the standpipe pressure, which registers the pres-
sure of the mud entering the top of the drillstring.
Units system:
• Flow rate (gal/min);
• Bit pressure drop (psi);
• Hole area (sq in.) = π/4 * (hole diameter)2;
• 1,714 is a unit conversion factor.
Jet velocity
Jet velocity The jet velocity is defined as the average speed
of mud exiting the nozzles. It is a function of flow rate and
TFA. If the flow rate is extremely high, for a given mud-
weight, the fluid exiting the nozzles has a correspondingly
high velocity. A lower flow rate, on the other hand, under
the same conditions of mudweight, results in fluid exiting
the nozzles with lower velocity. If the TFA is high, for a given
flow rate and mudweight, the fluid exiting the nozzles has
low velocity. The converse is also true.
Units system:
• Flow rate (gal/min);
• TFA (sq in.);
• 0.32086 is unit conversion factor.
Jet impact force
The jet impact force (JIF) is the force that is exerted on the
bottom of the hole by the fluid exiting the nozzles when the
bit is on bottom.
It is a function of jet velocity, mudweight and flow rate. JIF is
maximized when the pressure drop across the bit is 49% of
the standpipe pressure.
Units system:
• Flow rate (gal/min);
• Mud weight (lb/gal);
• TFA (sq in.);
• 1,932 is unit conversion factor.
Given the fact that the required hydraulic hp varies with the
IADC Drilling Manual
BITS BI–33
bit diameter, a proportional relationship is used to define
the necessary energy: the power per wellbore area. The hy-
draulic power at the bit is at its maximum when the pressure
drop at the bit is 64% of the pump pressure.
The hydraulic power requirements vary with local practices.
In soft formation, it is preferable to increase mud flow rath-
er than pressure drop; two to three HSI is common. With
oil-based mud or when drilling in some shales, the level is
generally lower. For surface set bits, the level is between one
and three HSI. In harder rocks and with water-based mud
and when a high jet effect is wanted, a level from three to
five HSI is usually applied.
Drilling economics
Drill bit selection is key in the achievement of decent drilling
performance and the reduction of overall drilling costs. Val-
ues of optimization might include various benefits such as
reduced number of trips, lower rig mobilization and better
safe operating conditions, which result in a great economic
benefit. To help drilling engineers in this task, there are some
basic cost calculations to perform. The most used formula is
the cost/ft that measures the overall operating cost to drill
one foot of well with a given drill bit.
Cost per foot
The cost/ft is the bit performance measurement used to
evaluate the choice. When a downhole motor (measure-
ment while drilling [MWD], motor or rotary steerable sys-
tem) is used, its rental cost must be added to the hourly cost
of the rig and the fixed cost of the bit. However, the eco-
nomics of a bit only depends on its penetration rate and its
life expectancy in terms of time and/or m drilled. One must
endeavor to optimize these two elements. One can use the
following formula to calculate the cost/ft drilled:
Where CPT = Cost/m drilled ($/m or $/ft)
CRig = Cost/hr for the rig ($/hr)
CBit = Bit cost ($)
CMotor = Motor cost
t = Drilling time (hour)
T = Trip time (hour)
M = footage drilled (m or ft)
Copyright © 2015
BI–34 BITS

Break-even line
Bit life and ROP are the best criteria used to define the im-
pact of the drill bit on the overall drilling cost. Bit life is mea-
sured as the footage drilled per bit, whereas the ROP is ft
drilled per rotating hour. Bit life affects the number of trips
that is required to change the bit, while ROP influences the
number of drilling hours needed to complete a given hole
section. Proper planning for the well prognosis and working
with your operator and bit specialist will you help to choose
the best bit selection for the planned profile, BHA, forma-
tions and operating conditions.
Proper handling
Always refer to the original equipment manufacturer (OEM)
manualas applicable, before undertaking procedures at the
current work site.

IADC Drilling Manual Copyright © 2015


SAFETY AND HANDLING
General handling hazards
• Ensure all lifting straps are correctly rated for the load
and are secured when moving drill bits;
• Use proper lifting practices when handling drill bits;
• Be aware of other material movements being undertaken
when working on the drill floor;
• Any general wellsite bit handling hazards should be
covered and discussed with the relevant third-party
personnel in the general safety meeting or pre-run/
pre-tour Toolbox talk;
• Use correct PPE when handling drill bits (gloves) and/or
drill bit accessories;
• Make crew aware of any potential hand safety issues
(e.g., pinch points) when handling, moving and lifting bits
at the wellsite;
• Placement of the bit box and make-up equipment should
not constitute an obstruction or trip hazard on the drill
floor.
IADC Drilling Manual
BITS BI–35
Operation-specific hazards
• Ensure correct tools are being used for any nozzle
replacement procedures;
• Do not place fingers below the bit cutting face when the
bit is being manually handled, especially when it is being
placed upon a flat surface;
• Do not manipulate a heavy bit at height if it is not
adequately supported or if there is any possibility of it
falling;
• Ensure the base of the bit box is supported if a bit is lifted
within its packaging, if there is any possibility the bit
could fall through the base of the box;
• Never place fingers on a drill bit that has packed debris
on its body until it is cleaned off, especially if casing has
been drilled, as sharp edges might be packed in the
material.
Copyright © 2015
BI–36 BITS
GOVERNING STANDARDS & GUIDELINES / REFERENCES
Governing standards & guidelines
• ANSI/API Specification 7-1 Specification for Rotary Drill
Stem Elements;
• API Recommended Practice 7G Recommended Practice
for Drill Stem Design and Operating Limits;
• ISO 9001 Quality Management Systems - Requirements
- Fourth Edition;
• IADC/SPE 23937 The IADC Roller-cone bit Classification
System;
• SPE/IADC 16145 Application of the New IADC Dull
Grading System for Fixed Cutter Bits;
• SPE/IADC 16142 The 1987 IADC Fixed Cutter Bit
Classification System;
• SPE/IADC 23939, First Revision to the IADC Fixed-
cutter Dull Grading System;
References
1. Hughes, H.: “A Modern Rotary Drill” Transactions of the
American Institute of Mining Engineers, Volume LI.,
February 1915.
2. Murray, A.S., Cunningham, R.D.: “Effect of Mud Column
Pressure on Drilling Rates” paper TP4166 presented at
the Petroleum Branch Fall Meeting, New Orleans,
Louisiana 2-5 October 1955.
3. Cook, J., McElya, F.: “Development and Application of
Journal Bearing Bits” paper presented at the Rotary
Drilling Conference, March 2, 1973.
4. Newman, E.F.: “Design and Application of Softer
Formation Tungsten Carbide Rock Bits” paper IADC/SPE
11386 presented at the IADC/SPE Drilling Conference,
New Orleans, Louisiana, 20-23 February 1983.
5. Byrd, C, Scott, D.E., Kirkland, R.: “New Rolling Cutter Bit
Design Reduced Gage Wear in Geothermal
Applications,” 1991, Trans., Geothermal Resources
Council, pp. 365-69.
6. Scott, D.E., Zahradnik, A.F, Schmidt, S.R.: “Enhanced
Gauge Improves Rolling Cutter Bit Performance in
Abrasive North Sea Sands,” 1991, OTC 6738, presented
at the 1991 Offshore Technology Conference, Houston,
Texas, May 6-9, 1991.
7. Grimes, R.E., Felderhoff, F.C., Brown, L.A.: “New Cutting
Structure Designs Extend Rock Bit Life in Hard Permian
Basin Formations,” 1992, PED-Vol. 40, Drilling
Technology, ASME, pp. 43-50.
8. Watson, P.A., Welch, R.M., Scott, D.E.: “New Hard
Formation Roller-cone bit Technology Improves
Economics of Abrasive Travis Peak, Cotton Valley Wells,”
1996, IADC/SPE 35114, presented at the 1996 IADC/SPE
Drilling Conference, New Orleans, Louisiana, March
12-15.
IADC Drilling Manual
9. Meiners, M.J., Jacobsen, J., Kunning, J.: “Understanding
Downhole Dynamics While Reaming Enhances Gauge
Protection,” presented at the ASME Energy Sources
Technology Conference and Exhibition, Houston, Texas
Feb 1999.
10. Feenstra, R., Juergens, R., Walker, B.H.: “New
Generation of Oilfield Bits - Laboratory and Field Results”
paper SPE 6712 presented at the Annual Fall Technical
Conference and Exhibition SPE/AIME, Denver, Colorado,
9-12 October 1977.
11. Zijsling, D.H.: “Single Cutter Testing - A Key for PDC Bit
Development” paper SPE 16529 presented at Offshore
Europe, Aberdeen, Scotland UK, 8-11 September 1987.
12. Zijsling, D.H., Illerhaus, R.: “Eggbeater PDC Drillbit
Design Eliminates Balling in Water-Based Drilling Fluids”
paper SPE 21933 presented at the SPE/IADC Drilling
Conference, Amsterdam, Netherlands, March 11-14 1991.
13. Shepherd, W.L., Klingensmith, D.L.: “Improvements in
Rock Bit Performance presented at the ASME Energy
Resources Technology Conference, New Orleans,
Louisiana, February 1990.
14. Turner, E.C.: “Field Specific Analysis Reinforces Role of
Bit Technology in Improving Overall Drilling Economics”
paper SPE/IADC 37642 presented at the SPE/IADC
Drilling Conference, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 4-6
March 1997.
15. Salesky, W.J., Payne, B.R.: “Preliminary Field Test
Results of Diamond-Enhanced Inserts for Three-Cone
Rock Bits” paper SPE/IADC 16115 presented at the SPE/
IADC Drilling Conference, New Orleans, Louisiana, 15-18
March 1987.
16. Salesky, W.J., Swinson, J.R., Watson, A.O.: “Offshore
Tests of Diamond-Enhanced Rock Bits” paper SPE 18039
presented at the 63rd Annual Technical Conference and
Exhibition, Houston, Texas, 2-5 October, 1988.
17. Eckstrom, D.: “Bits with Diamond Inserts Reduce
Gauge Problems,” 1991, Oil & Gas Journal, June 17, pg. 41.
18. Scott, D.E.: “Development of Roller-cone bits with
Active PDC Shear Cutting Elements Improves Gauge-
Holding Ability,” 1993, IADC/SPE 25736, presented at
the IADC/SPE Drilling Conference, Amsterdam, The
Netherlands, February 23-25 1993.
19. Keshavan, M.K., Siracki, M.A., Russell, M.E.: “
Diamond-Enhanced Insert: New Compositions and
Shapes for Drilling Soft-to-Hard Formations” paper SPE/
IADC 25737 presented at the SPE/IADC Drilling
Conference, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 23-25
February 1993.
20. Pessier, R., Grimes, R., Isbell, M., Scott, D.: “Rolling
Cone Bits with Novel Gauge Cutting Structure Drill
Faster, More Efficiently” paper SPE 30473 presented at
Copyright © 2015

the SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition,
Dallas, Texas 22-25 October 1995.
21. Salleh, S., Eckstrom, D.: “Reducing Well Costs by
Optimizing Drilling Including Hard/Abrasive Igneous
Rock Section Offshore Vietnam, paper IADC/SPE 62777
presented at the IADC/SPE Asia Pacific Drilling
Technology, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia 11-13 September
2000.
22. Martin, D., Jacobsen, J.: “New Hard Rock Roller-cone
bit Technology /Operational Excellence Improves
Economics in Mature East Texas Gas Fields” paper
IADC/SPE 74527 presented at the IADC/SPE Drilling
Conference, Dallas, Texas, 26-28 February 2002.
23. Glowka, D.A.: “Use of Single-Cutter Data in the
Analysis of PDC Bit Designs: Development of a PDC
Cutting Force Model” paper SPE 15619 presented at the
SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, New
Orleans, Louisiana, 5-8 October 1986.
24. Warren, T.M., Sinor, L.A.: “Drag-Bit Performance
Modeling” SPE paper 15618 presented at the SPE Annual
Technical Conference and Exhibition, New Orleans,
Louisiana, 5-8 October 1986.
25. Behr, S.M., Warren, T.M., Sinor, L.A. Brett, J.F.: “3D
PDC Bit Model Predicts Higher Cutter Loads” paper SPE
21928 presented at the SPE/IADC Drilling Conference,
Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 11-14 March 1991.
26. Brett, J.F., Warren, T.M., Behr, S.M.: “Bit Whirl - A New
Theory of PDC Bit Failure” paper SPE 19571 presented at
the SPE 64th Annual Technical Conference and
Exhibition, San Antonio, Texas, 8-11 October 1989.
27. Warren, T.M., Brett, J.F., Sinor, L.A.: “Development of a
Whirl-Resistant Bit” paper SPE 19572 presented at the
SPE 64th Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition,
San Antonio, Texas, 8-11 October 1989.
28. Sinor, L.A. Brett, J.F., Warren, T.M., Behr, S.M.: “Field
Testing of Low-Friction-Gauge PDC Bits” paper SPE
20416 presented at the SPE Annual Technical
Conference and Exhibition, New Orleans, Louisiana,
23-26 September 1990.
29. Pastusek, P.E., Cooley, C.H., Sinor, L.A., Anderson, M.:
“Directional and Stability Characteristics of Anti-Whirl
Bits With Non-Axisymmetric Loading” paper SPE 24614
presented at the SPE 67th Annual Technical Conference,
Washington DC, 4-7 October, 1992.
30. Warren, T.M., Sinor, L.A.: “PDC Bits: What’s Needed
To Meet Tomorrow’s Challenge” paper SPE 27978
presented at the University of Tulsa Centennial
Petroleum Engineering Symposium, Tulsa, Oklahoma,
29-31 August 1994.
31. Ortega, A., Glowka, D.A.: “Frictional Heating and
Convective Cooling of Polycrystalline Diamond Drag
Tools During Rock Cutting,” paper SPE 11061presented at
the SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition held
in New Orleans September, 26-29 1982.
IADC Drilling Manual
BITS BI–37
32. Tomlinson, P. N., Pipkin, N. J., Lammer, A., Burnand, R. P.,
1985, “High Performance Drilling-Syndax3 Shows
Versatility,” Industrial Diamond Review, Vol. 6 pp. 299-305.
33. Eko, A., Ohashi, T., Tajima, I.: “Precision Machining
with Fine-Grained Carbonate Binder PCD” Diamond
Tooling Journal, February 2010, pp. 48-51.
34. Radtke, R.P.: “New High Strength and Faster Drilling
Thermally Stable Polycrystalline Diamond Cutters for
Drill Bit” paper SPE 74515 presented at the IADC/SPE
Drilling Conference, Dallas, Texas, 26-28 February 2002.
35. Wood, J. 1984, “Thermally Stable Cutters Extend
Application of Synthetic diamond Bits to Hard
Formations” Oil and Gas Journal, pp. 133-138.
36. Schell, E.J., Phillippi, D., Fabian, R.T., “New Stable PDC
Technology Significantly Reduces Hard Rock Cost per
Foot” paper SPE/IADC 79797 presented at the SPE/
IADC Drilling Conference, Amsterdam, Netherlands,
February 19-21 2003.
37. Baker, R., Shen, Y., Zhang, J., Robertson, S.: “New
Cutter Technology Redefining PDC Durability Standards
for Directional Control: North Texas/Barnett Shale”
paper IADC/SPE 128486 presented at the IADC/SPE
Drilling Conference and Exhibition, New Orleans,
Louisiana, 2-4 February 2010.
38. Plemons, B., Douglas, C., Shen, Y., Zhan, G., Zhang, Y.:
“New Cutter Technology for Faster Drilling in Hard/
Abrasive Formations” paper SPE 132143 presented at the
CPS/SPE International Oil and Gas Conference and
Exhibition in China, Beijing, China, 8-10 June 2010.
39. Zhang, Y., Baker, R., Burhan, Y., Shi, J., Chen, C.,
Tammineni, S., Durairajan, B., Self, J., Segal, S.:
“Innovative Rolling PDC Cutter Increases Drilling
Efficiency Improving Bit Performance in Challenging
Applications” paper SPE/IADC 163536 presented at the
SPE/IADC Drilling Conference and Exhibition,
Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 5-7 March 2013.
40. Zhang, Y., Burhan, Y., Chen C., Tammineni, S.,
Durairajan, B., Mathanagopalan, S., Ford, R.: “Fully
Rotating PDC Cutter Gaining Momentum: Conquering
Frictional Heat in Hard/Abrasive Formations Improves
Drilling Efficiency” paper SPE 166465 presented at the
SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition New
Orleans, Louisiana, USA, 30 September–2 October 2013.
41. DiGiovanni, Anthony. Stockey, David. Fuselier,
Danielle. Gavia, David. Zolnowsky, Matt. Phillips, Russell.
Ridgeway, Derek. “Innovative non-planer Face PDC
Cutters Demonstrate 21% Drilling Efficiency
Improvement in Interbeded Shale and Sand” Paper
168000 presented at the SPE Annual Technical
Conference and Exhibition New Orleans, Louisiana, USA,
30 September–2 October 2013.
42. Cariveau, P., Slaughter, R.H., Didericksen, R.,
Cawthorne, C.E., Portwood, G.R.: “Sealed Bearing Drill
Bit with Dual-Seal Configuration” United States Patent
Copyright © 2015
BI–38 BITS
6,033,117, March 7, 2000.
43. Al-Farei, I.,A., Al-Sukaiti, A.H., Al-Lawati, A.,
Portwood, G., Krishnamurthy, R., Gatell J.: “Two Years of
Progress: Field Driven Rollercone Design Iterations Cut
Conglomerate Formation Drilling Costs by 40% in
Oman” paper SPE/IADC 147958 presented at the SPE/
IADC Middle East Drilling Technology Conference and
Exhibition Muscat, Oman, 24–26 October 2011.
44. Schmidt S. R., Wittry A. E., Burr B. H., Kelly J. L.:
“Metal-Bearing Seal Technology Improves Drilling
Efficiency of Rolling Cutter Bits in High-RPM North Sea
Applications”: SPE paper 21934 presented at the SPE/
IADC Drilling Conference, Amsterdam, March 11-14, 1991
45. McLeod, S.A., O’Grady, T.T., Sullivan, E.C., Mason, J.S.,
Lin, C.: “Application of Metal-Bearing Seal Roller-Cone
Bit Reduces Rig Time/Drilling Costs in Green Canyon,
Deep Water Gulf of Mexico” paper IADC/SPE 59109
presented at the IADC/SPE Drilling Conference, New
Orleans, Louisiana, 23–25 February 2000.
46. Norris, J.A., Dykstra, M.W., Beuershausen, C.C.,
Fincher, R.W. and Ohanian, M.P.: “Development and
Successful Application of Unique Steerable PDC Bits,”
paper IADC/SPE 39308 presented at the IADC/SPE
Drilling Conference, Dallas, Texas, 3-6 March 1998.
47. Sinor, L.A., Powers, J.R., Warren, T.M.: “The Effect of
PDC Cutter Density, Back Rake, Size, and Speed on
Performance” paper SPE 39306 presented at the IADC/
SPE Drilling Conference, Dallas, Texas, 3-6 March 1998.
48. Mensa-Wilmot, G., Krepp, T. and Stephen, I.: “Dual
Torque Concept Enhances PDC Bit Efficiency in
Directional and Horizontal Drilling Programs,” paper
SPE/IADC 52879 presented at the SPE/IADC Drilling
Conference, Amsterdam, Netherlands, 9-11 March 1999.
49. Sinor, L.A., Hansen, W.R., Dykstra, M.W., Cooley,
C.H., Tibbits, G.A.: “Drill Bits with Controlled Cutter
Loading and Depth of Cut,” US Patent 6,298,930,
October 9, 2001.
50. Dykstra, M.W., Heuser, W., Doster, M.L., Zaleski, T.E.,
Oldham, J.T., Watts, T.D., Ruff, D.E., Walzel, R.B.,
Beuershausen, C.C.: “Drill bits with reduced exposure of
cutters,” US Patent 6,460,631, October 8, 2002.
51. Al-Suwaidi, A.S., Soliman, A.A., Klink, Z., Isbell, M.,
Dykstra, M., Jones, C.: “New PDC Design Process Solves
Challenging Directional Application in Abu Dhabi
Onshore Fields paper SPE/IADC 79796 presented at the
SPE/IADC Drilling Conference, Amsterdam, The
Netherlands, 19-21 February 2003.
52. Pessier, Rudolf. Damschen, Michael. “Hybrid Bits Offer
Distinct Advantages in Selected Roller-Cone and PDC-Bit
Applications” SPE 128741, 2010.
53. Dolezal, Tisha, Felderhoff, Floyd Carl, Holliday, Alan D.,
Baker Hughes Inc. Bruton, Greg A., Chesapeake
Operating Inc.: “Expansion of Field Testing and
Application of New Hybrid Drill Bit”, SPE 146737, 2011.
54. Bradford, John F., Ferrari, Louis Anthony, Rickabaugh,
IADC Drilling Manual
Caleb, Rothe, Mitchell A., Tipton, Brent Jackson,
Chesapeake Energy: “Hybrid Drill Bit Combining
Fixed-Cutter And Roller-Cone Elements Improves
Drilling Performance In Marcellus Shale Surface
Interval”, SPE 154831, 2012.
55. Di Pasquale, M., Calvaresi, E., Baker Hughes, Pecantet,
S., NV Turske Perenco, “ A Breakthrough Performance
for an Inland Application with a Hybrid Bit Technology”,
SPE 163436. 2012.
56. Thomson, Ian James, Radford, Steven Ralph, Powers, Jim
R., Shale, Leslie T., Jenkins, Mark, Baker Hughes Inc. “A
Systematic Approach to a Better Understanding of the
Concentric Hole-Opening Process Utilizing Drilling
Mechanics and Drilling Dynamics Measurements Recorded
Above and Below the Reamer”, SPE 112647, 2008.
57. Meyer-Heye, Bernhard, Technische Universitat
Braunschweig, Reckmann, Hanno, Baker Hughes Inc.
Ostermeyer, Georg-Peter, Technische Universitat
Braunschweig, “ Weight Distribution in Reaming While
Drilling BHAs” SPE 127094 SPE Conference Paper , 2010.
58. Ubaru, Charles C., Thomson, Ian James, Radford,
Steven Ralph, Baker Hughes Drilling and Under-Reaming
in the GOM” “Deepwater Ultradeep Lower Tertiary:
History of a Record Run in the World” SPE 145259 SPE
Conference Paper, 2011.
59. Pragt, Jos, Herberg, Wolfgang, Meister, Matthias,
Clemmensen, Carl Christian, BAKER HUGHES Inteq
GmbH, Grindhaug, Gaute, Hanken, Knut Johan, Statoil
ASA Oil “Reaming on Demand - Selective Activation of
an Integrated Under Reamer at the Grane Field in the
North Sea”.146501-MS SPE Conference Paper – 2012.
60. Ulvedal, Lydia, Statoil, Enterline, James Dean, Hughes
Christensen, Scott, Dan Eugene, Shale, Les, Radford,
Steven Ralph, Baker Hughes Inc. Clinkscales, Douglas Jay,
Hughes Christensen, Croxton, Mike, Hughes Christensen.
“ Operator’s Recommendation for a Uniform Dull Grading
System for Fixed Cutter Hole Enlargement Tools”,
SPE139870-SPE ATCE, Amsterdam, - 2011.
61. Pessier, R.C., Hughes Tool Co., Fear, M.J., BP
Exploration, “Quantifying Common Drilling Problems
With Mechanical Specific Energy and a Bit-Specific
Coefficient of Sliding Friction”, SPE 24584 SPE
Conference, Dallas TX – 1992
62. Pessier, Rudolf Carl, Hughes Christens, Wallace,
Stephen Nicholas, Baker Hughes Oasis, Oueslati, Hatem,
Baker Hughes, “Drilling Performance is a Function of
Power at the Bit and Drilling Efficiency”, SPE 151389-MS
SPE Conference San Diego, CA – 2012.
63. Clark, D. A., et al, Application of the New IADC Dull
Grading System for Fixed Cutter Bits, paper SPE/IADC
16145, presented at the 1987 SPE/IADC Drilling
Conference, New Orleans, La., March 15-18, 1987.
64. Brandon, B.D., et al, First Revision to the IADC Fixed
Cutter Dull Grading System, SPE/IADC 23939, 1992.
Copyright © 2015